Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

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Journal of Innovation & Knowledge

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Exploring the orientation towards metaverse gaming: Contingent effects of

VR tools usability, perceived behavioural control, subjective norms and age
Santanu Mandal a,* , Ritesh Kumar Dubey b, Bhaskar Basu c , Anubhav Tiwari d
a
Department of Operations & Analytics, Amrita School of Business, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amaravati, Nowlur, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, 522503, India
b
Department of Accounting and Finance, Xavier Institute of Management, XIM University, Bhubaneswar, India
c
Information Systems Area, Xavier Institute of Management, XIM University, Bhubaneswar, India
d
National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology (NIELIT), Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (MEITY), Govt. of India, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

JEL classifiaction: The Gen-Z, who are deemed digital natives, have shown interest in the metaverse. The emergence of augmented
M15 reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality (XR) technologies in recent years has fuelled the increased
M31 interest in metaverse gaming. However, extant literature is yet to understand the individual orientations of these
Keywords: digital natives towards prime aspects of metaverse gaming and how it shapes one’s attitude and, eventually,
Metaverse behavioural intentions for metaverse gaming. This study investigates the individual orientation towards social
Virtual gaming
gaming, play for earn, flexibility gaming, and mixed reality as potential enablers for individuals’ attitudes to-
Play to earn
Mixed reality
wards metaverse gaming. Using the well-established theory of planned behaviour (TPB), coupled with an
Perceived behavioural control extensive literature review, we explore the influence of attitude on behavioural intentions for metaverse gaming.
Digital native The study also explores the contingent effects of VR tools’ usability, subjective norms, perceived behavioural
control, and age. We develop the measures for the used constructs through a literature review and pre-test before
final data collection. Using an online questionnaire and purposive sampling, the study collected 308 and 256
complete responses from online gamers residing in South and East India, respectively, after fulfilling specific pre-
decided filtering criteria. The findings of the study underscore the significant moderating effects of VR tools,
subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, and age towards metaverse gaming. The findings highlight the
far-reaching implications for policymakers and practitioners. Companies can leverage this mix of demography
and technology for immersive experiences for new marketing, branding, and loyalty programs. Policymakers
may underscore the cyber threats and prepare for regulatory and legal challenges.

Introduction (Neal, 1992). Following this, the year 2003 saw the development of the
first online virtual world - Second Life by Philip Rosedale and his team at
Digital natives are characterized by their involvement with new-age Liden Lab (Bale et al., 2022; Mystakidis, 2022). The metaverse can
technology (Helsper & Eynon, 2010; Bennett et al., 2008). The emer- extend one’s presence beyond the physical world with the help of
gence of augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and mixed reality augmented and virtual reality technologies, enabling an individual to
(XR) technologies in recent years has fuelled the increased interest in smoothly interact between real and simulated environments (Dwivedi
metaverse gaming (Mystakidis, 2022). Companies plan to set up their et al., 2022). Furthermore, studies have found several games such as
customized virtual space and offer users different catered functionalities Second Life, Fortnite, Roblox, and Varchar as prominent enablers of the
and experiences (Dwivedi et al., 2023). Mandal et al. (2024) suggest that metaverse and offer certain critical insights into its different features
Gen Zs obtain greater satisfaction from the metaverse usage. Metaverse (Dwivedi et al., 2022). Furthermore, Clement (2023) found that con-
came into light first in 1992 with the science fiction novel “Snow Crash” sumer spending on video game content in the US increased from 17.5
by Neal Stephenson, where he used “metaverse” to explain a billion USD to 47.5 billion USD. As per one of the recent reports
computer-generated 3D universe that is experienced through goggles (Srivastava, 2023), approximately 52 % of US gamers believe that

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [Link]@[Link] (S. Mandal), drriteshdubey84@[Link] (R.K. Dubey), bhaskar@[Link] (B. Basu), anubhavtiwariindia@gmail.
com (A. Tiwari).

[Link]
Received 16 April 2024; Accepted 26 November 2024
Available online 12 December 2024
2444-569X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier España, S.L.U. on behalf of Journal of Innovation & Knowledge. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license ([Link]
S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

metaverse gaming is going to revolutionize online gaming, and the individual orientations of these digital natives towards prime aspects of
global metaverse market is expected to touch $1,527.55 billion by 2029 metaverse gaming and how it shapes one’s attitude and, eventually,
from $100.27 billion in 2022, at a CAGR of 47.6% (Srivastava, 2023). behavioural intentions for metaverse gaming.
Certainly, the phenomenon of metaverse is here to stay, and the same In this study, we highlight the far-reaching implications for policy-
is reflected in the actions of many of the technology companies that are makers and practitioners. Companies can leverage this mix of demog-
now busy developing their core metaverse and allied services. Bale et al. raphy and technology for immersive experiences for new marketing,
(2022) underlined several benefits the metaverse will offer its users. For branding, and loyalty programs. Policymakers may underscore the cyber
example, implementing 3D graph technology, augmented reality, and threats and prepare for regulatory and legal challenges.
virtual reality can enable individuals to enjoy the beauty of any location, For effective utilization of the metaverse as a tool for various facets of
be it the Taj Mahal, Paris, or London, sitting in the comfort of their home business application, studies are yet to understand how online gamers’
(Bale et al., 2022). Metaverse has the capability to provide its users, like orientation towards social gaming, play-to-earn orientation, passion for
schools, colleges, and organizations, with more engaging and interactive flexibility gaming, and mixed reality orientation shape their attitude
meetings through the deployment of virtual avatars like - Mesh, towards metaverse gaming. Secondly, extant research is yet to address
launched by Microsoft Teams (Upadhyay & Khandelwal, 2022). Meta- how the resultant attitude would shape their behavioral intentions to-
verse helps users to simulate any experience virtually with the help of wards metaverse gaming. Furthermore, such development of attitude
morphed reality. Metaverse can help individuals to get engaged in vir- and behavioral intentions would vary based on online gamers’
tual workouts, more often aided by AI trainers (Cho et al., 2023). Cho compatibility with VR tool’s usability. Also, subjective norms, perceived
et al. (2023) found that VR-assisted treadmill walking can help with behavioral control, and age would also moderate the formation of atti-
numerous health benefits like improving cognitive function, concen- tudes and behavioral intentions towards metaverse gaming.
tration, muscular endurance, proper weight maintenance, etc. Using Given the cultural, linguistic, and socio-economic diversity that en-
virtual technologies, many concepts can be simulated in meta classroom compasses India, it necessitates region-specific sampling (Dheer et al.,
by teachers, thereby making learning fun and interactive (Bale et al., 2015). The population of the regions has a resemblance to that of several
2022). Metaverse can provide a simulated reality to impart training for smaller nations, and therefore, this study offers unique and insightful
surgeries and treatment (Bansal et al., 2022). Additionally, it has the perspectives that will have higher generalizability. Das (1999) high-
potential to completely transform training programs across various lights that South India has been a frontrunner in education/literacy,
fields such as medicine, engineering, emergency services, and the mili- healthcare, and overall human development indices. East India, on the
tary. (Bale et al., 2022). Clearly, the metaverse has found its application other hand, presents a contrast with varying levels of development and
in varied aspects of businesses, from products to services, from educa- significant regional disparities, thereby providing a diverse
tion to on-the-job training, and extending even further into realms such socio-economic context for study. North India and West India host the
as virtual commerce, customer engagement, remote collaboration, and National Capital, Delhi, and the Financial Capital, Mumbai, and,
immersive marketing experiences. It is being leveraged to enhance therefore, are often the focus of various studies due to their significant
product design and prototyping and enable virtual showrooms and political and economic influence. Thus, in this study, we capture East
interactive sales channels. For example, individuals can explore their and South India, which offer relatively fresher perspectives.
spectacles on Lenskart, virtually try and tailor their dresses using Investigating how digital natives individually orient toward meta-
3DLook, or take the entire metaverse experience to another level using verse gaming–both in terms of what players play, and how and why-
Teslasuit. The world of metaverse is further supported by crypto- –equally transcends academic inquiry, profoundly impacting societal
currencies, further allowing digital asset trading (Belk et al., 2022). behaviors and digital transformation. While augmented and virtual re-
Metaverse is giving e-commerce enterprises a newer perspective on alities have seen the most rapid assimilation into day-to-day digital
selling their products while providing their customers with a new and experiences, the literature has not sufficiently examined how these
unique way of shopping online. Therefore, while the metaverse and its orientations evolve into attitudes and subsequent behavioral intentions
benefits are slowly being realized in different domains, the metaverse with the metaverse. In this study we address this gap by investigating
gaming sector is still quite in its nascent stages. Modern-day computer how orientations toward social interaction, play-to-earn, and mixed
games are highly decentralized, and peer-to-peer (P2P) driven, engaging reality experiences influence digital natives’ engagement with the
players on gaming data stored on servers (Brooks et al., 2021). Bhatta- metaverse. In a world where digital and physical realities increasingly
charya et al. (2023) suggest that in virtual reality environments, the intertwine — impacting social norms, economic opportunities, and
players get engaged in virtual gaming, e.g., Beat Saber, Iron Man, or digital well-being — understanding these dynamics is essential. Digital
Startrek, through assisted VR hardware (displays and hand controllers). natives’ preferences for both play-to-earn could fundamentally change
However, in contrast, augmented reality games like Pokemon Go what we consider work and play, while orientations towards social
transform the real environment surrounding the player into a digital gaming could completely transform what community and relationships
interface and provide a related experience (Bhattacharya et al., 2023). mean in virtual environments. Moreover, analyzing how these orienta-
With Facebook renaming itself Meta and showcasing rapid de- tions affect attitudes and intentions provides a framework for antici-
velopments in augmented and virtual realities, more customized expe- pating the long-term societal shifts brought on by immersive
riences can be provided with 360-degree navigation, and extended technologies. Such an understanding is important for stakeholders like
reality engines supporting player’s higher engagement, for example, eye policymakers considering issues such as digital addiction and privacy,
movements, face and hands expression being transmitted into P2P net- and companies that can build more user-centered and socially respon-
works (Bhattacharya et al., 2023). The metaverse also paves the way for sible virtual spaces. In this way, the present work addresses not only a
developing virtual offices and coworking spaces, enabling a seamless, unique research inquiry, but also a more practical need that emerges
immersive, remote work experience. Furthermore, businesses are from the need of understanding how digital natives can shape the future
exploring its use for virtual events, trade shows, and networking op- digital ecosystem and society expanding their presence in the metaverse.
portunities, thus breaking down geographical barriers and reaching a In the context of this research, the TPB has been used as it is a well-
global audience. established theory to examine and predict human behavior towards new
It is evident that the metaverse holds significant relevance for busi- technologies. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is appropriate for
nesses, customers, academics, and policymakers. However, studies exploring the attitudes and intentions of digital natives in the metaverse
specific to metaverse, and metaverse gaming are still in their infancy and gaming context as it includes three important components, namely:
require empirical investigations and theoretical testing (Mandal et al., Attitude, subjective norm, and behavioural control. Social gaming, play-
2024). There exists limited literature that aims to understand the to-earn, flexibility in game types and mixed reality experiences are the

