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Ethernet services provide network connectivity between devices using fiber or copper cables. They
can be used to connect computers, servers, and printers, and can also provide an internet connection.
Benefits of Ethernet services
 Speed: Ethernet can provide high-speed data transmission, up to 100 Gbps or more.
 Reliability: Ethernet networks are less likely to be disrupted or interfered with than wireless
connections.
 Scalability: Ethernet network speeds can be easily increased as a business grows.
 Cost: Ethernet components are relatively inexpensive, easy to install, and widely available.

Types of Ethernet services

 E-Line: A point-to-point connection that's suited to WAN
 E-LAN: A point-to-multipoint connection
 E-Tree: A point-to-multipoint connection with reduced provisioning schemes
Ethernet services in business
Ethernet services can help businesses support applications like Voice over IP (VoIP) and e-
commerce. They can also help businesses connect nonadjacent locations together to form a secure
network environment.

What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a networking technology that connects devices by cable to local area networks (LANs) for
high-bandwidth data transmission. For example, if you plug your desktop computer or laptop into a
router at home or work, you use Ethernet to connect to the network.

Since it’s a wired connection, Ethernet typically provides higher speeds, lower latency, and greater
security than Wi-Fi (WLAN)

Ethernet is a technology that connects devices to local area networks for fast data transmission. Is it
right for your business?

What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a networking technology that connects devices by cable to local area networks (LANs) for
high-bandwidth data transmission. For example, if you plug your desktop computer or laptop into a
router at home or work, you use Ethernet to connect to the network.

Since it’s a wired connection, Ethernet typically provides higher speeds, lower latency, and greater
security than Wi-Fi (WLAN).
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Ethernet cable plugged into a home router

When first introduced in the 1980s, Ethernet delivered speeds of 10Mbps for local networks. Since
then, it’s evolved into Carrier Ethernet, which offers speeds of up to 100Gbps or more over long
distances.

Today, Ethernet is used in a wide range of applications, from small home LANs to large enterprise
wide area networks (WANs) and metropolitan area networks (MANs). It forms the backbone of many
wired communication networks worldwide.

How does Ethernet work?

Ethernet divides data into small chunks called frames, which are transmitted over standardised cables.
Ethernet works primarily at the Data Link Layer (layer 2) of the OSI model, with some elements
operating at the Physical Layer (layer 1).

The seven layers of the OSI Model

# Layer Function

Application Enables humans or software to interact with the network through

7
Layer applications like file sharing, email clients and databases

Presentation
6 Formats, encrypts and decrypts data for the application layer
Layer

5 Session Layer Starts, maintains and ends connections between applications

Transport Transfers data across the network, for example, using TCP or UDP
4
Layer transport protocols

Enables communication between multiple networks and determines the

3 Network Layer
data’s path, for example, applying IP addresses

Data Link Manages connections between physically connected nodes on a

2
Layer network

Physical Transmits raw data bits over physical media like cables or wireless
1
Layer connections

At the physical layer, Ethernet typically uses twisted-pair copper or fibre optic cables to connect
devices. For example, below is a twisted-pair Ethernet cable with a standard RJ45 connector.

Ethernet cable and RJ45 connector

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At the data link layer, Ethernet defines the protocols used to transmit data between connected devices
as follows.

MAC addresses
Ethernet uses 48-bit Medium Access Code (MAC) addresses. MAC addresses uniquely identify
devices on the network.

Ethernet frames
To transmit data, Ethernet packages data into frames containing the source and destination MAC
addresses, error-checking data and other standard information. Only devices on the network with the
matching destination MAC address will process the frame.

Collision handling
In traditional Ethernet, if two devices transmit data simultaneously, a collision occurs. To prevent this,
devices ‘listen’ to the network to see if it’s free. They use CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection) – an algorithm that allows frames to be retransmitted without collisions.

Today, modern Ethernet networks use switches to forward frames to MAC addresses on the network,
reducing collisions and enhancing performance.

