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 UNIT–I
Introduction: Concept of AI, history, current status, scope, agents, environments, Problem
Formulations, Review of tree and graph structures, State space representation, Search graph
and
Search tree

Great! We'll begin with UNIT–I: Introduction to Artificial Intelligence.

✅ Part 1 – Concept of AI, History, Current Status, and Scope

📘 1. Concept of AI (Artificial Intelligence)
Definition:
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the branch of computer science that aims to create systems or machines that
can perform tasks that normally require human intelligence. These tasks include reasoning, learning,
problem-solving, perception, and language understanding.

Key Points:

AI simulates human cognitive functions.

It enables machines to make decisions, adapt to new inputs, and solve complex problems.

AI can be embedded in software, robots, and other automated systems.

Example:

Virtual assistants like Siri or Alexa respond to voice commands.

Self-driving cars use AI to navigate and make real-time decisions.

📘 2. History of AI
Milestones:

1. 1950 – Alan Turing's Test:

Turing proposed the idea of machine intelligence with the famous Turing Test to see if a machine can
exhibit human-like intelligence.
2. 1956 – Dartmouth Conference:
AI was formally introduced as a field of study.

3. 1960s–1970s – Early AI Programs:

Systems like ELIZA (a chatbot) and expert systems began to emerge.

4. 1980s – Knowledge-based Systems:

AI research focused on rule-based systems and logic.

5. 1997 – Deep Blue vs. Garry Kasparov:

IBM’s Deep Blue defeated the world chess champion.
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 6. 2010s – Machine Learning Revolution:
Rise of neural networks, deep learning, and AI in real-world applications.

7. 2020s – AI in daily life:

AI powers healthcare diagnostics, finance algorithms, language translation, etc.

📘 3. Current Status of AI
AI is now widely used across industries like healthcare, finance, manufacturing, education, and
transportation.

Technologies such as Machine Learning (ML), Natural Language Processing (NLP), and
Computer Vision are leading the advancements.
Ethical concerns and biases in AI are growing areas of research and debate.

AI systems are becoming more autonomous, but human oversight remains important.

📘 4. Scope of AI
Applications:

Healthcare: Diagnosis, treatment planning, drug discovery.

Finance: Fraud detection, algorithmic trading.

Robotics: Automation in factories, self-driving cars.

Customer Service: Chatbots, virtual assistants.

Gaming: Intelligent opponents.

Education: Personalized learning platforms.

Future Directions:

General AI vs Narrow AI

Explainable AI
AI in governance and public services

Human-AI collaboration

📌 Key Takeaways – Part 1

AI is the science of making machines think and act like humans.
It has a rich history, starting from Turing’s concept to today’s machine learning advancements.

AI’s scope is vast and expanding across industries.

Ethical and governance challenges are critical areas as AI evolves.

Let me know if you want me to proceed to the next part on Agents, Environments, and Problem
Formulations, or if you want further clarification on this part. Reply with Next, Yes, or Continue to

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proceed.

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 Yes

✅ Part 2 – Agents, Environments, and Problem Formulations

📘 1. Intelligent Agents
Definition:
An Intelligent Agent is an entity that perceives its environment through sensors and acts upon that
environment using actuators to achieve its goals.

Components of an Agent:

1. Sensors:
Devices or methods used to gather information from the environment.
Example: Camera, microphone, temperature sensors.
2. Actuators:
Mechanisms used to perform actions based on the agent’s decisions.
Example: Motors, speakers, screens.

3. Agent Function:
Maps the history of percepts (inputs) to actions.
4. Agent Program:
Implementation of the agent function, typically using algorithms or logic.

Example – Self-Driving Car as an Agent:

Sensors: Cameras, LiDAR, GPS.

Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake.
Agent Function: Maps sensor data to safe driving actions.

Goal: Safely navigate from point A to B.

📘 2. Types of Agents
Type Characteristics Example
Simple Reflex Agent Acts only on current percept Light controller
Model-based Agent Maintains an internal state based on history Robot vacuum

Goal-based Agent Uses goal information to make decisions Chess AI

Utility-based Agent Chooses actions to maximize a performance measure Recommendation systems
Learning Agent Improves its performance through learning Spam filters

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📘 3. Environment
Definition:
The environment is everything external to the agent that it interacts with and senses.

Properties of an Environment:

1. Fully Observable vs Partially Observable:

Fully Observable → Agent has access to complete information.

Partially Observable → Information is incomplete or noisy.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
Deterministic → Actions have predictable outcomes.

Stochastic → Outcomes are probabilistic.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:
Episodic → Each action is independent.

Sequential → Current action affects future decisions.

4. Static vs Dynamic:
Static → Environment does not change while the agent thinks.

Dynamic → Environment can change during computation.

5. Discrete vs Continuous:
Discrete → Finite number of states.

Continuous → Infinite states or smooth transitions.

📘 4. Problem Formulation
AI solves tasks by formulating them as problems.

A problem formulation defines:

1. Initial state: The starting condition.

2. Actions: Possible moves or choices.

3. Transition model: Rules that define what each action does.

4. Goal test: Conditions that determine when the task is complete.

5. Path cost: Numerical cost associated with each action sequence.

Example – Maze Navigation Problem:

Initial state: The agent starts at cell (0,0).

Actions: Move up, down, left, or right.

Transition model: Moves to adjacent cells if not blocked.

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 Goal test: Reach the target cell (4,4).

Path cost: Each move counts as 1.

📘 5. Formulating Real-life Problems

Robot planning → Map, obstacles, battery life.
Scheduling → Tasks, constraints, deadlines.

Game playing → Rules, opponent moves, winning strategies.

Problem formulation helps in designing algorithms and efficient search methods.