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

orientations researched as they tie directly into these factors. More of the identified measurement items to capture the meaning of the
specifically, attitudes are gamers’ general feelings toward the metaverse relevant constructs, employed in the study. This pre-testing phase hel-
(i.e., positive or negative), and TPB suggests that this sound belief-based ped refine the items, ensuring they were well-aligned with the constructs
evaluation is a major predictor of intentions to behave. This study in- under investigation. Following this, the main study collected 308 re-
vestigates how these orientations foster attitudes shaping up the sponses from South India and 256 from East India, using filter questions
behavioral predictors of metaverse gaming. Moreover, subjective norms to confirm participants’ familiarity with the metaverse and their gaming
reflect peer and social influences, an important factor given that gaming engagement. This regional focus provides a comparative perspective
is often a socially motivated activity for digital natives. The key TPB across diverse socio-economic and cultural backgrounds, offering in-
component of perceived behavioral control speaks to how easy or sights into the variations in attitudes and intentions towards metaverse
difficult individuals think it is to play metaverse games, depending on gaming. Thus, the chosen methods align with the study’s objective to
familiarity with VR tools and the accessibility of technology. The explore the impact of specific gaming orientations on behavioral
framework complements a nuanced understanding of the interplay be- intentions.
tween these external and internal factors with regard to determining The next section discusses the theory of planned behaviour as the
behavioral intentions. In addition, TPB has a solid theoretical founda- basic premise that is being used and modified to develop the proposed
tion to allow for the consideration of moderating variables such as age hypothetical relationships for empirical testing in the context of Gen Zs
and usability of VR tools to better explain the model and find new areas and Millennials for a developing nation like India. The subsequent sec-
for exploring the contingent aspects underlying attitudes and intentions. tion discusses the proposed hypotheses, leading to the suggested theo-
Thus, employing TPB enables this study to comprehensively address the retical model. The next section elaborate more the development of the
complexities of digital natives’ engagement with metaverse gaming, hypotheses, that plays an important part in building the theoretical
both theoretically and empirically. Accordingly, our study addresses the model of this research, as it gives a logical order that links theory and
following research questions: empirical investigation. Drawing from the Theory of Planned Behavior
(TPB), hypotheses are proposed that systematically investigate how
RQ1. What is the effect of orientation for social gaming, play to earn
different orientations (i.e., social gaming, play-to-earn, gaming flexi-
orientation, passion for flexibility gaming and orientation for mixed reality
bility and mixed reality experience) influence attitudes which in turn
experience on attitude towards metaverse gaming for online gamers?
shapes behavioral intentions towards metaverse gaming. The approach
enables the research to build upon TPB by examining how these distinct
RQ2. What is the effect of attitude towards metaverse gaming on behav-
orientations which are not included in prior studies affect attitudinal
ioural intentions for metaverse gaming for online gamers?
and the roles of such factors as usability of VR tool and age that may
moderate these relationships.
RQ3. What are the contingent effects of orientation towards VR tools, age,
The relationships among the constructs are presented as hypotheses,
perceived behavioural control and subjective norms on the direct paths?
which provide a clear and testable guide for empirical validation of the
TPB, developed by Ajzen (1991) is highly applicable to this investi- theoretical model. In doing so, this structured approach helps to ground
gation as it encapsulates the outlooks, societal expectations, and research questions which are directly linked to the conceptual frame-
perceived behavioral management of digital natives regarding up- work thus providing a well defined notion of behaviors observed. As
coming metaverse technologies. The research questions are crafted to such, the hypothesis development approach enhances the construction
leverage this theoretical lens. Specifically, RQ1 examines how stances of a strong theoretical model while enhancing contextual learning sur-
toward social gaming, play-to-earn models, gaming flexibility, and rounding behavioral dynamics in metaverse gaming at play.
mixed reality experiences form attitudes toward metaverse gaming. The subsequent section discusses the measure development, pre-
These outlooks directly align with TPB’s focus on comprehending how testing and data collection. The originality of this study lies in
belief-based attitudes influence purposes. applying the theory of planned behavior, which is critical to scouting the
RQ2 then expands on this connection by researching how these at- orientation of digital natives toward metaverse gaming. It also presents
titudes forecast behavioral purposes, a core premise of TPB, which implications for companies that are existing or planning to enter the
proposes that attitudes are primary determinants of purposes. The third metaverse business. And this study will be one of the first to build upon
research question (RQ3) explores the moderating impacts of orientation the socio-economic differences that exists between South and East India
towards VR tools, age, perceived behavioural control and subjective which will enable businesses and policymakers to prioritize and
norms. This facet of the research enriches the TPB framework by customize as per the needs of the society.
incorporating these moderators, providing insights into how contextual
and demographic variables influence the strength of the relationships Theoretical background
between attitudes and purposes.
By grounding the research questions within TPB, the study clarifies Metaverse gaming: a theory of planned behaviour perspective
how belief systems, societal norms, and perceived ease of use affect
metaverse gaming participation. The use of TPB provides a systematic The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), first proposed by Ajzen in the
approach to unraveling these complex relationships, enabling a late 1980s, is one of the most established perspectives on human action
comprehensive understanding of the antecedents and consequences of and intention research—especially in the context of adoption of
attitudes in the digital gaming domain. emerging technologies. Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) extends the
This study employed an online survey, taking advantage of the dig- earlier Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) proposed by Fishbein and
ital nature of convenience to attract a wide range of participants. Given Ajzen (1975; 2010) and provides a more complete account by adding
this, the application is especially relevant given that Gen Z and Mil- perceived behavioral control to the explanatory framework. This makes
lennials are comfortable with online surveys. The sampling strategy was the theory useful in contexts associated with new technologies where the
purposive to ensure that only respondents who meet the criteria were self-efficacy of a person and how hard or easy it is to do behavior are
included in the survey, providing relevant experience on metaverse essential.
gaming. This sampling method is necessary to capture relevant insights TPB suggests that the combination of three, interarea correlated
because it targets participants who are most suited to give knowledge- components (attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral
able answers regarding their gamer behaviours and attitudes. control) should underlie human intention towards technology (Ajzen
Data collection was conducted in two stages. First, the study 1991, 2012). Attitudes consist of a positive or negative perception which
executed a pre-test with 114 respondents that evaluated the suitability is based on beliefs of an individual regarding a behaviour (Ajzen, 1985).

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

These assessments originate from consideration of the consequences of a are yet to understand how the orientation towards different aspects of
behavior and the attractiveness of these consequences. Put differently, a metaverse gaming may shape one’s attitude and behavioural intentions;
favorable attitude is associated with a high intention to perform a further shaping up gaming experience and satisfaction.
behavior. Social norms are the next part; these are the perceived social
pressure to perform or not to perform behavior. This construct is related Contextualizing southern and eastern India
to the impact of family, friends, colleagues and society on an in-
dividual’s decision making (Ajzen, 1985, 2012). Subjective norms also Das (1999) analyses the socio-economic development in India from a
emphasize social context, as it is common for individuals to adjust their regional perspective and he notes that due to the large size and notable
intentions according to the expectations of relevant others. The last economic and social disparities of the Indian subcontinent, it is more
aspect, perceived behavioral control, is defined as the extent to which effective to study development at the regional level. Desai and Kulkarni
someone believes that he or she can successfully perform the behavior, (2008) highlight the existence of substantial inequalities in Indian so-
and is closely related to the concept of self-efficacy (Ajzen & Fishbein, ciety and suggest that southern India is a region with a high education
1980). Internal capacities and external constraints are elements level. Dheer et al. (2015) underscores the importance of examining the
considered to be indispensable in the comprehension of regimes in perspectives of southern and eastern India due to their unique cultural
relation to technology (mostly considered as a complex system of and functional characteristics. The authors highlight the higher level of
elements). education and emphasis on learning in the southern region. They also
So, based on TPB, the three constructs interact in a dynamic process highlight the prominence of international service and technology in-
in which an individual intends to perform a particular behavior, and dustries in the southern region, which has led to the recognition of
then behavioral outcome (Armitage & Conner, 2001). TPB is based on Bengaluru (a city in southern India) as “The Silicon Valley of India”. The
the fundamental assumption that behavioral intentions are the direct influence of the French, Portuguese, and British is observed in southern
antecedents of behavior, where the stronger the intention, the greater India. On the contrary, eastern India depicts a centre of resistance to
the likelihood of the behavior being performed. But moving from British imperialism and shows economic laggardness.
intention to action is not automatic as it is frequently mediated by The need to investigate the perspective of southern and eastern India
contingencies in the environment and constraints outside of the indi- is important firstly because each region has a substantially large popu-
vidual (Ajzen, 2012). As such, TPB also recognizes the interplay between lation (comparable to many smaller nations1), and secondly, it allows us
internal and external determinants that jointly contribute to behavior. to better understand and address the nuances that arise in customer or
In this study, we use TPB as a base theory to create a conceptual business requirements due to disparities and socio-economic particu-
model of how orientations towards different facets of metaverse gaming, larities of these specific regions. This granular level analysis also facil-
such as social gaming, play-to-earn, gaming flexibility, and mixed re- itates a more precise identification of special characteristics and regional
ality, direct attitudes which then leads to metaverse gaming behavioral needs, which is essential for formulating more effective development
intentions. Instead of exploring the influence of each construct alone and outreach in each region. Though these disparities and the unique-
(the role of attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, ness of the two regions can be investigated in various contexts, in this
etc.) as is common in the existing body of work, we contextualized the study, we limit ourselves to the attitude and orientation of the popula-
constructs within the metaverse to provide a deeper understanding of tion towards metaverse gaming.
the research problem in the current study. While existing studies have
explored the direct standalone enabler role of attitude, subjective norms Hypotheses development
and perceived behavioural control towards a certain technology, prod-
uct, or service (Liu et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2024). For example, Liu Orientation towards metaverse gaming
et al. (2023) explored individuals’ intention for revenge buying using an
integrated lens of stimulus-organism -response and TPB framework. The metaverse gaming landscape has transformed in recent years
Kumar and Nayak (2023) explored the orientation towards green energy with the rapid development of augmented reality, virtual reality, and
behaviour along with contingent effects of cross-cultural factors. mixed reality technologies (Bhattacharya et al., 2023; Taylor et al.,
Gansser and Reich (2023) explored the impact of new ecological para- 2024). Users can get more immersive experience with the rapid devel-
digm and environmental concerns on tourists’ pro-environmental opment of extended reality (XR) technologies (Jungherr & Schlarb,
behaviour using TPB. Hwang et al. (2023) explored the differences in 2022). However, studies are yet to understand how the different aspects
perceived services offered by service robots and human staff at airports of metaverse gaming shapes one’s attitude towards metaverse gaming
using extended TPB. More recently, Huang et al. (2024) explored the and in turn aids in resulting an appropriate experience and satisfaction.
intention towards virtual reality paradigm using an integrated lens of In this regard, our study did an extensive review of metaverse gaming
the unified technology acceptance model (UTAUT) and TPB. literature and found the following prominent aspects of metaverse
Regarding metaverse gaming, the extant literature is only emerging gaming for users that might shape their attitude and behavioural in-
with focus on promoting entertainment and mental health stimulation tentions for metaverse gaming: (a) orientation for social gaming
during the pandemic (Kerdvibulvech, 2022); how affordances affect (Zhang et al., 2022; Guidi & Michienzi, 2022) (b) play to earn orien-
users experiences for metaverse games and gradually become a part of tation (Vidal-Tomas, 2022; Thomason, 2022) (c) flexibility gaming
their gaming experience (Shin, 2022), the engagement of prominent orientation (Uddin et al., 2023;Kara & Cagiltay, 2023) and (d) orien-
game developers like Epic games and the Unity Technologies are coming tation for mixed reality experience (Tayal et al., 2022; Seifoddini,
together for developing reality applications that can deploy 2022).
cross-platform stories and brand worlds with the efficient management However, studies have explored different aspects of metaverse
of user payments and identities (Jungherr & Schlarb, 2022). While gaming; with the gap remaining to understand how individual orienta-
previously individuals used to buy games, recent years have seen the tion towards each aspect of metaverse gaming shapes attitude and in
arrival of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) in gaming to purchase items turn users’ behavioural intentions. Many users, especially driven by
within games (Seiofddini, 2022). Furthermore, games like Roblox, pandemic and lockdowns, were forced to home confinement and
Fortnite, Minecraft, Animal Crossing and World of Warcraft have
already exhibited that virtual gaming worlds can be highly profitable
(Wiederhold, 2022). Lebow (2022) suggests US mobile gamers to spend 1
Routley, N. (2022, December 18). Mapped: The Population of India’s States
almost $18.83 billion on virtual goods in 2022 and is projected to reach Compared with Countries. Visual Capitalist. [Link]
$22.72 billion by 2026 for gaming in-app spending. However, studies population-of-india-compared-with-countries/