In addition, ‘full-duplex mode’ allows devices to send and receive data simultaneously, doubling the
network bandwidth. The total available bandwidth of an Ethernet network depends on the standard
used.

Ethernet standards
First standardised in 1983 as IEEE 802.3, Ethernet initially used thick coaxial cables to transmit data
at a maximum of 10Mbps over a few hundred metres (10BASE5). This was a shared medium,
meaning all devices were connected through one channel on a single cable.

Since then, Ethernet has evolved to use twisted pair and fibre optic cables with switches to forward
data to the destination device. Today, Ethernet standards include Fast Ethernet (100Mbps), Gigabit
Ethernet (1Gbps) and 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10Gbps) – see table below for details.

Common Ethernet standards

(Note: Multimode fibre optic cables divide optical wavelengths into multiple paths for different
channels; single-mode fibre cables feature a single path for longer distances.)

Ethernet IEEE
Max speed Max distance Common name
standard specification

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10BASE5 802.3 10Mbps 500m (coaxial) Thicknet

10BASE2 802.3a 10Mbps 185m (coaxial) Thinnet

10 Megabit
10BASE-T 802.3i 10Mbps 100m (twisted pair)
Ethernet

100BASE-TX 802.3u 100Mbps 100m (twisted pair) Fast Ethernet

2km (fibre optic,

100BASE-FX 802.3u 100Mbps Fast Ethernet
multimode)

1000BASE-T 802.3ab 1Gbps 100m (twisted pair) Gigabit Ethernet

550m (fibre optic,

1000BASE-SX 802.3z 1Gbps Gigabit Ethernet
multimode)

5km (fibre optic, single-

1000BASE-LX 802.3z 1Gbps Gigabit Ethernet
mode)

10 Gigabit
10GBASE-T 802.3an 10Gbps 100m (twisted pair)
Ethernet

300m (fibre optic, 10 Gigabit

10GBASE-SR 802.3ae 10Gbps
multimode) Ethernet

10km (fibre optic, 10 Gigabit

10GBASE-LR 802.3ae 10Gbps
single-mode) Ethernet

40 Gigabit
40GBASE-T 802.3bq 40Gbps 30m (twisted pair)
Ethernet

150m (fibre optic, 40 Gigabit

40GBASE-SR4 802.3ba 40Gbps
multimode) Ethernet

10km (fibre optic, 40 Gigabit

40GBASE-LR4 802.3ba 40Gbps
single-mode) Ethernet

100GBASE- 100m (fibre optic, 100 Gigabit

802.3bj 100Gbps
SR10 multimode) Ethernet

100GBASE- 10km (fibre optic, 100 Gigabit

802.3bj 100Gbps
LR4 single-mode) Ethernet

The latest standards can support speeds up to 400Gbps (IEEE 802.3bs), and 800Gbps and 1 Terabit
Ethernet are currently under development.
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Most Ethernet-enabled devices are backwards compatible with lower-speed Ethernet standards.
However, the maximum connection speed will be limited to that of the slowest network component.

Learn more
Ethernet components
Ethernet uses several standardised components that work together to enable data transfer. Here are
some of the key elements of an Ethernet network:

 Network interface cards (NICs): Also known as network adapters, NICs are components in
devices like servers, computers and printers that allow them to ‘talk’ to an Ethernet network.
 Ethernet cables: Cables physically connect devices to the network and come in various
categories depending on the bandwidth required. For example, twisted-pair Category 5e
(Cat5e) and Category 6 (Cat6) cables are commonly used for Gigabit Ethernet. Fibre optic
cables are used for longer distances.
 Ethernet ports and jacks: Ports are the physical sockets on devices that Ethernet cables plug
into using a standard RJ45 connector (see image above); jacks are the wall sockets that allow
you to plug into an Ethernet network, for example, at work.
 Switches: Switches connect multiple devices to a network and manage data traffic. As they
only forward data to the destination device, they reduce data collisions and improve network
efficiency.
 Hubs: A legacy component in older networks, hubs connect multiple devices to a network.
But unlike switches, they broadcast data to all devices on the network, so they’re less
efficient.
 Routers: Routers connect different networks, such as LANs, to the internet. They assign IP
addresses, route data traffic and ensure network security.

