CAPE Environmental Science – Unit 1,

Module 1
Fundamental Ecological Concepts and Principles

1. Key Ecological Terms and Concepts

●​ Species – A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
●​ Population – All individuals of the same species living in a given area at the same
time.
●​ Community – Different populations of organisms living and interacting in the same
area.
●​ Ecosystem – A functional unit made up of a community of living organisms (biotic)
interacting with their non-living environment (abiotic).
●​ Biosphere – The global sum of all ecosystems; the portion of Earth where life exists.
●​ Atmosphere – The layer of gases surrounding Earth, essential for climate regulation
and respiration.
●​ Hydrosphere – All water on Earth, including oceans, rivers, lakes, groundwater, and
ice.
●​ Lithosphere – Earth’s solid outer layer (rocks, soils, and landforms).
●​ Habitat – The natural environment where an organism lives.
●​ Niche – The role an organism plays in its ecosystem (its interactions, food source,
habitat use, etc.).
●​ Biome – Large geographic regions defined by climate, vegetation, and animal life
(e.g., tropical rainforest, desert).
●​ Ecotone – A transition zone between two ecosystems or communities, often rich in
species.
●​ Biodiversity – The variety of life at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels.
●​ Keystone Species – A species that has a disproportionately large effect on the
structure and functioning of its ecosystem (e.g., sea otters, bees).
●​ Ecological Resilience – The ability of an ecosystem to resist, absorb, and recover
from disturbances (e.g., hurricanes, deforestation).

●​ Troposphere – The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from
the Earth’s surface to about 12 km, where almost all weather phenomena occur and
temperature decreases with altitude.
●​ Stratosphere – The stratosphere lies above the troposphere, from about 12 km to 50
km, and contains the ozone layer; in this layer, temperature increases with altitude due
to absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone.
 ●​ Mesosphere – The mesosphere extends from about 50 km to 80 km above the Earth,
is the coldest layer of the atmosphere, and is the region where most meteors burn up
upon entry.
●​ Thermosphere – The thermosphere stretches from about 80 km to 700 km and is
characterized by extremely high temperatures caused by absorption of solar radiation;
it is also where auroras occur and some satellites orbit.
●​ Exosphere – The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere, beginning
around 700 km and gradually merging with outer space, containing very few particles
of mostly hydrogen and helium.

2. Components of Ecosystems and Their Interactions

(A) Biotic Components (Living)

1.​ Producers (Autotrophs):
○​ Convert solar energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis.
○​ Form the base of food chains (plants, algae, some bacteria).​

2.​ Consumers (Heterotrophs):

○​ Depend on producers or other consumers for food.
○​ Categories:
■​ Primary consumers – herbivores (e.g., rabbits).
■​ Secondary consumers – carnivores that eat herbivores (e.g., snakes).
■​ Tertiary consumers – top predators (e.g., hawks).
■​ Omnivores – eat both plants and animals (e.g., humans).​

3.​ Decomposers (Detritivores & Saprophytes):

○​ Break down dead organisms and recycle nutrients into the ecosystem.
○​ Examples: fungi, bacteria, earthworms.​

(B) Abiotic Components (Non-Living)

1.​ Air (Atmosphere): Provides oxygen (respiration), carbon dioxide (photosynthesis),
and nitrogen (nutrient cycles).
2.​ Water (Hydrosphere): Essential for metabolic processes, transport of nutrients,
habitat for aquatic life.
3.​ Land (Lithosphere): Provides minerals, soil for plants, and physical habitat for
organisms.
4.​ Light: Source of energy for photosynthesis; affects growth, reproduction, and
behavior.
5.​ Temperature: Influences metabolic rates, enzyme activity, and species distribution.
6.​ pH: Determines soil/water chemistry; affects availability of nutrients and survival of
organisms.​
Interactions within Ecosystems

●​ Energy Flow: Sun → producers → consumers → decomposers.

●​ Nutrient Cycling: Elements like carbon, nitrogen, and water are continuously
recycled between biotic and abiotic components.
●​ Balance: Interdependence among organisms ensures ecosystem stability.