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

therefore get entertained with virtual gaming (Nilsson et al., 2022). behavioural intentions.
With home confinement and forced isolation, many individuals devel-
oped a passion for social gaming in the virtual world Contingent effects of VR tools usability perceived behavioural control,
(Claesdotter-Knutsson et al., 2022). Based on Gen Zs and millennials subjective norms and age
participation in metaverse, Oh et al. (2023) found that enhanced social
presence in metaverse do support their online interactions to a large While orientation towards social gaming, play for earn, flexibility
extent and support their perception of social-efficacy. gaming and mixed reality experience may act as potential antecedents
With the development of Web 3.0 gaming, players can move char- shaping attitude towards metaverse gaming; such direct effects would
acters from one gaming experience to another (Claesdotter-Knutsson most likely alter based on different individual characteristics. For
et al., 2022). Such a model has come well known as the “play-to-earn” example, with age gamers may have a different reason for metaverse
model in the virtual gaming world (Oh et al., 2023). With orientation for gaming. Many a timers gamers enjoy the aesthetics of a gaming envi-
social gaming many individuals are looking to actively participate in ronment more compared to the game storyline. Furthermore, earlier
metaverse gaming and get relaxed and entertained. Therefore, it can be metaverse experience further may alter the direct effects of such ori-
suggested that orientation for social gaming may positively influence entations towards different aspects of metaverse gaming. As per theory
attitude towards metaverse gaming. With the development of emerging of planned behaviour perceived behavioural control refers to one’s
AR and VR technologies, blockchain and cryptocurrencies and NFTS, decision-making ability to engage in metaverse gaming despite of social
there lies lot of attractions for online gamers. influences (Ajzen, 1985; 2012). Subjective norms refer to the impact of
Furthermore, many online gamers are willing to earn money by family, friends, peers and other social circles on an individual’s decision
winning challenges (Foxman, 2022). There is an increased interest to engage in metaverse gaming (Ajzen, 1985). Accordingly, perceived
among online gamers to win critical challenges in metaverse gaming behavioural control and subjective norms may alter the direct effects.
(Belk et al., 2022). Therefore, with an orientation to earn money online Furthermore, many gamers and users of virtual world are not equally
gamers would have a strong inclination for participating in metaverse equipped with VR tools. Users do vary in their understanding of virtual
gaming. Based on this premise, we posit that orientation for play to earn reality tools and capacity to use them for a better experience. Therefore,
would be positively associated with attitude towards metaverse gaming. such varying levels eventually defines the usability of VR tools for a
In a similar vein, online gaming offers much more flexibility to its better experience. Accordingly, we propose the following contingent
gamers (Scheiding, 2022), aided with Web 3.0 gaming reality offering influences:
transfer of characters among games and earn money by participating
H6a. VR tools usability may alter the direct effects of orientation for social
and winning challenges in metaverse gaming. Furthermore, gamers can
gaming, play for earn, flexibility gaming and mixed reality on attitude to-
earn and sell assets using NFTs and cryptocurrencies (Scheiding, 2022;
wards metaverse gaming and in turn on behavioural intentions.
Oh et al., 2023). Lastly, many gamers are finding the mixed reality
experience quite attractive and engaging (Buhalis & Karatay, 2022).
H6b. Perceived Behavioural control may alter the direct effects of orien-
While virtual reality completely replaces one’s gaming space with a
tation for social gaming, play for earn, flexibility gaming and mixed reality on
computer-generated virtual space; augment reality overlays digital
attitude towards metaverse gaming and in turn on behavioural intentions.
content into a real environment (XRtoday, 2021). In this regard, mixed
reality mixed the elements of augmented and virtual reality and allows
H6c. Subjective norms may alter the direct effects of orientation for social
users to interact with digital content directly. Users can shift a piece of
gaming, play for earn, flexibility gaming and mixed reality on attitude to-
digital content in the virtual space and can also interact with their col-
wards metaverse gaming and in turn on behavioural intentions.
leagues through their digital avatars (XRtoday, 2021). Therefore, quite
evidently mixed reality is quite attractive for many online gamers
H6d. Age may alter the direct effects of orientation for social gaming, play
because of the attractive engagement it provides. Therefore, based on
for earn, flexibility gaming and mixed reality on attitude towards metaverse
these premises we propose that orientations towards social gaming, play
gaming and in turn on behavioural intentions.
to earn, flexibility gaming and mixed reality of online gamers would
positively shape their attitude towards metaverse gaming. Accordingly, As highlighted in the literature review, and to bridge the research
we posit the following hypotheses: gap that exists in investigating the region-specific insights due to the
cultural, linguistic, and socio-economic diversity that encompasses
H1. Orientation towards social gaming of online gamers would positively
southern and eastern India, in this study, we contextualize all the hy-
influence their attitude towards metaverse gaming.
potheses for the two regions.
The theoretical model in Fig. 1 incorporates the Theory of Planned
H2. Orientation towards play to earn of online gamers would positively
Behavior (TPB) for explaining digital native attitudes and behavioral
influence their attitude towards metaverse gaming.
intention toward metaverse gaming as an outcome of different orien-
tations. Four unique orientations, namely social gaming, play-to-earn,
H3. Orientation towards flexibility gaming of online gamers would posi-
flexibility in-game orientation and mixed reality enter the new model
tively influence their attitude towards metaverse gaming.
as precursors of users attitude. The social gaming orientation highlights
the need to socially play and make friends in the virtual world, whereas
H4. Orientation towards mixed reality of online gamers would positively
play-to-earn is an affinity of using economic incentives to drive partic-
influence their attitude towards metaverse gaming.
ipation. Gaming Flexibility emphasizes the control and customizability
Furthermore, with the development of AR, VR and mixed reality of users; in contrast, Mixed Reality Orientation centers on the appeal of
technologies users would gradually be more engaged in metaverse ex- immersion. Combined, these orientations serve as the foundation for
periences. With days to come, the design elements of metaverse are propensity orientation toward metaverse gaming, which through TPB
going to offer more customisation to their users for game play (Dwivedi serves as a major determinant of behavioral intentions.
et al., 2023; 2022). All such developments in the metaverse scape are The model also examines contingent effects such as VR tools us-
only going to convert the attitudinal intentions into actual behaviour of ability, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and age. These
playing games, buying, and selling assets and engaging in other activ- moderators also sharpen our understanding of how attitudes move into
ities in the metaverse. Therefore, based on this premise we propose that: behavioral intentions, such that external and demographic variables
constrain the intensity of these relationships. The model, which is based
H5. Attitude of online gamers are positively going to influence their
on TPB, therefore guides the research to focus on how digital natives

5
S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

Fig. 1. Theoretical model.

participate in the metaverse from a structural perspective and helps Subsequently, the study explores whether the resultant attitude shapes
identify behavioral constructs influencing participation within the or influences behavioural intentions for metaverse gaming. Gao et al.
context of game developers and policies. (2023) highlight the need for future research to identify factors influ-
encing metaverse applications. Xi et al. (2024) argue that XR can pro-
Research methodology vide experiences that can be instrumental in shaping attitudes towards
metaverse shopping.
In this study a mixed-method research methodology is used to Taking cues from the literature, this study uses extant methods and
comprehensively explore the attitudes and behavioral intentions toward measures for the constructs used in the study. The methodology for this
metaverse gaming among digital-born generations. In particular, the study dwells upon an integrated theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen,
data analysis is done using Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation 1985; 1991) and is directed towards the digital natives. An initial pool of
Modeling (PLS-SEM) which is appropriate as the study is exploratory in measurement items for measuring four antecedents, leading to an atti-
its nature and meanwhile it proposes a rather complex model. Therefore tude toward metaverse gaming and subsequent behavioral intentions
for the descriptive statistics analysis of the deployed constructs, thus are created. Subsequently, the initial list of items is subjected to further
SPSS was used. In this context, PLS-SEM is the perfect choice because it review and required modifications by a carefully selected expert panel of
can be applied to more complex relations (which are especially impor- seven members (four faculties of information technologies and three
tant for theory testing and development) and return reliable results with experts from the AI industry). The panel was given the working defini-
a relatively small sample. tion of the concepts and the scope of the study. They were asked to
We formed an overarching set of measurement items based on un- indicate the appropriateness of the measurement items for capturing the
derlying constructs in the TPB and refined that set through expert review essential theme of the first-order factors used in the study as indicated
for conceptual clarity. The data was collected in two stages upon pre- (1= strongly unsuitable, 2= somewhat suitable and 3= strongly suit-
liminary validation. In the first stage (Study 1) a pre-test to ensure face able). After the expert panel review, only those items that got a “strongly
validity using SPSS was carried out, and in the second stage (Study 2), suitable rating from at least five experts. These resulted in a final list of
PLS-SEM was used for data collection and analysis with testing of hy- 18 items for the independent and dependent variables. Furthermore,
potheses. Such a strategy guarantees the reliability of the constructs and three more items were included, each measuring the moderating vari-
facilitates an intensive examination of the moderating factors, unveiling ables on a scale of seven-point Likert Scale (1= strongly disagree,
comprehended revelations on subjective norm, perceived behavioral 4=neutral, and 7= strongly agree).
control, technology usability in affecting metaverse gaming attitudes. The study is divided into two stages. Where the first stage, referred to
There is limited literature in the context of attitude towards meta- as Study 1, is used for the pre-test. Once the reasonable face validity of
verse gaming. Oleksy et al. (2023) were among the first to investigate items is achieved in the pre-test using SPSS 28), the second phase of the
the attitude toward the metaverse. However, their contextual setup is study, referred to as Study 2, begins with the final data collection and
limited to the role of place attachment for the Polish population. This subsequently evaluates the measurement model by partial least squares
study explores the role of several antecedents in developing attitudes (PLS) method using ADANCO 2.4 (Henseler & Dijkstra, 2015). Further
towards Metaverse gaming, viz. orientation towards social gaming assessment of structural model is carried out using widely accepted
(Zhang et al., 2022; Guidi & Michienzi, 2022), play-to-earn orientation Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) (Dash &
(Vidal-Tomas, 2022; Thomason, 2022), passion for flexibility gaming Paul, 2021; Hair et al., 2021). Given the exploratory nature of this study
(Uddin et al., 2023 Kara & Cagiltay, 2023), and orientation for mixed with model complexity, PLS-SEM also offers a more robust approach
reality (Tayal et al., 2022; Seifoddini, 2022) for gamers in India. than the Covariance-Based SEM (CB-SEM) (Hair et al., 2011; Hair et al.,