As components are standardized, Ethernet networks are often ‘plug-and-play’ with little or no setup
required – one of several advantages of Ethernet connectivity.

Why use Ethernet connectivity?

Ethernet is widely used in various business applications due to several key advantages. Here are the
main benefits of Ethernet.

Speed
Ethernet provides low latency, high-speed data transmission up to 100Gbps or more. That’s ideal for
large file transfers or tasks requiring near real-time data exchange, like video conferencing, financial
transactions, cloud applications or other mission-critical networks.

Cost
Ethernet components are widely available, relatively cheap, and easy to install. So Ethernet can
deliver high capacity connectivity at a relatively low cost.

Scalability
Ethernet network speeds are easy to scale up as you grow. And you can usually add devices to the
network by connecting Ethernet cables and switches with minimal setup.

Reliability
Ethernet networks are less susceptible to interference or disruption than wireless connections. In
addition, good business Ethernet services typically offer Service Level Agreements (SLAs)
guaranteeing network uptime.

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Security
Compared to wireless local area networks (WLAN), Ethernet networks are less vulnerable to
unauthorised access. Access to Ethernet ports is easier to control than wireless access points.

Interoperability
Since Ethernet is a widely adopted standard, almost all computers, printers and network storage
devices support it. This standardisation ensures compatibility between devices from different vendors.

Given its versatility and high bandwidth, Ethernet today is not only used for local and wide area
networks. It’s also ideal for data-hungry tasks like connecting data centres, IoT/IIoT applications,
cloud services, and telecoms backhaul and backbone networks.

Types of business Ethernet services

Various Carrier Ethernet services provide high-bandwidth data transmission for enterprise
applications. Below are the main types of Carrier Ethernet services, as defined by the Metro Ethernet
Forum:

Carrier Ethernet services

Service type Topology Description

E-Line (Ethernet Line Point-to-point or

Directly connects two business sites
Service) point-to-multipoint

E-LAN (Ethernet LAN Multipoint-to- Allows multiple sites to exchange data

Service) multipoint directly with each other

Connects a central site to multiple

E-Tree (Ethernet Tree
Rooted multipoint sites, but the “leaves” (branch nodes)
Service)
of the tree don’t exchange data directly

E-Access (Ethernet Access Provides a local access connection to

Network-to-network
Service) another carrier’s network

good network service providers typically offer various business Ethernet services based on these
standards.

Choosing a business Ethernet service

Which service is right for your business depends on your specific needs. At Neos Networks, we offer
a range of business Ethernet services you can scale up to 100Gbps. Here are some services we can
configure for your business.

Point-to-NNI
If you’re a larger customer and want to connect multiple premises back to your network, an
Ethernet network-to-network interface (NNI) could be ideal. With point-to-NNI connectivity, you
can connect your sites as efficiently as possible at bandwidths you can scale.

Ethernet point-to-NNI

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Point-to-point Ethernet

If you need a high-bandwidth, low latency connection between two locations, Ethernet Private Line
(EPL) is a good choice. A kind of E-Line service, EPL provides Ethernet point-to-point (P2P)
connectivity between a pair of dedicated user network interfaces (UNIs).

EPL point-to-point Ethernet

Point-to-multipoint Ethernet

If you want to connect multiple sites, Ethernet Virtual Private Line (EVPL) may be for you. EVPL
is a type of E-Line service that supports point-to-multipoint (P2MP) connectivity by enabling multiple
Ethernet Virtual Connections (EVCs) per UNI.