3. Energy Flows and Nutrient Cycles within Ecosystems

(A) Incorporation of Energy

1.​ Photosynthesis
○​ Process where green plants, algae, and some bacteria capture solar energy and
convert it into chemical energy (glucose).
○​ Equation:

○​ Basis of most ecosystems; supports food chains.​

2.​ Chemosynthesis
○​ Process where certain bacteria use energy from chemical reactions (e.g.,
oxidation of hydrogen sulfide or ammonia) instead of sunlight.
○​ Found in deep-sea hydrothermal vents, caves, and extreme environments.
○​ Important for ecosystems without sunlight.​

(B) Food Chains, Food Webs, and Ecological Pyramids

1.​ Food Chain
○​ A linear sequence showing how energy flows from producers → consumers.
○​ Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk.

2.​ Food Web

○​ Complex network of interconnected food chains.
○​ Shows how organisms rely on multiple food sources and interactions.
○​ More realistic than a simple chain.​

3.​ Ecological Pyramids

○​ Pyramid of Numbers: Shows the number of organisms at each trophic level.
(Can be inverted in some ecosystems).
○​ Pyramid of Biomass: Shows total mass of organisms at each trophic level.
Usually upright.
○​ Pyramid of Energy: Shows energy available at each trophic level. Always
upright (due to energy loss).
(C) Trophic Levels

●​ Definition: The feeding levels in an ecosystem, representing the position of

organisms in the food chain.​

●​ Levels:
○​ 1st trophic level: Producers (plants, algae).
○​ 2nd trophic level: Primary consumers (herbivores).
○​ 3rd trophic level: Secondary consumers (carnivores that eat herbivores).
○​ 4th trophic level: Tertiary consumers (top carnivores).
○​ Decomposers: Recycle nutrients back to soil/water.​

(D) Ten Percent Rule

●​ Only ~10% of the energy from one trophic level is passed to the next.
●​ The rest (~90%) is lost as heat, respiration, or waste.
●​ Explains why food chains are usually limited to 4–5 levels (not enough energy to
support more).​

(E) Nutrient Cycles in Ecosystems

Limiting factors are environmental conditions (biotic or abiotic) that restrict the growth,
abundance, or distribution of a population within an ecosystem.

4. Types of Interactions Between Organisms in Communities

I.​ Competition
A.​ Definition: When two or more organisms compete for the same limited
resource (food, light, space, mates, etc.).
B.​ Types:
1.​ Intraspecific: competition between members of the same species.
2.​ Interspecific: competition between different species.
C.​ Outcome: competitive exclusion (one species outcompetes the other) or
resource partitioning (species coexist by exploiting different niches).​

II.​ Predator–Prey
A.​ Definition: Interaction where one organism (predator) kills and eats another
(prey).
B.​ Characteristics: population cycles (predator numbers follow prey numbers),
adaptations (camouflage, speed, defenses, venom).
C.​ Example: Lion (predator) and zebra (prey).

​
III.​ Symbiosis
A.​ Parasitism – One organism (parasite) benefits, the host is harmed.​
Example: Tapeworm in human intestine.
B.​ Commensalism – One benefits, the other is unaffected.​
Example: Barnacles on whales.
C.​ Mutualism – Both organisms benefit.​
Example: Bees and flowers.​

5. Biogeochemical Cycles

Cycle Process Definition

Carbon Photosynthesis Plants use CO₂ and water with sunlight to produce
glucose and oxygen.

Respiration Organisms break down glucose for energy, releasing CO₂

back into the atmosphere.

Decomposition Dead organisms decay, releasing carbon compounds into

soil and atmosphere.

Combustion Burning fossil fuels or biomass releases stored CO₂ into

the atmosphere.

Nitrogen Nitrogen Atmospheric N₂ is converted into ammonia by bacteria or

fixation lightning.

Nitrification Ammonia converts to nitrites and then nitrates by soil

bacteria.

Assimilation Plants absorb nitrates to make proteins and nucleic acids,

passing through the food chain.

Denitrification Bacteria convert nitrates back into N₂ gas, returning it to

the atmosphere.

Phosphoru Weathering Rocks break down, releasing phosphate ions into soil and
s water for plant uptake.