6
S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

2017). In the final leg of Study 2, the moderation effects were evaluated participants. The questionnaire also ensured that no personally identi-
using Process Macro 4.2 in SPSS 27 (Hayes, 2017). fiable information would be collected and that the responses would be
used only for academic purposes. After several follow-ups through
WhatsApp and social media messengers, the research team received 308
Study 1: pre-test
responses from South India and 256 from East India, which satisfied
all three filter questions. The participants were from Kochi, Coimbatore,
Since the study targets digital natives, the final 18 items were sub-
Vijayawada, and Hyderabad for the South Indian sample, whereas for
jected to a pre-test by using purposive sampling. Creswell et al. (2016)
the East India sample, they mostly hailed from Bhubaneshwar, Kolkata,
argue that "purposeful sampling is critical for ensuring that the researcher
Guwahati, and Shillong. Table 2 below shows the final sample.
gathers in-depth, contextual information from participants who are most
The study evaluated the hypothesised model in two stages. First, the
knowledgeable about the topic" (p. 158). A questionnaire was prepared in
study assessed the reliability and validity of the proposed measures
Google Forms with 18 items, the purpose of the study, a description of
using the partial least squares method in ADANCO 2.4 (Henseler &
the essential items, and informed consent to participate in the study. The
Dijkstra, 2015). This is also referred to as measurement model
study also assured the respondents of the anonymity and confidentiality
evaluation.
of their responses. Furthermore, the respondents’ right to anonymity
was further protected as the study did not collect respondents’ email IDs
Measurement model evaluation
and names, thereby further assuring anonymity. The authors’ team also
The measurement items were assessed for reliability and validity
included several filter questions to ensure sample representativeness, e.
using multiple criteria as specified in best practices (Ringle et al., 2020;
g. (1) Are you familiar with metaverse? (High, Low) (2) Do you play
Benitez et al.,2020). First, the reliability was found satisfactory for all
computer games (online/ offline)? (Yes, No) and (3) Are you inter-
the measurement items as each one had standardised loadings > 0.70,
ested in metaverse gaming (Yes, No)? The questionnaire link is shared
factor level Cronbach’s alpha > 0.80 and AVE > 0.50 (Benitez et al.,
with respondents using purposive sampling through WhatsApp, emails,
2020; Ringle et al., 2020). The constructs also, therefore, exhibited
and social media sites. After several follow-ups, the team received 121
adequate convergent validity (Benitez et al., 2020) as their AVE’s >
responses. However, 114 responses satisfied all three filter questions
0.50. Lastly, the constructs were also easily discriminable as square roots
and, therefore, were considered for subsequent analysis. The research
of their AVEs > their inter-construct correlations (Fornell & Larcker,
team then subjected the 114 complete responses to principal component
1981). Therefore, with satisfactory measurement model results, the
analysis using SPSS 28 using varimax rotation. The rotated factor
study next evaluated the structural model. Table 3 placed in Appendix-1
loadings pattern showed that items measuring a particular construct
at the end shows the reliability and validity statistics of the measure-
come together and are highly correlated. Furthermore, Bartlett’s test of
ment model, followed by Table 4, showing the discriminant validity
sphericity (chi-sq=1485.53, df=153, p<0.001) and KMO (=0.711) also
assessment. As shown by the findings, our constructs also demonstrate
satisfied the minimum required thresholds. With satisfied rotated factor
adequate discriminant validity further supported by the HTMT ratios
loadings and other allied metrics, the research team went for final data
being < 0.85 (Ringle et al., 2020; Benitez et al., 2020).
collection and hypotheses testing. Table 1 below shows the rotated
factor loadings.
Structural model assessment
With satisfactory measurement model assessment in terms of reli-
Study 2: main data collection ability and validity, the study next evaluated the structural model in
terms of variance explained in the dependent variables, and the signif-
With adequate face validity in the pre-test sample, the research team icance of the path coefficients. The proposed model explained a signif-
prepared another questionnaire in Google Forms, along with earlier icant proportion of variance in one’s attitude and behavioural intentions
filter questions, outlining the scope of the study, definition of important towards metaverse gaming. Furthermore, the model has decent predic-
terms, assurance of anonymity and informed consent for the tive ability, as shown by the effect sizes as shown in Table 5 below. The
effect sizes ranged from 6 % to 55 %, approximately suggesting strong
Table 1 predictive ability of the proposed model, further cross-validated in two
Rotated factor loadings.
Rotated Component Matrixa
Table 2
Component Respondents profile.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Category No % No %
sog1 0.088 0.919 0.008 0.162 -0.030 0.150 (South¼308) (East¼256)
sog2 0.249 0.885 -0.092 0.166 -0.011 0.083 Age ​ ​ ​ ​
sog3 0.274 0.867 0.012 0.128 0.041 0.069 16-19 years 81 26.30 114 44.53
pearn1 0.017 -0.015 0.943 0.095 -0.005 0.051 20-22 years 68 22.08 63 24.61
pearn2 0.065 -0.011 0.912 -0.022 0.101 0.107 23-30 years 76 24.68 65 25.39
pearn3 0.056 -0.032 0.789 0.090 0.246 0.107 30 years and above 83 26.95 14 5.47
flexg1 0.938 0.129 0.022 0.020 0.134 0.057 Gender ​ ​ ​ ​
flexg2 0.879 0.272 0.173 0.056 0.088 0.014 Male 235 76.30 189 73.83
flexg3 0.939 0.191 -0.026 -0.035 0.110 0.088 Female 73 23.70 67 26.17
mreal1 0.091 0.018 0.088 0.033 0.094 0.878 Education ​ ​ ​ ​
mreal2 -0.077 0.219 0.031 0.145 0.185 0.785 Undergraduate 163 52.92 131 51.17
mreal3 0.124 0.065 0.142 -0.036 0.084 0.867 Postgraduate 145 47.08 125 48.83
att1 -0.003 0.126 0.130 0.887 0.013 0.095 Annual Family Income ​ ​ ​ ​
att2 0.036 0.140 0.060 0.916 0.064 0.058 Less than 10 lakhs 71 23.05 78 30.47
att3 0.005 0.170 -0.034 0.772 0.327 -0.032 10-15 lakhs 96 31.17 89 34.77
bi1 0.092 0.069 0.111 0.010 0.847 0.108 15-20 lakhs 89 28.90 82 32.03
bi2 0.066 -0.067 0.084 0.148 0.849 0.116 20 lakhs and above 52 16.88 7 2.73
bi3 0.155 -0.008 0.129 0.168 0.803 0.131 Experience with virtual ​ ​ ​ ​
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. world/metaverse
Low 196 63.64 167 65.23
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a High 112 36.36 89 34.77
. Rotation converged in 6 iterations.

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

Table 5
Results of structural model testing.
Direct Effects Inference (South: N¼308)

Effect Original Standard bootstrap results

coefficient
Mean Standard t- p-value (2- p-value (1- 0.025 0.975 Effect Size
value error value sided) sided) (f-sq)

Orient. Social Gaming -> Attitude- Meta. 0.244 0.245 0.074 3.314 0.001 0.001 0.103 0.391 0.062
Gaming
Play to Earn Orientation -> Attitude- 0.251 0.249 0.073 3.439 0.001 0.000 0.108 0.393 0.082
Meta. Gaming
Passion for Flexibility Gaming -> 0.195 0.198 0.069 2.811 0.005 0.003 0.062 0.336 0.047
Attitude- Meta. Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality -> Attitude- 0.251 0.251 0.058 4.340 0.000 0.000 0.139 0.365 0.100
Meta. Gaming
Attitude- Meta. Gaming -> BI- Meta. 0.585 0.586 0.043 13.726 0.000 0.000 0.499 0.666 0.520
Gaming

Indirect Effects Inference (South: N¼308)

Effect Original Standard bootstrap results

coefficient
Mean Standard t- p-value (2- p-value (1- 0.025 0.975
value error value sided) sided)

Orient. Social Gaming -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.143 0.144 0.046 3.106 0.002 0.001 0.059 0.237 ​
Play to Earn Orientation -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.147 0.145 0.043 3.412 0.001 0.000 0.063 0.232 ​
Passion for Flexibility Gaming -> BI- Meta. 0.114 0.116 0.042 2.740 0.006 0.003 0.037 0.200 ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.147 0.147 0.036 4.035 0.000 0.000 0.078 0.222 ​

Total Effects Inference (South: N¼308)

Effect Original Standard bootstrap results

coefficient
Mean Standard t- p-value (2- p-value (1- 0.025 0.975
value error value sided) sided)

Orient. Social Gaming -> Attitude- Meta. 0.244 0.245 0.074 3.314 0.001 0.001 0.103 0.391 ​
Gaming
Orient. Social Gaming -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.143 0.144 0.046 3.106 0.002 0.001 0.059 0.237 ​
Play to Earn Orientation -> Attitude- Meta. 0.251 0.249 0.073 3.439 0.001 0.000 0.108 0.393 ​
Gaming
Play to Earn Orientation -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.147 0.145 0.043 3.412 0.001 0.000 0.063 0.232 ​
Passion for Flexibility Gaming -> Attitude- 0.195 0.198 0.069 2.811 0.005 0.003 0.062 0.336 ​
Meta. Gaming
Passion for Flexibility Gaming -> BI- Meta. 0.114 0.116 0.042 2.740 0.006 0.003 0.037 0.200 ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality -> Attitude- Meta. 0.251 0.251 0.058 4.340 0.000 0.000 0.139 0.365 ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.147 0.147 0.036 4.035 0.000 0.000 0.078 0.222 ​
Attitude- Meta. Gaming -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.585 0.586 0.043 13.726 0.000 0.000 0.499 0.666 ​