EVPL point-to-multipoint Ethernet

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Any-to-any Ethernet

If you need flexibility to link any of your premises to any other, Virtual Private LAN Service
(VPLS) could be ideal. VPLS connects multiple sites in a single domain through IP routing or MPLS.

VPLS any-to-any Ethernet

Overall, which Ethernet service is right for your business depends on your specific use case, budget,
and plans for future growth. If you’d like to discuss which is best for your business, get in touch.
We’ll be happy to make Ethernet work for you.

What is the difference between LAN and Ethernet?

While LAN by definition describes a specific area – several hundred meters – Ethernet is about the
type of cabling. In other words, the protocols behind it or the defined plug connection. However, since
the two terms are used synonymously, there are no differences at all when it comes to acquisition

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An E1 interface is a serial interface that can be converted to an Ethernet interface using a

converter. An Ethernet interface is a network interface card that allows devices to connect to an
Ethernet network.
E1 interface
 Can operate in clear channel mode or channelized mode
 In clear channel mode, the transmission rate is 2.048 Mbit/s
 In channelized mode, timeslots can be bundled into channel-sets with a transmission rate of N
x 64 kbit/s
 Timeslot 0 can be used to transmit frame synchronization and alarm information
Ethernet interface
 Can support different speeds such as 10/100 Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet
E1 to Ethernet converter
 Can convert E1 interfaces to Ethernet interfaces
 Can be used to send Ethernet data between two points over E1 Links
 Can be used to drop several continuous timeslots from the up standard ITU-T G. 703 E1
interface as Ethernet service
E1 to Ethernet converter examples:
 Ethernet over 16E1 Converter (IP over TDM)
 AN-FE1/FE1+ETH Interface Converter
 E1 Converter to Ethernet 10/100 Mbit/s – Plug & Play!

E1 Network Connection
An E1 network connection is a digital line that transmits voice, data, and video signals at 2.048
Mbps. It's used in Europe and other parts of the world, and is the European equivalent of T1.
How E1 works
 E1 is a permanent, leased-line service
 E1 lines are typically charged by distance
 E1 lines are part of the E-carrier system, a digital transmission format for delivering voice and data
services
 E1 lines can support up to 32 voice calls simultaneously
 E1 lines can be configured as a 2Mbps data link without channel segmentation
E1 applications
 E1 lines are used in private data networks
 E1 lines are used in cellular, Wi-Fi, and fixed-network backhaul
 E1 lines are used in VoIP systems
 E1 lines are used to connect IP/PBX to the PSTN
 E1 lines are used to provide a dedicated IP link to a virtual hosted IP/PBX
E1 specifications
 E1 specifications are defined in CCITT Recommendation G.704
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Why do we need E1 to Ethernet Converter? Uploaded2018/10/24 5:18

There are many communication protocols, ethernet, PDH, SDH, wireless etc. PDH/SDH protocol are
widely used years ago, E1 is the basic communication element of PDH and SDH. Recent years
ethernet is developed very soon. More and more devices communicate via ethernet network.
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How does the devices with ethernet port work with the PDH/SDH network?

The two different networks need to connect by E1 to ethernet converter device. If customer have
more E1 lines, for example, 4E1 or 8E1, the 4E1 or 8E1 to ethernet converter will be needed.

RELATED PRODUCTS:

1. 1 channel E1 to ethernet converter ethernet over 1E1 transmission

2. 4 channel E1 to ethernet converter 10/100M ethernet over 4E1 transmission
3. 8 channel E1 to ethernet converter 4*10/100M ethernet over 8E1 transmission, support GUI
management
4. 16 channel E1 to ethernet converter 4*10/100M ethernet over 16E1 transmission, support GUI

CloudEngine S5735-S Series Switches

Huawei CloudEngine S5735-S is a series of standard gigabit access switches that provide
24–48 flexible all-GE downlink ports and four fixed 10 GE uplink ports.
S5735-S switches are designed for scenarios such as enterprise campus network access
and aggregation, as well as data center access. Built on next-generation, high-performance
hardware and with the Huawei Versatile Routing Platform (VRP), CloudEngine S5735-S
switches boast advanced features, such as enhanced Layer 3 functionality, simplified O&M,
flexible Ethernet networking, and mature IPv6 capabilities.
- 여러 전화기 연결용 스위치; 약 15 대