Assimilation Plants absorb phosphate, which moves through food

chains into animals.

Decomposition Dead organisms decay, returning phosphate back into soil

and water.

Sedimentation Phosphate settles in water bodies, forming rocks and

restarting the cycle.
Water Evaporation Heat converts surface water into vapor, which rises into
the atmosphere.

Condensation Water vapor cools, forming droplets and clouds in the

atmosphere.

Precipitation Water falls from clouds as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

Infiltration Water soaks into soil, replenishing groundwater and

underground reservoirs.

Transpiration Plants release water vapor from leaves into the

atmosphere.

1.​ Carbon Cycle

○​ Carbon moves between atmosphere, organisms, soil, and oceans.
○​ Key processes: photosynthesis (CO₂ → glucose), respiration (glucose → CO₂),
combustion, decomposition.
○​ Equation (photosynthesis):​

2.​ Nitrogen Cycle

○​ Nitrogen fixation: N₂ → NH₄⁺ by bacteria (Rhizobium).
○​ Nitrification: NH₄⁺ → NO₂⁻ → NO₃⁻.
○​ Denitrification: NO₃⁻ → N₂ (back to atmosphere).
○​ Assimilation: NO₃⁻ used by plants → proteins/DNA.
 3.​ Phosphorus Cycle
○​ No gaseous phase.
○​ Rock weathering releases phosphate (PO₄³⁻) → plants → animals → soil →
sediments.​

4.​ Water Cycle

Importance:
●​ Natural processes: soil fertility, climate regulation (CO₂, CH₄), hydrological balance,
oxygen balance.
●​ Organisms: bacteria in N-cycle, plants for photosynthesis, humans for food/water
supply.​

6. Relationship Between Organisms and Their Environment

1.​ Tolerance Ranges & Limiting Factors
○​ Zone of abundance: optimal conditions.
○​ Zone of physiological stress: organisms survive but not thrive.
○​ Zone of intolerance: organisms cannot survive.
○​ Optimum range: best conditions for growth/reproduction.​

2.​ Ecological Niches

○​ Fundamental niche: The full range of conditions/resources a species can use
without competition.
○​ Realised niche: The actual role or position a species occupies in an
ecosystem, after accounting for limiting factors.​
7. Species Evolution
1.​ Darwin’s Theory: Species change over time from common ancestors through a
process of natural selection. Individuals with inherited traits that are advantageous for
survival and reproduction in their environment are more likely to pass those traits to
their offspring. Example. The evolution of the peppered moth in Britain​

2.​ Types of Evolution:

○​ Divergent: one species splits into two. Example. Darwin’s finches on the
Galápagos Islands, different beaks for different food sources.

○​ Convergent: unrelated species evolve similar traits. Example. Wings of bats

and birds – both adapted for flight, but from different ancestors.

○​ Parallel: similar evolution in related species. Example. Marsupial mammals in

Australia (like kangaroos) and placental mammals elsewhere (like deer) are
developing similar grazing adaptations.​

3.​ Processes:
●​ Natural selection: variation → competition → survival of best adapted →
reproduction.
○​ Speciation:

■​ Allopatric Speciation – Formation of a new species when populations

are geographically separated.

■​ Sympatric Speciation – Formation of a new species within the same

habitat due to different ecological niches or behaviors.

■​ Parapatric Speciation – Formation of a new species in adjacent

populations with limited gene flow across a border.

○​ Adaptation: structural, physiological, behavioral changes.

8. Factors Affecting Population Growth
●​ Population Growth Types:
○​ Exponential (J-shaped curve).
○​ Exponential growth occurs when a population increases rapidly in proportion
to its size, under ideal conditions with unlimited resources.

Characteristics:

●​ Growth rate accelerates as population increases.

●​ No limiting factors (food, space, disease).
●​ Unrealistic in the long-term because resources eventually run out.

○​ Logistic (S-shaped curve with carrying capacity).

○​ Logistic growth occurs when a population increases rapidly at first but slows
and levels off as it reaches the environment’s carrying capacity
○​ [Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals of a species that an
environment can sustainably support over time]

Characteristics:

●​ Growth is initially exponential.