Direct Effects Inference (East: 256)

Effect Original Standard bootstrap results

coefficient
Mean Standard t- p-value (2- p-value (1- 0.025 0.975 Effect sizes
value error value sided) sided) (f-sq)

Orient. Social Gaming -> Attitude- Meta. 0.146 0.147 0.061 2.411 0.016 0.008 0.031 0.272 0.026
Gaming
Play to Earn Orientation -> Attitude- 0.213 0.210 0.072 2.986 0.003 0.001 0.068 0.347 0.064
Meta. Gaming
Passion for Flexibility Gaming -> 0.198 0.198 0.054 3.677 0.000 0.000 0.096 0.307 0.067
Attitude- Meta. Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality -> Attitude- 0.372 0.375 0.087 4.292 0.000 0.000 0.214 0.552 0.126
Meta. Gaming
Attitude- Meta. Gaming -> BI- Meta. 0.596 0.599 0.044 13.626 0.000 0.000 0.509 0.680 0.552
Gaming

Indirect Effects Inference (East: 256)

Effect Original Standard bootstrap results

coefficient
Mean Standard t- p-value (2- p-value (1- 0.025 0.975
value error value sided) sided)

Orient. Social Gaming -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.087 0.088 0.037 2.329 0.020 0.010 0.018 0.164 ​
Play to Earn Orientation -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.127 0.126 0.044 2.892 0.004 0.002 0.041 0.213 ​
Passion for Flexibility Gaming -> BI- Meta. 0.118 0.119 0.036 3.279 0.001 0.001 0.053 0.196 ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.222 0.224 0.055 4.054 0.000 0.000 0.128 0.341 ​

Total Effects Inference (East: 256)

(continued on next page)

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

Table 5 (continued )
Total Effects Inference (East: 256)

Effect Original Standard bootstrap results

coefficient
Mean Standard t- p-value (2- p-value (1- 0.025 0.975
value error value sided) sided)

Effect Original Standard bootstrap results

coefficient
Mean Standard t- p-value (2- p-value (1- 0.025 0.975
value error value sided) sided)

Orient. Social Gaming -> Attitude- Meta. 0.146 0.147 0.061 2.411 0.016 0.008 0.031 0.272 ​
Gaming
Orient. Social Gaming -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.087 0.088 0.037 2.329 0.020 0.010 0.018 0.164 ​
Play to Earn Orientation -> Attitude- Meta. 0.213 0.210 0.072 2.986 0.003 0.001 0.068 0.347 ​
Gaming
Play to Earn Orientation -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.127 0.126 0.044 2.892 0.004 0.002 0.041 0.213 ​
Passion for Flexibility Gaming -> Attitude- 0.198 0.198 0.054 3.677 0.000 0.000 0.096 0.307 ​
Meta. Gaming
Passion for Flexibility Gaming -> BI- Meta. 0.118 0.119 0.036 3.279 0.001 0.001 0.053 0.196 ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality -> Attitude- Meta. 0.372 0.375 0.087 4.292 0.000 0.000 0.214 0.552 ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.222 0.224 0.055 4.054 0.000 0.000 0.128 0.341 ​
Attitude- Meta. Gaming -> BI- Meta. Gaming 0.596 0.599 0.044 13.626 0.000 0.000 0.509 0.680 ​

different samples. potential element of fun. This aligns with the TPB claim that when
people perceive performing a behavior will lead to positive results, they
will form beneficial attitudes (Ajzen, 1991).
Contingent effects of virtual tools usability, subjective norm, perceived
Additional information about how those wide differences in attitudes
behavioural control, and age
toward metaverse gaming may be explained by TPB is found in the
regional differences we observed on our findings. Social gaming orien-
The study next evaluated the contingent effects of the proposed
tation is an emerging and important determinant of attitudes in South
moderators on the direct effects of orientation for social gaming, play-to-
India. That is likely due to relatives of foreign footprints such as French,
earn orientation, flexibility gaming and mixed reality orientation for
Portuguese and British colonial legacies have embedded stronger social
attitude for metaverse gaming. The moderation effects were evaluated
and collectivistic values (Dheer et al., 2015). Collectivism and education
using Process Macro 4.2 (Hayes, 2017) in SPSS 27, after due mean
(high educational attainment) orientation within Indian culture (Desai
centring to alleviate any potential presence of multicollinearity. As
& Kulkarni, 2008) may be responsible for the assertiveness of social
shown in Table 6 placed in Appendix-1 at the end of this manuscript,
gaming as a critical attitude driver. The subjective norms component of
most of the moderators has a significant effect on the direct paths,
TPB—that is, the perceived social pressures to perform a behavior—can
suggesting several implications.
also explain why social gaming exerts such an influence in this case. The
social acceptability of gaming as a group activity, and the subsequent
Discussion reinforcement effect, further strengthens attitudes towards metaverse
gaming in South India (Ajzen, 1991).
Gen-Z, as digital natives who have grown up with technology sur- On the other hand, social gaming is a shaper of attitude in East India
rounding them from day one, seem likely to be direction-setting in- only when there is no flexibility to play; when it is possible to be flexible
fluences in the orientation of metaverse gaming towards the future. with gameplay in this region, then flexibility becomes the more
Studies do not hide the fact that metaverse is becoming the most important predictor of attitude compared to social gaming. The later
promising technology (Buhalis et al., 2023; Hennig-Thurau et al., 2023). part is in accordance to an individualistic, self governed culture that
More recent studies have begun to explore the applications of the met- appreciates personal freedom for each and everyone, and the ability to
averses in marketing, advertising, education and virtual experiences customize experience. This finding can be explained theoretically by
(Barrera & Shah, 2023; Nguyen, 2024). Despite this, a large knowledge TPB’s concept of perceived behavioral control (PBC)—the degree to
gap exists around the specific metaverse traits that help contextualise which people believe they can perform a behavior. We find that atti-
gaming-related attitudes. While a number of researchers have employed tudes toward metaverse gaming are more positive in the environments
the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to examine metaverse adop- where people feel empowered to personalize their own gaming experi-
tion and provide theoretical constructs affecting gamer acceptance ences. An even lower generalised influence of social gaming orientation
(Davis,1989; Wu & Yu, 2023), our study incorporates the Theory of in the East may be because individualistic cultures tend to attach less
Planned Behavior (TPB) unlike many others as well to shed light on how importance to collective activities and a more significant focus on per-
attitudes and behavioral intentions relate over time when it comes to sonal agency and control, which is important for forming perceptions
metaverse gaming. when PBC is high (Ajzen, 1991).
Based on our framework, orientations toward social gaming, play-to- In line with the prediction of the TPB framework, our study also
earn models, flexibility in gaming and mixed reality experiences are provides further evidence that positive attitudes have a strong impact on
identified as the key antecedents influencing attitudes toward metaverse behavioral intentions. The relationship between attitude and behavioral
gaming. We can interpret these findings well using the Theory of Plan- intention is strong across both regions, demonstrating that metaverse
ned Behavior. As TPB postulates, attitudes are formed from a combi- gaming can be rewarding and fun helps to create intentional engage-
nation of behavioral beliefs concerning the likely consequences of ment. This finding agrees with the core idea of TPB that attitudes defined
performing a behaviour and the evaluation or desirability of these out- by beneficial beliefs about consequences ultimately lead to intentions to
comes. Mindsets about mixed reality and play-to-earn gaming have the engage in the behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Through this lens of gaming ori-
big impact on positive attitudes in our analysis — natural for Gen-Z entations, we highlight the importance of specific attributes such as
people who prefer experience, engagement, and even sale with some