E1 Link Telecom: A Global Communication Standard

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Overview
Over time, populations grew and telecommunications networks began to experience larger loads of
traffic. As a result, the need for a method of standardizing data transfer emerged. In the European
region, a system based off of the T-Carrier system in North America was derived. People came to
know this as the E-Carrier System, or E1 System.

The International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T)

devised the E1 frame. Meanwhile, The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT) created the name. Currently, it's a widely used telecommunications carrier
around the world (except for in North America and Japan). This telecom standard has a reputation for
being reliable and providing faster communications than that of the American standard that it was
based off of.

So to put it simply, an E1 line is a standard telecommunications transmission link in Europe and other
regions outside North America. It's part of the E-carrier system. This system is a digital transmission
format for delivering voice and data services.

In voice communication, E1 lines can support up to 30 simultaneous incoming and outgoing calls.
Each call utilizes the standard PSTN format, with a dedicated 64Kbps channel, making it ideal for
connecting to a Private Branch Exchange.

On the data side, E1 lines are equally effective. They can be configured as a robust 2Mbps data link
without channel segmentation, which is perfect for packet-switched networks. This unchanneled
configuration is especially beneficial for businesses needing a stable internet connection, as it can
provide a dedicated IP link. This can be crucial for organizations with hosted IP/PBX setups, offering
dependable bandwidth and throughput essential for consistent data communications.

E1 trunk lines also play a pivotal role in VoIP systems. They ensure seamless connectivity between
Internet Protocol-based PBXs and the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). By doing so, they
enhance the VoIP system's performance and quality, especially in environments where traditional
lines suffer from high congestion and unreliability.

Unlike shared traditional lines that come with varying contention ratios (10:1 for business and 30:1
for residential), E1 lines are private or leased. This privacy boosts reliability and ensures a consistent
service level, which is essential for operations dependent on sustained, high-performance
connectivity. E1 lines are also often provisioned in partial capacities by telephone companies,
allowing businesses to scale based on their specific needs. This flexibility helps control costs while
meeting communication demands. However, it's important to consider that E1 lines typically come at
a higher price when compared to standard business ADSL connections.

In summary, E1 lines are a critical investment for businesses requiring reliable voice communication
and data connectivity, ensuring exceptional quality, particularly for VoIP applications.

How it works
An E1 link operates over two separate sets of wires. They're usually Unshielded twisted pair
(balanced cable) or using coaxial (unbalanced cable).

A peak signal is encoded with pulses using a method avoiding long periods without polarity changes.
These pulses are further divided into 32 timeslots, or channels, which are further broken down to 8

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bits each. Each time-slot sends and receives a PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) chunk to digitally
represent sampled analog signals.

With E1's data rate of 2.048 Mbps (million bits per second), over 32 channels at 64 Kbps each, the E1
standard exceeds the transfer rates of its equivalent system, T1 (1.544 Mbps over 24 channels).

To understand how the E1 ISDN primary rate line is structured, consider its composition:

 Bearer Channels: The E1 line consists of 30 bearer channels dedicated to carrying traffic.
These channels are strategically numbered from 0 to 14 and 16 to 30. Each of these channels
offers a bandwidth of 64 Kbps, collectively providing the robust 2.048 Mbps bandwidth.
 Signal Channels: Channels 15 and 31 are reserved for signaling traffic, ensuring efficient
management of communication processes.

This structured approach not only boosts performance compared to the T1 system but also ensures
reliable communication by clearly delineating traffic and signaling channels.

This form of data-transfer allows for a rate of flow useful in voice-over and telecom applications.