●​ Environmental resistance (competition, limited food, predation, disease) slows
growth.
●​ Population stabilizes at carrying capacity (K).

●​ Factors:
○​ Biotic potential (reproductive capacity).
○​ Environmental resistance (disease, predation, limited resources).
○​ Carrying capacity (maximum sustainable population).​
9. Determining Population Size
1.​ Moving organisms:

M = marked initially
C = captured in second sample
R = recaptures.​

2.​ Non-moving organisms:

○​ Quadrats (count in sample area).
○​ Transects (line or belt sampling).​

10. Simpson’s Diversity Index

n = number of individuals of a species.

N = total individuals of all species.
Value between 0 (low diversity) and 1 (high diversity).

11. Relationship Between Species Diversity and Ecosystem

Stability
1.​ Diversity within species (genetic diversity):
○​ Variation within a species ensures resilience to diseases and environmental
change.
○​ Example: Different varieties of rice resist different pests.​

2.​ Diversity between species (species richness):

○​ More species → more complex food webs → higher stability.
○​ High diversity usually leads to greater ecosystem stability, resilience, and
productivity.​

3.​ Community & Ecosystem Stability:

○​ Constancy: ability of the ecosystem to resist change.
○​ Resilience: ability to recover after disturbance.
○​ Example: Coral reefs (low resilience) vs. tropical forests (high resilience).​
12. How Ecosystems are Self-Sustaining
1.​ Features:
○​ Ecological balance (predator–prey, nutrient cycles).
○​ Energy & nutrient availability (photosynthesis, decomposition).
○​ Recycling of waste (detritivores, decomposers).
○​ Interaction of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors.​

2.​ Ecological Succession:

○​ Primary succession: The gradual establishment of a community on bare or
lifeless substrate, such as bare rock or sand, where no previous soil exists.
(e.g., lava flows → lichens → mosses → climax community).

○​ Secondary succession: The recovery and regrowth of a community in an area

where a previous ecosystem was disturbed or destroyed, but soil and some
organisms remain. (e.g., forest fire → regrowth).​

3.​ Climax Communities:

○​ Climatic Climax – A stable, mature ecological community that develops

naturally over time and is primarily determined by the region’s climate.

○​ Plagio-Climax – A stable ecological community that results when human

activities (like farming, grazing, or deforestation) prevent the natural climax
from forming.

13. Benefits of Ecosystem Services

●​ The benefits that humans and other organisms obtain from ecosystems, which support
life and maintain environmental balance.

1.​ Provisioning: food (fish, crops), timber, medicinal plants.

2.​ Supporting: soil formation, nutrient cycling, pollination.
3.​ Regulating: climate regulation (CO₂ absorption), flood control, water purification.
4.​ Cultural: ecotourism, heritage, recreation, spiritual value.​

(Link to natural resources in Unit 1, Module 3.)

14. Human Interactions Within Natural Ecosystems
1.​ Humans as part of ecosystems: Humans are an integral part of natural ecosystems,
depending on food webs for energy and nutrition, the water cycle for freshwater
supply, photosynthesis for oxygen production, and ecosystem processes for
materials like timber, fiber, and medicinal resources.

2.​ Anthropogenic Impacts:

○​ Deforestation → loss of habitats, reduced biodiversity, and disruption of

nutrient and water cycles.​

○​ Pollution → chemical runoff, plastics, and air emissions cause

eutrophication, coral bleaching, and soil and water contamination.​

○​ Climate Change → altered temperature and rainfall patterns shift species

distribution and reduce ecosystem stability.

3.​ Need for sustainability:

○​ Conservation → protecting habitats and species to maintain ecological

balance.​

○​ Recycling and waste management → reducing environmental pressure and

resource depletion.​

○​ Renewable energy → minimizing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating

climate change.​

○​ Sustainable resource use → ensuring long-term availability for humans and

other organisms.
15. Investigating Ecosystems
Characteristics to study:
●​ Feeding relationships & trophic levels.
●​ Population distribution & density.

1.​ Population Density – The number of individuals of a species per unit area or volume
in a habitat.