9
S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

mixed-reality and play-to-earn models that are especially attractive to gamers, which directly affects attitudes. Likewise, the orientation of
Gen-Z. The Mixed Reality attraction would be a new experience — mixed reality is conducted in terms of immersive digital experiences
maybe an even better one than the standard game. At the same time, the affecting players enjoyment and engagement. Focusing on these two
play-to-earn model aligns with the entrepreneurial spirit of Gen-Z who orientations allows one to place some order and clarity on TPB
are earning real rewards and incentives, which only drives positive framework in terms of evaluating attitudinal influences that support
perceptions further. intention to behave.
Results further show the moderating roles of VR tools usability, Second, subjective norms — the assumed social pressures and ex-
subject norm, PBC, and ages. Based on the above, TPB highlights that pectations others impose on digital natives to engage in metaverse
external factors can strengthen or buffer the relationship between atti- gaming — play an important role in understanding metaverse
tudes and behavioral intentions. For instance, the usability of VR tools gaming behavior. It also accounts for how peer dynamics and social
acts as a significant moderator and strengthens the impact of orienta- norms may encourage or inhibit people from engaging in metaverse
tions to social gaming, play-to-earn model, and mixed reality on atti- spaces. Social gaming orientation, for example, is more specifically
tudes. This demonstrates how technological ease and familiarity revealed by the ways in which expectations from friends and gaming
increases perceived behavioral control, which is accompanied by more communities influence player choices.
positive attitudes and intentions. The finding that ease of use of VR tools
raises confidence to participate in metaverse gaming further integrates Finally, perceived behavioral control focuses on the control people
with the TPB notion since greater perceived control leads to higher in- have over engaging in metaverse gaming (e.g., through facilitators and
tentions (Ajzen, 1991). barriers affecting gamers’ ability to play in the metaverse). The extent to
Another core TPB component, subjective norms, also has an impor- which VR tools are usable and players are familiar with the technology
tant role in moderating social and mixed reality orientations. In areas determines whether they feel empowered to play. TPB explains this by
such as South India, where communal values are particularly potent, including this construct to indicate that different degrees of perceived
peer effects and social norms may strengthen the link between (upper control affects attitudes and intention. In summary, the TPB capture
class) orientations and attitudes. In East India, individual preferences human behavior complexity and better reflects metaverse gaming
and autonomy seem to rank higher so subjective norms do not play a context; its insights are valuable for theory-building and practice.
dominant role. This change draws attention to the role of cultural We fairly contribute to theoretical development by presenting an
context in moderating social pressure intensity and its attitude forma- empirical provision between the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and
tion impact (Ajzen, 1991; Dheer et al., 2015). relevant gaming orientations in the metaverse, whilst focusing on how
This study also examines moderating effects of perceived behavioral these orientations feed into Gen-Z attitudes and behavioral intentions.
control. An example of this is PBC increasing the moderating effect of This theoretical contribution stems from a focus on the largely ignored
gaming orientations on attitudes in contexts where individuals experi- direct antecedents of metaverse gaming attitudes, as well as the agenda-
ence higher levels of liberty and control (such as in flexible gaming setting impact of differential dimensions mediating cultural/de-
situations). This is even in line with the TPB claim that perceived mographic status and metaverse gaming intention differences.
behaviour control strengthens attitudes and intentions towards a Our integration of TPB with new medical orientations—social
particular behavior (Ajzen, 1991). An actual-age also moderates the gaming, play-to-earn models, flexibility and mixed reality—enhances
links between gaming orientations and attitudes; younger adults differ the theory by explaining human behavior in a digital age. According to
in preferences and inclinations compared with older ones. These factors TPB, intentions are predicted by attitudes, subjective norms and
contribute to strengthening the gaming generation gap, as generations perceived behavioral control (PBC) (Ajzen, 1991). We empirically shed
that are more accustomed to digital and virtual environments – younger light onto how the theoretical constructs drive attitude towards meta-
generations – become more favorable to mixed reality and social verse gaming in Gen-Z which we further augment with novel insights
gaming. based on data from different cultural regions in surging India. Our re-
Therefore, our research expands the use of TPB in metaverse gaming sults show, in particular, that social gaming and mixed reality experi-
contexts by demonstrating the effect of orientations toward different ences have strong effects on attitudes, consistent with TPB distinctions
types of gaming experiences on attitudes and behavioral intentions. This between attitudinal beliefs about behaviors and perceived outcomes.
has huge practical implications, as businesses can use this information to This empirical knowledge regarding the determinants of attitudes is
develop marketing and engagement strategies that will appeal to Gen-Z. consonant with the theoretical proposition that beliefs about the prob-
Knowledge of the theory of attitudes and intentions can help companies able consequences (called outcome evaluations) of a behavior and their
develop targeted campaigns and immersive experiences to deliver a evaluation exert influence on attitudes. Our findings that Gen-Z finds
strong orientation toward their conjunctions, helping them succeed in mixed reality and play-to-earn models to be essential for the metaverse
this booming metaverse economy. are consistent with TPB, which emphasizes the importance of behavioral
In the subsequent sections below, we discuss the specific implica- outcome expectancies (i.e., perceptual benefits that a metaverse player
tions of this study to the theory, policy, and practice. gets when one engage in an experience) especially when that engage-
ment is immersive or incentivized with rewards. These orientations
Implications for theory create positive attitudes, which supports Ajzen (1991) claim that people
will be more likely to perform behaviors for which they anticipate
The constructs of the theory of planned behavior (TPB) framework, positive consequences. In doing so, we deepen the application of TPB
which consists of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral (alongside the literature focusing on experience-based belief anteced-
control, are uniquely positioned to explore the complex behavioral nu- ents) to digital gaming contexts by demonstrating empirically that these
ances of metaverse gaming among digital natives. More specifically, the beliefs concerning metaverse gaming consequences are a significant
framework helps in examining how social gaming orientation, play-to- predictor for attitudes.
earn orientation, flexibility orientation and mixed reality experience We also discuss subjective norms and perceived behavioral control in
orientation affects players attitude and behavioral intention. response to cultural influences, reflected in attitudes and behavioral
intentions. And finally, in South India social gaming has a huge influ-
First, TPB enables a comprehensive analysis of how such orientations ence on attitudes because of strong subjective norms stemming from a
relate to attitudes (i.e., positive or negative) toward metaverse collectivist culture and historical foreign influences (Dheer et al., 2015).
gaming. As an example, the play-to-earn model deals with economic This is in line with TPB that social pressures to conform can affect the
incentives, creating perceptions around financial reward among formation of an employee’s attitude and behavioral intention. This

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

validation of a theoretical connection between subjective norms and cryptocurrencies involved in these models, they are open to exploitation
behavior in the TPB is consistent with gaming being viewed as an and fraud but that needs comprehensive consumer protection. This
acceptable activity to engage in objective trends related to community might involve policies centered around secure transaction processing,
reinforcement of normative values. The emphasis on collective (fam- mandatory disclosures, and the imposition of stringent rules on virtual
ily/caste) experiences that have cultivated grievances or fostered a sense asset trading to safeguard users — especially the under 18 demographic.
of belonging in South India (Desai & Kulkarni, 2008) similarly highlights Bridging the digital divide is just as necessary. With the metaverse
how high educational attainment is shaped by other contextual factors more crucial within the digital economy, lack of access to technology
as well. spells disaster for underserved communities. Policymakers must allocate
On the other hand regarding East India individuals preference for resources to roll out broader access to the internet as well as subsidizing
flexibility in gaming this connects with PBC, as it represents individuals VR and AR technologies, if only to prepare for greater participation in
beliefs for their capability to carry out a behaviour. When autonomy is the metaverse by more segments of society. The imperatives include
highlighted, we show with our data that flexibility within gaming en- affordable and widespread broadband, especially in rural and lesser-
vironments increases a sense of perceived control, leading towards developed regions of the world. Such programs that subsidize or
favorable attitudes. This theoretical insight advances TPB with a vali- exempt technology, including a computer or a smartphone, help further
dation to explain how cultural contexts influence perceived behavioral democratize access. Furthermore, as more immersive technologies are
control, thereby impacting attitudes toward behaviors such as metaverse used for sporting and mixed reality play, there needs to be a push to-
gaming. The individualism orientation associated with East India may wards low-cost easy classroom programs. These might be in VR and AR
be particularly appropriate for determining the significance of PBC, skills, eyeing the future workforce of sorting out job markets on these
emphasizing independence and personal orientation. As a result, our grounds.
findings not only support the importance of TPB but also extend it by
connecting cultural influence to theoretical constructs. Implications for practice in commercial contexts
Moreover, by demonstrating that external factors such as VR tools As the metaverse also presents game developers with significant
usability, age and subjective norms moderate the relationships between commercial opportunities, there are multiple ways that the insights from
gaming orientations and attitudes, our moderation analysis provides our study could be used to better engage Gen-Z with gaming experiences
further theoretical contributions. The finding, for example, that in the metaverse. Developers need to appropriately craft their games
perceived VR tools usability enhances perceived behavioral control and based on Gen-Zs highly developed interest in social gaming, in-game
reinforces the effects of gaming orientations on attitudes demonstrates economies (i.e. play-to-earn), and a mixed reality environment. This
how technology can play a role in influencing digital behavior which has entails developing leading-edge virtual and augmented reality applica-
thus far received very little attention in the application of TPB. This new tions to design memorable and captivating experiences. Developers will
experiential perspective broadens the scope of existing literature on be able to offer features that make it easier for gamers to meet and
technological factors enhancing perceived control, as the latter is connect with people with whom they have common interests, for
highlighted in TPB’s focus on the importance of control beliefs for instance. Further, play-to-earn mechanisms with real rewards or in-
intention development. game cryptocurrencies can help preserve younger users by taking
Gaming orientations and attitudes are also age rated, suggesting a advantage of their entrepreneurial spirit and desire to receive services
generational effect where younger youth are more likely to respond with value.
positively to innovations such as mixed reality. It further expands the Furthermore, marketing teams can use the age-specific mechanisms
theory by arguing that different generations can alter and change the revealed in our study to inform marketing targeting. The key de-
value of TPB constructs in its effect on behavior. By providing empirical mographic for developers will be those aged 16-22, according to find-
evidence of how digitally ready and preferences change by age our study ings, as users in this group are not only the heaviest users of metaverse
elucidates the value actioning TPB affords across demographic cohorts. gaming, but also hold the most positive views of it as well. Focusing
game content with demographic-specific chronology can result in
Implications greater marketing success and lower user dropout. Autonomy and
Flexibility — Incorporate design elements that will appeal to people who
Implications for policy and societal effects want to do it their way while playing games, such as customization and
The metaverse will be ever attractive to Gen-Z and its arrival poses personal control. Gen-Z will definitely want personalized experiences
lots of challenges and opportunities for public policymakers to make that give them control over how, when and where they play so one can
sure they engage in an equitable and safe way. Finally, Gen-Z are digital be sure flexible gaming features will connect with them.
natives who live practically in the metaverse. Therefore, public policy Another actionable insight is the usability of the VR tools. Our results
must emphasize digital literacy and responsible online habits like always show the effect of VR technologies (Easy to Use-VR) in converting these
watching what one say. Built into school curricula, programs should be gaming orientations to facilitative attitudes. Keep the VR and AR tools as
designed so that students learn how to manage their privacy and secu- user-friendly as one could, so that the integration can take place without
rity, as well as how to protect themselves from online harms like many hiccups, providing a smooth experience while playing. This
cyberbullying or fraud. These measures are important as Gen-Z component of the usability is imperative because it enhances the
engagement with new gaming technologies increases. Instead, policy- perceived behavioral control of users allowing them to be more confi-
makers should focus on providing digital literacy for young people in dent and likely to partake in metaverse gaming. In an ever-evolving
these spaces so they can navigate them safely and confidently. digital gaming landscape, those who invest in intuitive interfaces and
Data privacy and protection are also big concerns, given that meta- accessible VR technology can gain a competitive advantage.
verse gaming platforms often process significant amounts of personal Also, developers must start doing educational and socially respon-
data. With this widespread use of personal data, comes the need for strict sible content. With increasing concerns around gaming addiction and
regulations that govern how data can be collected, stored and used by the ethics of virtual worlds, this will allow companies to stand apart
businesses — consumers should know what happens to their data, and from the crowd as they promote well-being and responsible gaming.
we need strong safeguards around this. In particular, there should be They can also partner with educational institutions to create programs
further regulation to prevent the exploitation of younger users and hold focused on digital literacy and metaverse skills, and in doing so serve the
gaming platforms to stricter data privacy practices. Additionally, poli- larger community. Also, variety in gaming & inclusive gaming content,
cymakers must develop longer-term frameworks to regulate financial development will make the metaverse attract multiple types of users,
transactions in play-to-earn gaming models. With real money and thus increase brand reputation & retain a customer base.