This method has been recognized by CEPT as an international standard. However, usage in the US,
Canada, and Japan still remains low. This is due to the high volume of data transfer over the similar
networks running on the older T-carrier technology.

In many countries around the world, telecommunications tasks are increasingly being handled across
a communications-standard that is known as the E-Carrier System.

Similar to the T-Carrier networks found in North America, the E-Carrier differences are rather small
but significant. Performing the same tasks over a network that is essentially the same, the difference
lies in the encoding and data-transfer methods.

Data transferred across a T1 connection arrives "in-band" with control information. Data packets are
sent at along the same path.

Controls and transmissions are carried concurrently in an "out-of-band" method. This allows for the
"urgent" Control coding to be processed by the receiving device in order to determine what
information is following on the other line, as opposed to having to demultiplex the data packets like
with T1 networks.

Equipment designed to work for E1 networks must be capable of sending and receiving data in this
way. By sending alarm monitoring information over one of these links, you circumvent the need for
an expansive LAN while maintaining a relatively fast connection rate.

E1 Standards Adoption - Many countries outside of the United States choose to use E1 as a Standard
E1 and T1 serve a similar purpose. The E1 standards have become rather common in almost all
countries around the world - except for countries with established T1 networks. The most notably
countries are the United States, Canada, and Japan. These E-carrier networks (most often E1), have
become an international foundation for digital voice communications around the world.

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Leveraging E1 Networks for Modern IoT Applications

When we think about the growing importance of IoT (Internet of Things) in industries like utilities,
telecommunications, and transportation, the conversation often revolves around IP-based networks.
But here's the thing: E1 networks have quietly positioned themselves as a strong and reliable
foundation for IoT deployments, especially in remote or challenging environments where uptime isn't
optional - it's critical.

Why Does E1 Work So Well for IoT?

The E1 standard is known for its rock-solid reliability and high data integrity. For IoT applications
that demand consistent connectivity - think industrial monitoring or real-time environmental data - E1
can deliver where other systems might falter. Its structured timeslots offer predictable communication,
which is a game-changer for time-sensitive use cases like industrial automation or safety alerts. In
simpler terms, if your IoT system has to work, E1 is the standard you can trust.

Real-World Examples:

 Utility Monitoring: Utilities - whether for power, water, or gas - are already using E1 to
connect IoT sensors deployed in remote, often unmanned, locations. This enables real-time
monitoring of critical equipment like transformers or pipelines, catching issues before they
escalate.
 Transportation: Railroads and highways are deploying IoT sensors to track the health of
infrastructure like bridges and tunnels. With E1 providing the link, they're able to monitor
conditions 24/7 without depending on flaky connections.
 Telecom: Telecom towers in rural or difficult-to-reach areas leverage IoT devices to monitor
site conditions, from energy usage to equipment health and even physical security

STM-1
The STM-1 (Synchronous Transport Module level-1) is the SDH ITU-T fiber
optic network transmission standard. It has a bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s. Higher levels go up by a factor
of 4 at a time: the other currently supported levels are STM-4, STM-16, STM-64 and STM-256.
Above STM-256 wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is commonly used in submarine cabling.
[1][2]

Frame structure
The STM-1 frame is on the basic transmission format for SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy). An
STM-1 frame has a byte-oriented structure with 9 rows and 270 columns of bytes, for a total of 2,430
bytes (9 rows * 270 columns = 2430 bytes). Each byte corresponds to a 64 kbit/s channel.[3]

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TOH: Transport Overhead (RSOH + AU4P + MSOH)

 MSOH: Multiplex Section Overhead

 RSOH: Regeneration Section Overhead
 AU4P: AU-4 Pointers
VC4: Virtual Container-4 payload (POH + VC-4 Data)

 POH: Path Overhead

Frame characteristic
[edit]
The STM-1 base frame is structured with the following characteristics:

 Length: 270 column × 9 row = 2430 bytes

 Byte: 1-byte = 8 bit
 Duration (Frame repetition time): 125 μs i.e. 8000 frame/s
 Rate (Frame capacity): 2430 × 8 × 8000 = 155.52 Mbit/s
 Payload = 2349 bytes × 8 bits × 8000 frames/sec = 150.336 Mbit/s
RSOH (regenerator section overhead)
[edit]

 1st row = Unscrambled bytes. Their contents should therefore be monitored

 X = Bytes reserved for national use
 D = Bytes depending on the medium (satellite, radio relay system, ...)
The Regenerator Section OverHead uses the first three rows & nine columns in the STM-1 frame
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 A1, A2 The Frame Alignment Word is used to recognize the beginning of an STM-N frame
 A1: 1111 0110 = F6 (HEX)
 A2: 0010 1000 = 28 (HEX)
 J0: Path Trace. It is used to give a path through an SDH Network a "Name". This message (Name)
enables the receiver to check the continuity of its connection with the desired transmitter
 B1: Bit Error Monitoring. The B1 Byte contains the result of the parity check of the previous STM
frame, after scrambling of the actual STM frame. This check is carried out with a Bit Interleaved
Parity check (BIP-8).
 E1 Engineering Orderwire (EOW). It can be used to transmit speech signals between Regenerator
Sections for operating and maintenance purposes
 F1 User Channel. It is used to transmit data and speech for service and maintenance
 D1 to D3 Data Communication Channel at 192 kbit/s (DCCR). This channel is used to transmit
management information via the STM-N frames
MSOH (multiplex section overhead)
[edit]

X = Bytes reserved for national use.

The Multiplex Section OverHead uses the 5th through 9th rows, and first 9 columns in the STM-1
frame.

 B2 : Bit Error Monitoring. The B2 Bytes contains the result of the parity check of the previous STM
frame, except the RSOH, before scrambling of the actual STM frame. This check is carried out with a
Bit Interleaved Parity check (BIP24)
 K1, K2 Automatic Protection Switching (APS). In case of a failure, the STM frames can be routed
new with the help of the K1, K2 Bytes through the SDH Network. Assigned to the multiplexing
section protection (MSP) protocol
 K2 (Bit6,7,8) MS_RDI: Multiplex Section Remote Defect Indication (former MS_FERF: Multiplex
Section Far End Receive Failure)
 D4 to D12 Data Communication Channel at 576 kbit/s (DCCM). (See also D1-D3 in RSOH above)
 S1 (Bit 5 - 8) Synchronisation quality level:
 0000 Quality unknown
 0010 G.811 10-11/day frequency drift
 0100 G.812T transit 10-9 /day frequency drift
 1000 G.812L local 2*10-8/day frequency drift
 1011 G.813 5*10-7/day frequency drift
 1111 Not to be used for synchronisation
 E2 Engineering Order wire (EOW). Same function as E1 in RSOH

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 M1 MS_REI: Multiplex Section Remote Error Indicator, number of interleaved bits which have been
detected to be erroneous in the received B2 bytes. (former MS_FEBE: Multiplexing Section Far End
Block Errored)
 Z1, Z2 Spare bytes
 ----------------------------------------
STM-4
The STM-4 (Synchronous Transport Module) is a SDH ITU-T fiber optic network transmission
standard. It has a bit rate of 622.080 Mbit/s.
The STM-4 specification is designed to carry 7,680 8-bit "voice" frames every 125 micro-seconds for
a total payload bit rate of 491.520 Mbit/s. The other levels defined by the SDH standard are STM-
1, STM-16, STM-64 and STM-256. Beyond this we have wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
commonly used in submarine cabling.

Although STM-4 is comparable to OC-12 the SDH frame structure allocates more space to overhead
than that of SONET. Because of this, STM-4's payload bandwidth differs from that of OC-12.

SDH Rates
SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s. The basic unit of SDH is STM-1.