2.​ Population Distribution – The pattern of how individuals of a species are spread out
across a habitat or ecosystem.

●​ Species diversity.
●​ Abiotic factors:
●​ Critical factors: limiting factors (e.g., salinity in mangroves). Limiting factors are
environmental conditions (biotic or abiotic) that restrict the growth, abundance, or
distribution of a population within an ecosystem. ​

Types of ecosystems:
●​ Terrestrial: A terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based community of organisms
interacting with each other and with the physical environment (soil, air, climate).
Examples include forests, grasslands, deserts, and savannahs.

●​ Aquatic: An aquatic ecosystem is a water-based community of organisms interacting

with each other and with the physical and chemical environment (water, dissolved
gases, nutrients). Examples include rivers, ponds, swamps, coral reefs, mangroves,
and oceans.​

16. Measuring Environmental Parameters

●​ Species abundance (counts per quadrat/transect).
●​ Water quality: turbidity, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen.
●​ Soil moisture (gravimetric method).
●​ Light intensity (light meter).
●​ Wind speed (anemometer).
●​ Temperature (thermometer).
●​ Waste assessment (weight/volume of different types).​

​
Unit 1 – Module 2: Human Population and the
Environment
1. Key Demographic Terms:
●​ Demography – The statistical study of human populations, including size, structure,
distribution, growth, and factors affecting population changes.
●​ Population – All individuals of a species living in a specific area at a given time.
●​ Population Distribution – Pattern of how people are spread across a geographic area
or habitat.
●​ Population Density – Number of individuals per unit area or volume of land or
habitat.
●​ Migration – Movement of people from one area to another for temporary or
permanent settlement.
●​ Emigration – Movement of people out of a country or region.
●​ Immigration – Movement of people into a country or region.
●​ Birth Rate – Number of live births per 1,000 people in a population per year.
●​ Death Rate (Mortality Rate) – Number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population
per year.
●​ Fertility Rate – Average number of children a woman is likely to have in her
lifetime.
●​ Life Expectancy – Average number of years a person is expected to live.
●​ Life Span – Maximum age that humans can reach under ideal conditions.
●​ Urbanisation – Growth of cities as people move from rural to urban areas.
●​ Urban Growth – Increase in urban population size and infrastructure over time.
●​ Urban Sprawl – Unplanned, uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding
rural land.​

2. Characteristics of Human Population:

1. Age and Sex Structure – Refers to the distribution of population by age groups and
gender. This helps identify dependency ratios (young and elderly dependents vs working
population) and predict social services needs. Typically shown in population pyramids,
which indicate growth trends (expanding, stable, or declining populations).

2. Population Size – The total number of individuals in a population at a specific time.

Population size affects resource availability, environmental impact, and economic planning.
Large populations may exert pressure on food, water, housing, and infrastructure.

3. Population Change – Measures the increase or decrease in population over time,

resulting from births, deaths, immigration, and emigration. This determines growth rate
and helps in predicting future population trends and planning for health, education, and
employment.
4. Population Density – The number of people per unit area (e.g., per km² or mile²). High
density may indicate urbanization and resource pressure, while low density may show
underutilized resources or challenging living conditions. Helps in planning infrastructure,
services, and land use.

5. Population Distribution – The spatial pattern of where people live across a region,
influenced by physical (climate, soil, water) and human factors (jobs, transport, culture).
Patterns include clustered, uniform, or random distributions, which affect settlement
planning, resource management, and environmental impact.

3. Historical and Current Population Trends:

1. Historical Population Growth – For most of human history, populations grew very
slowly due to high mortality from disease, famine, poor sanitation, and limited food supply.
Life expectancy was low, and population size remained relatively stable over centuries.

2. Recent Population Growth – Over the past few centuries, population growth accelerated
rapidly due to improvements in medicine, public health, sanitation, agriculture (food
production), and technology, which reduced mortality and increased life expectancy.

3. Demographic Transition Model (DTM) – A model that explains population change

through development stages:

●​ Stage 1: High birth and death rates → stable population.

●​ Stage 2: Death rates fall, birth rates remain high → rapid population growth.
●​ Stage 3: Birth rates begin to decline → growth slows.
●​ Stage 4: Low birth and death rates → population stabilizes.
●​ Stage 5 (optional in some models): Birth rate falls below death rate → population
decline.