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

Limitations and future research Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to the rapidly changing, emergent
area of the metaverse, as games with the potential to transform learning,
While our research on the gaming behaviours of Gen Z and Millen- training, work, and play. Focusing on orientations such as social gaming,
nials from India highlights numerous facets of Metaverse gaming, it is play-to-earn, flexibility, and mixed reality, we show that these orienta-
important to note that the study has several limitations that future tions are positively associated with players’ attitude toward metaverse
research can address. First, our concentration on a single demography gaming, and that the relationship is even stronger for Gen Z and Mil-
presents the possibility that the findings do not capture the full range of lennials. As direct determinants of intention, attitudes inform whether
gaming behaviour exhibited by age groups and different cultures around enjoyment will be found by players in such immersive environments. In
the globe. This factor may contribute to poor generalizability of our conclusion, the study found VR tool usability, age, PBC, and SN to be
findings such that they cannot be applied to others. Second, the survey’s major moderators of gaming attitudes and behaviors, which emphasizes
design is cross-sectional, which poses several challenges, with the main the need for game design to match its users’ demands.
one being the inability of the researchers to assume causality among the For developers and marketers, these key findings provide actionable
variables. A longitudinal study would capture the trends more accu- insights on how to improve user engagement by focusing on de-
rately, thus providing a better picture of how attitudes and behaviour mographic specifics and building more inclusive gaming experiences. In
towards Metaverse evolve. Finally, the use of self-reported data is prone addition to play, metaverse gaming also has a wider societal impact with
to various biases, such as social desirability bias, recall bias, among applications that one will see in scientific research, education, and
other potential sources of errors that could affect the findings’ validity. immersive training. Considering usability preferences and moderating
And others may have been influential on individuals’ perceptions of factors will allow the gaming industry to dedicate themselves to a more
Metaverse gaming. Therefore, future studies should include these vari- practical and easier metaverse which will also be an essential part of the
ables or intervene to understand their impact. ready-to-go future.
Moreover, while we, as researchers, have tried to test several mod-
erators such as VR tool usability and subjective norms, we have not CRediT authorship contribution statement
accounted for technological literacy or financial aspects that may in-
fluence the users’ perception and engagement behaviours. Future per- Santanu Mandal: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Software,
spectives, however, must assess the broader demography, including the Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Ritesh
cultural impact of generational differences to generalise the findings. Kumar Dubey: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Software, Project
However, to comprehend these trends, such studies should be done administration, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Concep-
longitudinally to offer insights into the expanding nature of Metaverse tualization. Bhaskar Basu: Writing – review & editing, Supervision,
gaming and prevent the risk of several sources of errors, including recall Resources, Project administration, Investigation. Anubhav Tiwari:
and desirability. Moreover, the researchers should use experimental Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Software, Resources, Project
research to examine instrumental experiences that confirm robust administration, Investigation.
priming and integrate extended models to associate behavioural models
with the attitudes of using technology. Therefore, the investigation of a Declaration of competing interest
wide range of more moderators might influence the evaluation.
The authors have no competing or financial interests towards the
Conclusion development of this study.

This study contributes to academia and practice by applying the

Appendix-1

Table 3
Measurement model assessment.

Measurement Items (1¼ Loadings t- VIF Mean Std. Skew Kurt Loadings t- VIF Mean Std. Skew Kurt
strongly disagree, 7¼ values Dev. values Dev.
strongly agree)

​ South(N¼308) East(N¼256)
Orientation for Social ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Gaming
(Newly Developed) ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
South (308): Rho(a)-0.815, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.814, AVE=0.729
East(256): Rho(a)-0.871, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.868, AVE=0.792
I am interested to form 0.840 39.978 1.752 3.795 2.126 0.108 -1.376 0.883 54.187 2.098 3.652 2.111 0.228 -1.324
relationships with new
gamers in social gaming
provided by metaverse
I would like to compete with 0.853 47.289 1.740 3.825 2.005 0.150 -1.249 0.903 69.427 2.516 3.637 1.894 0.188 -1.194
others by inviting people
in metaverse gaming
As I enjoy making 0.870 64.129 1.953 3.776 1.953 0.204 -1.176 0.884 66.581 2.331 3.863 1.955 0.143 -1.204
connections, I would like
to explore social gaming in
the metaverse
(continued on next page)

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

Table 3 (continued )
Measurement Items (1¼ Loadings t- VIF Mean Std. Skew Kurt Loadings t- VIF Mean Std. Skew Kurt
strongly disagree, 7¼ values Dev. values Dev.
strongly agree)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Play to Earn Orientation ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
(Newly Developed) ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
South (308): Rho(a)-0.851, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.848, AVE=0.767
East(256): Rho(a)-0.835, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.834, AVE=0.751
I am interested in earning 0.857 48.243 1.925 3.633 1.952 0.204 -1.131 0.854 41.747 1.786 3.867 1.956 0.064 -1.108
through winning
challenges in metaverse
games
I would like engage in 0.867 47.905 2.036 3.766 2.024 0.085 -1.303 0.856 37.382 1.959 4.008 2.012 -0.107 -1.272
trading activities like
selling off assets in games
that I won and earn
I don’t want to miss out an 0.903 99.328 2.360 3.912 1.983 0.079 -1.196 0.890 67.307 2.236 4.195 2.000 -0.123 -1.210
opportunity to earn in the
metaverse as gaming is my
passion
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Flexibility Gaming ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Orientation
(Newly Developed) ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
South(308): Rho(a)-0.852, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.849, AVE=0.768
East(256): Rho(a)-0.831, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.821, AVE=0.736
I would like to add players in 0.859 52.821 1.921 3.734 2.029 0.258 -1.237 0.823 26.334 1.671 3.656 2.067 0.221 -1.265
the virtual world gaming
I would like to create 0.887 62.573 2.292 3.799 2.038 0.178 -1.219 0.885 56.910 1.978 3.715 2.024 0.191 -1.239
content of players in the
metaverse gaming
I would like to build sub- 0.884 74.490 2.087 4.010 2.060 -0.036 -1.306 0.866 41.511 1.979 3.672 2.152 0.198 -1.351
games within a game in
metaverse gaming
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Orientation for Mixed ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Reality Experience
(Newly Developed) ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
South(308): Rho(a)-0.782, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.777, AVE=0.691
East (256): Rho(a)-0.839, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.834, AVE=0.751
I would like to experience 0.805 28.662 1.558 3.656 2.054 0.230 -1.266 0.844 43.406 1.778 3.738 2.019 0.238 -1.219
the mixed reality provided
by the metaverse gaming
environment
I am excited to explore the 0.849 44.100 1.655 3.760 1.989 0.133 -1.266 0.873 49.818 2.105 3.789 2.028 0.173 -1.207
mixed reality experience
in metaverse gaming
I cant wait to try out the 0.840 42.622 1.602 3.799 2.149 0.154 -1.357 0.884 71.541 2.025 4.039 2.021 -0.082 -1.256
different mixed reality
experiences provided in
different metaverse games
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Attitude- Metaverse ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Gaming
(Developed from Ukenna & ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Ayodele, 2019)
South (308): Rho(a)-0.837, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.836, AVE=0.753
East(256): Rho(a)-0.828, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.827, AVE=0.743
I would prefer to try 0.863 47.041 2.005 3.932 1.962 -0.032 -1.186 0.875 49.366 2.031 3.977 1.956 -0.052 -1.202
metaverse gaming for its
unique experience
I would recommend others 0.882 62.606 2.158 4.042 2.050 -0.135 -1.307 0.879 58.715 2.115 4.086 2.047 -0.133 -1.296
to try metaverse gaming
I always suggest my friends 0.859 53.313 1.797 3.916 2.078 0.001 -1.318 0.832 36.864 1.674 3.871 2.055 0.036 -1.313
and peers to try out
metaverse gaming
I would request my closed ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
members to adopt and
(continued on next page)

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

Table 3 (continued )
Measurement Items (1¼ Loadings t- VIF Mean Std. Skew Kurt Loadings t- VIF Mean Std. Skew Kurt
strongly disagree, 7¼ values Dev. values Dev.
strongly agree)

encourage others for

metaverse gaming*
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
BI- Metaverse Gaming ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
(Developed from Ajzen, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
1991)
South (308): Rho(a)-0.889, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.883, AVE=0.810
East(256): Rho(a)-0.886, ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
alpha=0.879, AVE=0.805
Given an opportunity I 0.896 57.733 2.540 3.727 2.051 0.212 -1.276 0.889 47.854 2.420 3.582 2.006 0.299 -1.191
would like to try
metaverse gaming
I am ready to pay premium 0.901 81.264 2.596 3.854 2.023 0.146 -1.257 0.896 70.886 2.446 3.699 1.984 0.229 -1.191
to experience the
metaverse gaming
I would like to opt to explore 0.904 88.079 2.350 3.802 2.035 0.189 -1.250 0.908 91.633 2.419 3.703 1.988 0.260 -1.170
different facilities offered
by metaverse gaming
I am at times ready to pay ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
premium for extra
packaging that may be
save for the environment*

Table 4
Discriminant validity.

South (N: 308)

Discriminant Validity: Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio of Correlations (HTMT) (N¼308)

Construct Orient. Social Play to Earn Passion for Flexibility Orient. for Mixed Attitude- Meta. BI- Meta.
Gaming Orientation Gaming Reality Gaming Gaming
Orient. Social Gaming ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Play to Earn Orientation 0.778 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Passion for Flexibility 0.794 0.722 ​ ​ ​ ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality 0.734 0.543 0.635 ​ ​ ​
Attitude- Meta. Gaming 0.824 0.756 0.756 0.748 ​ ​
BI- Meta. Gaming 0.837 0.700 0.641 0.830 0.675 ​
Discriminant Validity: Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio of Correlations (HTMT2) (N¼308)
Construct Orient. Social Play to Earn Passion for Flexibility Orient. for Mixed Attitude- Meta. BI- Meta.
Gaming Orientation Gaming Reality Gaming Gaming
Orient. Social Gaming ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Play to Earn Orientation 0.776 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Passion for Flexibility 0.789 0.721 ​ ​ ​ ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality 0.732 0.542 0.628 ​ ​ ​
Attitude- Meta. Gaming 0.823 0.755 0.754 0.745 ​ ​
BI- Meta. Gaming 0.832 0.700 0.639 0.829 0.672 ​
Discriminant Validity: Fornell-Larcker Criterion (N¼308)

Construct Orient. Social Play to Earn Passion for Flexibility Orient. for Mixed Attitude- Meta. BI- Meta.
Gaming Orientation Gaming Reality Gaming Gaming

Orient. Social Gaming 0.730 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Play to Earn Orientation 0.421 0.768 ​ ​ ​ ​
Passion for Flexibility 0.436 0.375 0.769 ​ ​ ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality 0.344 0.195 0.266 0.691 ​ ​
Attitude- Meta. Gaming 0.466 0.409 0.409 0.367 0.754 ​
BI- Meta. Gaming 0.507 0.368 0.307 0.474 0.342 0.810
​ ​ East (N: 256) ​ ​ ​ ​
Discriminant Validity: Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio of Correlations (HTMT)
Construct Orient. Social Play to Earn Passion for Flexibility Orient. for Mixed Attitude- Meta. BI- Meta.
Gaming Orientation Gaming Reality Gaming Gaming

Orient. Social Gaming ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Play to Earn Orientation 0.546 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Passion for Flexibility 0.479 0.311 ​ ​ ​ ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality 0.786 0.731 0.571 ​ ​ ​
Attitude- Meta. Gaming 0.676 0.674 0.587 0.830 ​ ​
(continued on next page)

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

Table 4 (continued )
Construct Orient. Social Play to Earn Passion for Flexibility Orient. for Mixed Attitude- Meta. BI- Meta.
Gaming Orientation Gaming Reality Gaming Gaming

BI- Meta. Gaming 0.658 0.730 0.658 0.781 0.696 ​

Discriminant Validity: Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio of Correlations (HTMT2)

Construct Orient. Social Play to Earn Passion for Flexibility Orient. for Mixed Attitude- Meta. BI- Meta.
Gaming Orientation Gaming Reality Gaming Gaming

Orient. Social Gaming ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Play to Earn Orientation 0.546 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Passion for Flexibility 0.475 0.311 ​ ​ ​ ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality 0.785 0.731 0.568 ​ ​ ​
Attitude- Meta. Gaming 0.675 0.671 0.565 0.827 ​ ​
BI- Meta. Gaming 0.658 0.730 0.658 0.780 0.694 ​
Discriminant Validity: Fornell-Larcker Criterion

Construct Orient. Social Play to Earn Passion for Flexibility Orient. for Mixed Attitude- Meta. BI- Meta.
Gaming Orientation Gaming Reality Gaming Gaming

Orient. Social Gaming 0.792 ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Play to Earn Orientation 0.217 0.752 ​ ​ ​ ​
Passion for Flexibility 0.167 0.066 0.737 ​ ​ ​
Gaming
Orient. for Mixed Reality 0.445 0.373 0.224 0.752 ​ ​
Attitude- Meta. Gaming 0.330 0.313 0.239 0.480 0.744 ​
BI- Meta. Gaming 0.331 0.393 0.313 0.450 0.356 0.806

Table 6
Contingent effects summary.