Different SDH rates are given below:

 STM-1 = 155.520 Mbit/s

 STM-4 = 622.080 Mbit/s
 STM-16 = 2,488.320 Mbit/s (~2.5 Gbit/second)
 STM-64 = 9,953.280 Mbit/s (~10 Gbit/second)
 STM-256 = 39,813.120 Mbit/s (~40 Gbit/second)
Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate, therefore the hierarchy is synchronous.

STM-1 frame structure

[edit]
The basic STM-1 carrier frame consists of eight overheads, four pointers and a space for the payload.
The overheads are the regeneration section overhead (RSOH), associated with the regenerators, and
the multiplex section overhead (MSOH), associated with the multiplexers.

The space for the payload carries the VC-4 container, the first byte of which is signaled by the AU-4
pointer, and which is allowed to move in order to accommodate frequency

In previous sections we have looked at an example in which a 140 Mbit/s signal was mapped into a
VC-4, but the multiplexing map lets the STM-1 signal transport other types of Plesiochronous signals
and even combinations of signals. All the possibilities are shown in the table below:

Composition 2 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s 140 Mbit/s

1x VC-4 0 0 1

3x VC-3 0 3 0

42xVC-12 + 1xVC-3 42 1 0

16
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63xVC-12 63 0 0

The basic STM-1 transport rate is 155.520 Mbit/s and is defined in the ITU-T recommendation G.707.

As mentioned above, the overhead of an STM-4 signal (SOH) is divided into two parts: the MSOH
and the RSOH. The overheads contain information from the system itself, which is used for a wide
range of management functions, such as monitoring transmission quality, detecting failures, managing
alarms, data communication channels, service channels, etc. These functions will be described in
more detail in the section on network management services.

An STM-4 frame consists of 36 rows each containing 270 bytes. This is a direct multiple of
STM-1, which consists of 9 rows each containing 270 bytes. The frame frequency of 32 kHz has
also been chosen as a 4x multiple of that of STM-1, so that one byte of frame corresponds to the
transmission capacity of a 64 kbit/s channel.

The first 36 bytes of each row of a frame (with the exception of row 16) contain a Section OverHead.
The first 36 bytes of row 16 contain the AU pointer (payload address). The field consisting of 261X36
bytes is for payload transmission (The STM payload is known as the Virtual Container (VC) and
consists of the actual payload, known as the Container (C) and additional overhead known as Path
Over Head (POH), for path related information).

The Virtual Container is not located rigidly in the frame but can move around freely in the payload
section. The pointer indicates the position of the first byte of the VC (which is always the first byte of
the POH). This allows a VC received in the multiplexer to be matched to a pre-specified frame phase
of the STM-4.

 ----------------------------------------
ATM
1. 개요[편집]
컴퓨터 네트워크에서 이더넷[1] 프로토콜이 본격적으로 활용되기 이전에 데이터를 전송하던 통신 표준이다. 비동기 전송 방식
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode, ATM, 비동기 전송방식교환체계)이라고 한다. ITU-
T Recommendation I.361 등의 표준이다. 1990 년대 유행했던 통신기술이다.

2. 특성[편집]
 자료를 일정한 크기로 정하여 순서대로 전송하는 자료의 전송방식이다.
 패킷 교환 방식이 아닌 가상 회선(Virtual Circuit Switching) 방식이다.
 패킷이 아닌 셀이라 부르는 고정 길이(53 바이트) 정보단위를 사용하여 통계적 다중화를 한다.
 전화망(PSTN 혹은 ISDN)에서 전화선을 활용해 데이터 통신을 할 때 활용했던 기술이다. PC 통신 단말기(하이텔 단말기) 같은
터미널 내부를 열어 기판을 뜯어보면 높은 확률로 ATM 칩을 모뎀으로 활용한 모습을 볼 수 있다.
 CDMA 이동통신망에서 데이터 통신 요소 기술로 활용되었다. GSM 의 GPRS 및 그 후속인 3G WCDMA 는 GTP 를
사용한다.

17