4. Geographical Distribution of Population Growth:

●​ Developing Nations: High fertility and birth rates, youthful populations, rapid
growth, uneven access to resources, infrastructure, and services.
●​ Developed Nations: Low fertility and birth rates, aging populations, slower growth,
stabilized or even declining populations, greater access to healthcare, education, and
employment.

5. Demographic Graph Interpretation:

●​ Age-Sex Pyramids: Show population structure; broad base indicates high birth rates,
narrow top shows mortality patterns.
●​ Fertility Rates: Number of births per woman; high in developing countries, lower in
developed nations.
 ●​ Mortality Rates: Deaths per 1,000 population; declining with development and
improved healthcare.​

●​ Dependency Ratio: Ratio of non-working (young and old) to working-age

population; high dependency increases economic and social burdens.

4. Factors Affecting Human Population:

●​ 1. Fertility Rates – Average number of children born per woman during her
reproductive years. Influenced by culture, religion, economic status, access to
contraception, education, and government policies. High fertility increases population
growth; low fertility slows it.

●​ 2. Mortality Rates – Number of deaths per 1,000 population per year. Affected by
healthcare quality, prevalence of diseases, nutrition, sanitation, natural disasters, and
conflicts. Declining mortality contributes to population increase.

●​ 3. Life Span & Life Expectancy – Life span is the maximum possible age humans can
live; life expectancy is the average expected age. Both are influenced by nutrition,
healthcare, lifestyle, environment, and technological advancement.

●​ 4. Migration – Movement of people between regions or countries: immigration

increases population, emigration decreases it. Influenced by economic opportunities,
political stability, conflict, and environmental conditions.

●​ 5. Doubling Time – The time required for a population to double in size, calculated as
70 ÷ growth rate (%). Shorter doubling times indicate rapid population expansion,
often in developing countries.

●​ 6. Indirect Factors – Events or conditions that indirectly affect population growth:

natural hazards (floods, earthquakes, hurricanes), epidemics, war, famine, and social
instability. These can temporarily reduce growth or cause population decline.

5. Demographic Calculations:
6. Factors Affecting Growth Rate:
1. Socio-Economic Factors
●​ Level of Affluence – Wealthier societies generally have lower fertility rates because
children are less needed for labor and families can afford education and contraception.
Poorer societies often have higher fertility rates due to economic reliance on
children.​

●​ Social and Economic Status of Women – Women with higher education,

employment opportunities, and autonomy tend to delay marriage and childbirth,
reducing fertility rates. Conversely, low status and limited opportunities often result in
higher birth rates.​

●​ Access to Family Planning – Availability and use of contraception, reproductive

health services, and awareness campaigns reduce unintended pregnancies, lowering
population growth. Limited access results in higher fertility.​

●​ Level of Economic Development of a Country – Developed nations with

industrialized economies experience slower population growth, aging populations,
and lower birth rates. Developing nations with agricultural or subsistence economies
often have rapid population growth.​

●​ Access to Education and Health Care Services – Education improves knowledge of

family planning and career opportunities, particularly for women. Access to
healthcare reduces infant and child mortality, influencing decisions on family size.​

2. Cultural Factors
●​ Religious Practices – Religious beliefs may promote large families or prohibit
contraception, affecting fertility and population growth. For example, some
communities encourage early marriage and high fertility as a cultural norm.​

●​ Customs and Traditions – Cultural norms about marriage, family size, and
inheritance can encourage larger families, especially in rural or traditional societies.​

●​ Gender Roles – Societies where women are expected to primarily bear and raise
children tend to have higher fertility rates. Societies with gender equality and shared
parental responsibilities often have lower fertility.​

●​ Social Pressure – Family expectations, community standards, and prestige associated

with large families influence decisions on how many children to have, directly
impacting growth rate.
7. Population Control Measures:
1. Family Planning

●​ Definition: Strategies and services that allow individuals and couples to control the
number, timing, and spacing of children.