Paths (South: N¼308) Path Coefficient SE t-value p-value ULCI LLCI Moderation?

Moderator: VR tools Usability ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

VR tools usability —–> Attitude - MG 0.525 0.040 13.059 0.000 0.446 0.604 ​
Social Gaming* VR tools usability —–> Attitude-MG 0.179 0.024 7.616 0.000 0.133 0.225 Yes
VR tools usability —–> Attitude - MG 0.492 0.044 11.138 0.000 0.040 0.578 ​
Play to Earn Orientation* VR tools usability —–> Attitude-MG 0.120 0.025 4.822 0.000 0.071 0.168 Yes
VR tools usability —–> Attitude - MG 0.532 0.036 14.605 0.000 0.460 0.604 ​
Flexibility Gaming * VR tools usability —–> Attitude-MG 0.131 0.019 6.899 0.000 0.094 0.169 Yes
VR tools usability —–> Attitude - MG 0.487 0.041 11.952 0.000 0.407 0.567 ​
Mixed Reality * VR tools usability —–> Attitude-MG 0.038 0.023 1.635 0.103 -0.008 0.083 Yes
VR tools usability —–> BI-MG -0.088 0.071 -1.238 0.217 -0.228 0.052 ​
ATT-MG * VR tools usability —–> BI-MG 0.024 0.031 0.771 0.442 -0.037 0.084 No
Moderator: Subjective Norm ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Subjective norm—–> Attitude - MG 0.564 0.037 15.310 0.000 0.492 0.637 ​
Social Gaming* Subjective Norm —–> Attitude-MG 0.150 0.021 7.183 0.000 0.109 0.191 Yes
Subjective norm—–> Attitude - MG 0.546 0.037 14.770 0.000 0.473 0.618 ​
Play to Earn Orientation* Subjective Norm —–> Attitude-MG 0.094 0.021 4.543 0.000 0.053 0.134 Yes
Subjective norm—–> Attitude - MG 0.543 0.035 15.671 0.000 0.475 0.611 ​
Flexibility Gaming * Subjective Norm —–> Attitude-MG 0.118 0.018 6.479 0.000 0.082 0.154 Yes
Subjective norm—–> Attitude - MG 0.526 0.037 14.185 0.000 0.453 0.599 ​
Mixed Reality * Subjective Norm —–> Attitude-MG 0.023 0.021 1.104 0.271 -0.018 0.065 No
Subjective norm—–> BI-MG 0.134 0.067 2.014 0.045 0.003 0.266 ​
ATT-MG * Subjective Norm —–> BI-MG 0.017 0.028 0.592 0.554 -0.039 0.072 No
Moderator: Perceived Behavioural Control ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude - MG 0.322 0.035 9.108 0.000 0.253 0.392 ​
Social Gaming* Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude-MG -0.059 0.021 -2.837 0.005 -0.099 -0.018 Yes
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude - MG 0.276 0.041 6.703 0.000 0.195 0.357 ​
Play to Earn Orientation* Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude-MG -0.048 0.023 -2.096 0.037 -0.094 -0.003 Yes
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude - MG 0.314 0.038 8.160 0.000 0.238 0.389 ​
Flexibility Gaming * Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude-MG 0.036 0.021 1.705 0.089 -0.006 0.078 Yes
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude - MG 0.392 0.034 11.585 0.000 0.326 0.459 ​
Mixed Reality * Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude-MG -0.126 0.020 -6.395 0.000 -0.165 -0.088 Yes
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> BI-MG -0.158 0.051 -3.081 0.002 -0.259 -0.057 ​
ATT-MG * Perceived Behavioural Control —–> BI-MG -0.038 0.025 -1.526 0.128 -0.087 0.011 No
Moderator: Age ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Age —–> Attitude - MG 0.313 0.633 4.944 0.000 1.883 4.372 ​
Social Gaming* Age —–> Attitude-MG -0.675 0.159 -4.242 0.000 -0.988 -0.362 Yes
Age —–> Attitude - MG 2.687 0.441 6.090 0.000 1.819 3.556 ​
Play to Earn Orientation* Age —–> Attitude-MG -0.361 0.108 -3.354 0.001 -0.572 -0.149 Yes
Age —–> Attitude - MG 3.468 0.520 6.674 0.000 2.446 4.491 ​
Flexibility Gaming * Age —–> Attitude-MG -0.547 0.119 -4.605 0.000 -0.781 -0.313 Yes
Age —–> Attitude - MG 3.338 0.398 8.393 0.000 2.555 4.120 ​
Mixed Reality * Age —–> Attitude-MG -0.513 0.101 -5.080 0.000 -0.712 -0.314 Yes
Age —–> BI-MG 3.828 0.425 9.005 0.000 2.992 4.665 ​
(continued on next page)

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S. Mandal et al. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge 10 (2025) 100632

Table 6 (continued )
Paths (South: N¼308) Path Coefficient SE t-value p-value ULCI LLCI Moderation?

ATT-MG * Age —–> BI-MG -0.319 0.095 -3.349 0.001 -0.506 -0.131 Yes
Age: G1 < 22 years, G2> 22 years ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Paths (East: N¼256) Path Coefficient SE t p ULCI LLCI Moderation?
Moderator: VR tools Usability ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
VR tools usability —–> Attitude - MG 0.602 0.046 13.063 0.000 0.511 0.693 ​
Social Gaming* VR tools usability —–> Attitude-MG 0.135 0.025 5.318 0.000 0.085 0.185 Yes
VR tools usability —–> Attitude - MG 0.594 0.046 13.069 0.000 0.505 0.684 ​
Play to Earn Orientation* VR tools usability —–> Attitude-MG 0.073 0.027 2.758 0.006 0.021 0.125 Yes
VR tools usability —–> Attitude - MG 0.691 0.052 13.215 0.000 0.588 0.794 ​
Flexibility Gaming * VR tools usability —–> Attitude-MG 0.101 0.029 3.446 0.001 0.043 0.159 Yes
VR tools usability —–> Attitude - MG 0.522 0.047 11.202 0.000 0.431 0.614 ​
Mixed Reality * VR tools usability —–> Attitude-MG 0.119 0.026 4.657 0.000 0.069 0.169 Yes
VR tools usability —–> BI-MG 0.293 0.074 3.952 0.000 0.147 0.439 ​
ATT-MG * VR tools usability —–> BI-MG 0.070 0.030 2.340 0.020 0.011 0.129 Yes
Moderator: Subjective Norm ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Subjective norm—–> Attitude - MG 0.726 0.038 19.021 0.000 0.651 0.802 ​
Social Gaming* Subjective Norm —–> Attitude-MG 0.069 0.021 3.255 0.001 0.027 0.110 Yes
Subjective norm—–> Attitude - MG 0.706 0.034 20.749 0.000 0.639 0.773 ​
Play to Earn Orientation* Subjective Norm —–> Attitude-MG 0.018 0.019 0.940 0.348 -0.020 0.056 No
Subjective norm—–> Attitude - MG 0.785 0.041 19.317 0.000 0.705 0.865 ​
Flexibility Gaming * Subjective Norm —–> Attitude-MG 0.005 0.023 0.208 0.836 -0.040 0.049 No
Subjective norm—–> Attitude - MG 0.640 0.039 16.243 0.000 0.563 0.718 ​
Mixed Reality * Subjective Norm —–> Attitude-MG 0.049 0.021 2.288 0.023 0.007 0.091 Yes
Subjective norm—–> BI-MG 0.268 0.091 2.957 0.003 0.089 0.445 ​
ATT-MG * Subjective Norm —–> BI-MG -0.008 0.035 -0.228 0.820 -0.077 0.061 No
Moderator: Perceived Behavioural Control ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude - MG 0.097 0.048 2.015 0.045 0.002 0.191 ​
Social Gaming* Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude-MG 0.062 0.026 2.350 0.020 0.010 0.113 Yes
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude - MG 0.181 0.047 3.827 0.000 0.088 0.274 ​
Play to Earn Orientation* Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude-MG -0.082 0.028 -2.982 0.003 -0.136 -0.028 Yes
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude - MG 0.082 0.052 1.557 0.121 -0.022 0.185 ​
Flexibility Gaming * Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude-MG 0.013 0.030 0.444 0.658 -0.046 0.073 No
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude - MG 0.113 0.042 2.710 0.007 0.031 0.196 ​
Mixed Reality * Perceived Behavioural Control —–> Attitude-MG 0.072 0.025 2.913 0.004 0.023 0.120 Yes
Perceived Behavioural Control —–> BI-MG -0.149 0.050 -3.006 0.003 -0.246 -0.051 ​
ATT-MG * Perceived Behavioural Control —–> BI-MG 0.007 0.027 0.250 0.803 -0.047 0.060 No
Moderator: Age ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Age —–> Attitude - MG 1.683 0.590 2.826 0.005 0.521 2.845 ​
Social Gaming* Age —–> Attitude-MG -0.246 0.126 -1.961 0.051 -0.494 0.001 Yes
Age —–> Attitude - MG 1.589 1.053 1.510 0.132 -0.484 3.662 ​
Play to Earn Orientation* Age —–> Attitude-MG -0.229 0.201 -1.142 0.255 -0.624 0.166 No
Age —–> Attitude - MG 2.916 0.442 6.604 0.000 2.047 3.786 ​
Flexibility Gaming * Age —–> Attitude-MG -0.448 0.105 -4.279 0.000 -0.654 -0.242 Yes
Age —–> Attitude - MG 2.580 0.865 2.983 0.003 0.876 4.284 ​
Mixed Reality * Age —–> Attitude-MG -0.500 0.170 -2.946 0.004 -0.833 -0.166 Yes
Age —–> BI-MG 4.430 0.658 6.729 0.000 3.133 5.726 ​
ATT-MG * Age —–> BI-MG -0.715 0.134 -5.325 0.000 -0.980 -0.451 Yes
Age: G1 < 22 years, G2> 22 years ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

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