●​ Methods Include:
○​ Contraception: Use of modern (pills, condoms, IUDs, implants) and
traditional methods (withdrawal, calendar method) to prevent pregnancy.
○​ Reproductive Health Services: Access to prenatal care, fertility treatment,
counseling, and sexual health education.
○​ Education and Awareness Campaigns: Informing communities about
benefits of smaller families, spacing children, and responsible parenthood.

●​ Impact: Reduces fertility rates, improves maternal and child health, slows population
growth, and promotes sustainable resource use.

2. Government Policies and Legislation

●​ Definition: National strategies and laws aimed at regulating population growth to

achieve social, economic, and environmental goals.

●​ Examples of Policies:
○​ Incentives for Small Families: Cash benefits, tax reductions, or free
education for families with fewer children.
○​ Population Limits: Policies like China’s former “one-child policy” to directly
restrict family size.
○​ Mandatory Education and Healthcare Access: Promoting literacy,
especially for women, and access to reproductive healthcare to indirectly
reduce fertility.
○​ Promotion of Family Planning Services: Government-funded clinics, free or
subsidized contraceptives, and public awareness campaigns.​

●​ Impact: Helps balance population growth with available resources, reduces pressure
on infrastructure, improves quality of life, and supports sustainable development.
8. Population Growth and Poverty:
1. Absolute Poverty – Severe deprivation of basic human needs such as sufficient food,
clean water, safe shelter, clothing, sanitation, and healthcare, making survival difficult.

2. Relative Poverty – A condition where people have less income and resources compared
to the average society, limiting access to education, healthcare, and decent living standards.

3. Poverty Indicators – Measures to assess poverty, including:

●​ Income: Low or irregular earnings limiting basic needs.
●​ Education: Poor schooling reduces employment opportunities.
●​ Healthcare Access: Lack of services increases illness and mortality.
●​ Food, Housing, and Water: Insufficient or poor-quality resources affect well-being.

4. Economic Measures of Poverty – Metrics to evaluate national and individual well-being:

●​ GDP (Gross Domestic Product): Total value of goods and services produced within
a country.
●​ GNP (Gross National Product): GDP plus net income from abroad, reflecting
national wealth.
●​ HDI (Human Development Index): Combines life expectancy, education, and
income levels.
●​ GDI (Gender Development Index): Measures development gap between men and
women in health, education, and income.​

5. Poverty Cycle – Processes that perpetuate poverty across generations, such as:
●​ Malthusian Limitations: Population may exceed resources, causing famine, disease,
and death.​

●​ Marxist Inequalities: Unequal resource distribution and class structures maintain

poverty in certain groups.​

Link to Population Growth: High population growth exacerbates poverty by increasing

demand for food, water, housing, healthcare, and education, straining resources.
9. Impacts of Urbanisation:
Definition:
●​ The increasing proportion of people living in towns and cities compared to rural
areas. Reflects population shift and development trends.​

Causes:
1.​ Natural Population Increase – High birth rates and declining death rates in urban
areas lead to population growth.
2.​ Rural-to-Urban Migration – Movement of people seeking employment, education,
healthcare, and better living standards.
3.​ Industrialization and Economic Development – Cities offer factories, offices, and
business opportunities attracting workers.
4.​ Infrastructure and Amenities – Availability of roads, electricity, water, and social
services draws people to urban centres.​

Positive Impacts:
●​ Economic Opportunities: Jobs in industry, commerce, and services.
●​ Better Services: Access to health care, education, transport, and communication
networks.
●​ Improved Amenities: Housing, entertainment, and social services.
●​ Innovation and Growth: Cities encourage technological, cultural, and social
development.​

Negative Impacts:
●​ Environmental Pollution: Air, water, and land contamination from industry,
vehicles, and waste.
●​ Overcrowding: Strain on housing, schools, hospitals, and utilities.
●​ Traffic Congestion: Increased vehicles lead to delays, accidents, and air pollution.
●​ Unemployment & Informal Settlements: Rapid migration can exceed job
availability, creating slums.
●​ Vulnerability to Hazards: Urban areas are prone to flooding, hurricanes,
earthquakes, and landslides due to high density and infrastructure pressures.
10. Human Consumption Patterns:
Definition:

●​ Human consumption patterns refer to the quantity and type of resources (water,
food, energy, materials) used by individuals or societies. Patterns vary between
countries and socio-economic groups.​

Factors Affecting Consumption Patterns:

1.​ Economic Development: Wealthier nations consume more resources per capita than
poorer nations.
2.​ Population Size and Growth: Larger populations require more resources, increasing
environmental stress.
3.​ Technology: Advanced technology can increase efficiency or raise consumption
through mass production.
4.​ Cultural and Lifestyle Factors: Food habits, housing, transport, and leisure
activities influence resource use.
5.​ Urbanisation: Concentrated populations in cities increase energy, water, and waste
demands.​

Types of Consumption Patterns (Per Capita):

●​ Water Consumption: Drinking, sanitation, agriculture, and industry.
●​ Food Consumption: Quantity, type (meat vs plant-based), and waste generation.
●​ Fuel Consumption: Fossil fuels, electricity, alternative energy sources.
●​ Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Carbon dioxide, methane from energy, transport, and
industry.
●​ Waste Production: Solid, liquid, and hazardous waste affecting soil, water, and air.​

Environmental Impacts of Human Consumption:

●​ Resource Depletion: Overuse of water, forests, fisheries, and minerals.
●​ Pollution: Air, water, and soil contamination from industrial, agricultural, and
domestic sources.
●​ Climate Change: Increased greenhouse gas emissions contribute to global warming
and sea-level rise.
●​ Loss of Biodiversity: Habitat destruction and overexploitation reduce species
populations.
●​ Soil Degradation and Deforestation: Intensive agriculture and urbanisation reduce
soil fertility and forest cover.
11. Impact of the Environment on People:
1. Human Adaptation to the Environment
●​ Humans adjust their agriculture, housing, clothing, and cultural practices to
survive in specific environmental conditions.​

●​ Examples:
○​ Crops: Rice in wetlands, millet in arid regions.
○​ Housing: Stilt houses in flood-prone areas, insulated homes in cold climates.
○​ Clothing: Light fabrics in hot climates, heavy wool in cold climates.
○​ Culture: Festivals, diets, and traditions often reflect local environmental
conditions.​

2. Environmental Factors Affecting Population Distribution

●​ Abiotic Factors: Climate, temperature, rainfall, soil fertility, water availability.
●​ Biotic Factors: Vegetation, wildlife, availability of food resources.
●​ Impact: Areas with fertile soil, water, and favorable climate support high population
densities, while deserts, mountains, and extreme climates have sparse populations.​

3. Dependence on Ecosystem Services

●​ Humans rely on ecosystem processes for survival and well-being:
○​ Food production, fresh water, timber, and fuel.
○​ Regulation of climate, pollination, nutrient cycling, and waste decomposition.
○​ Recreational, cultural, and aesthetic benefits.

12. Population Growth and Sustainable Development:

Sustainable Development
●​ Definition: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
●​ Source: Brundtland Report, 1987 – emphasizes balancing economic growth, social
equity, and environmental protection.​

2. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

●​ 17 Global Goals (2015): Address poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality,
clean water, sanitation, affordable energy, economic growth, infrastructure, inequality,
sustainable cities, responsible consumption, climate action, life below water, life on
land, peace, and partnerships.
●​ SDGs aim to integrate human well-being with environmental sustainability globally.​
3. Challenges to Sustainable Development
●​ Rapid Population Growth: Increases demand for food, water, energy, and land,
straining resources.
●​ Changing Consumption Patterns: Rising per capita consumption in developed nations
increases environmental impact.
●​ Finite Natural Resources: Overexploitation of water, forests, minerals, and fossil fuels
threatens long-term sustainability.
●​ Environmental Degradation: Pollution, habitat loss, and climate change reduce
ecosystem services.​

4. Strategic Imperative: Sustainable Population Levels

●​ Maintaining population at sustainable levels ensures ecosystem balance, resource
availability, and human well-being.
●​ Measures include family planning, education, poverty reduction, gender equality, and
policies promoting responsible resource use.
●​ Links population growth to environmental health, economic development, and social
equity.