📌 Key Takeaways – Part 2

An intelligent agent perceives and acts to achieve goals using sensors and actuators.

Different types of agents are designed based on the complexity of tasks.

The environment defines the context and challenges an agent faces.

AI problems are structured by defining initial states, actions, rules, goals, and costs.

If you're ready, reply with Next, Yes, or Continue and I’ll move on to Review of Tree and Graph
Structures, State Space Representation, Search Graph, and Search Tree.

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 yes

✅ Part 3 – Review of Tree and Graph Structures, State Space Representation, Search Graph, and
Search Tree

📘 1. Tree Structure
Definition:
A tree is a hierarchical data structure consisting of nodes connected by edges, with one node designated
as the root. It has no cycles and every node except the root has exactly one parent.

Key Properties of Trees:

One root node.

Every node can have zero or more child nodes.

No cycles → you cannot go back to the same node.

Used to represent choices, decisions, or sequences.

Example – Simple Tree:

mathematica

A
/ \
B C
/ \ / \
D E F G

Root = A

Leaves = D, E, F, G

Branches represent decisions or pathways.

📘 2. Graph Structure
Definition:
A graph is a set of nodes (vertices) connected by edges. Unlike trees, graphs can have cycles, multiple
paths between nodes, and nodes with multiple parents.

Types of Graphs:

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 Undirected Graph: Edges have no direction.
Example: A ↔ B

Directed Graph (Digraph): Edges have direction.

Example: A → B

Example – Directed Graph:

mathematica

A → B → C
↓ ↑
D → E

Allows cycles and loops.

Useful in representing networks, relationships, and state transitions.

📘 3. State Space Representation

Definition:
A state space is the set of all possible configurations or states that an agent can be in during problem
solving.

Each node in the state space represents a possible state, and the edges represent transitions from one
state to another.

Example – 8-Puzzle Problem:

States are all possible arrangements of tiles.

Initial state:

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 _

Goal state:

1 2 3
4 5 6
_ 7 8

Actions: Move the blank space in one of four directions.

The state space is a graph where each state connects to others via legal moves.

📘 4. Search Graph and Search Tree

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✅ Search Tree
Generated dynamically during the search process.

Starts from the initial state and expands into child nodes.
Does not necessarily store repeated states.

Example:

markdown

Start → Move1 → Move2

↘ Move3

✅ Search Graph
Contains all states and tracks where states are revisited.

Helps avoid redundant exploration.

Used in advanced algorithms like uniform cost search.

📘 Comparison Between Tree and Graph Search

Aspect Search Tree Search Graph

Structure Expands without tracking repeats Tracks visited states

Memory Usage Less memory initially More memory due to tracking

Redundancy May explore same state multiple times Avoids revisiting states
Efficiency Simple but inefficient More efficient in complex problems

📌 Key Takeaways – Part 3

Trees are acyclic hierarchical structures, while graphs allow cycles and multiple connections.
State space represents all possible states the agent may encounter.

Search trees are built on-the-fly, whereas search graphs track all explored states.

Understanding these structures is crucial for designing efficient AI search algorithms.

Reply with Next, Yes, or Continue when you’re ready for the next part on Search Graph and Search
Tree elaboration, algorithms, and examples (or if you want this part extended). Let me know how
you’d like to proceed!

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 yes

✅ Part 4 – Search Graph & Search Tree: Algorithms, Examples, and Concepts
📘 1. Importance of Search in AI
Most AI problems are solved by searching through a space of possible states to find a solution path from
the initial state to the goal state.
Search algorithms help:

Explore possible moves or decisions.

Find optimal or feasible solutions.

Avoid unnecessary computation through intelligent exploration.

📘 2. Search Tree – How It Works

A search tree starts from the initial state and branches out by applying possible actions.

Example – Path Finding Problem:

Initial State = A
Goal State = G

mathematica

A
├── B
│ ├── D
│ └── E
└── C
├── F
└── G

Starting at A → Expand possible moves to B and C.

From B → Expand D and E.

From C → Expand F and G.

The goal is found at node G.

The tree keeps expanding until the goal is reached.

📘 3. Search Graph – Handling Repeated States

In complex problems like puzzles or mazes, multiple paths can lead to the same state.

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Example:

mathematica

A → B → C
↓ ↑
D → E

State E can be reached from both D and B → C path.

A search graph keeps track of already visited states to avoid cycles and redundant computations.

📘 4. Search Strategies
✅ Uninformed (Blind) Search
The agent has no additional information about how close it is to the goal.

1. Breadth-First Search (BFS):

Explores all nodes at the current depth before moving deeper.
Guarantees the shortest path in uniform cost problems.

2. Depth-First Search (DFS):

Explores as far as possible along one branch before backtracking.
Uses less memory but may not find the shortest path.

3. Uniform Cost Search:

Expands nodes based on the lowest path cost.
Suitable for weighted graphs.

✅ Informed (Heuristic) Search

The agent uses domain knowledge to make better decisions.

1. Greedy Best-First Search:

Uses heuristic function h(n) estimating distance to goal.

Picks nodes that seem closest to the goal.

2. A Search:*
Combines actual path cost g(n) and heuristic h(n).

Chooses nodes with the lowest f(n) = g(n) + h(n).

Guarantees optimality if h(n) is admissible.

📘 5. Example – BFS vs DFS

Graph:

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 mathematica

A → B → D
│ ↓
└→ C → E

BFS Traversal:
A→B→C→D→E

DFS Traversal (one possible path):

A→B→D→C→E

BFS finds the shortest path first.

DFS may go deep into one branch before checking others.

📘 6. State Space Representation Example – 8 Puzzle

States represent tile arrangements.
Actions: Move the blank space (up/down/left/right).
Goal test: All tiles in order.

Search graph tracks states visited to avoid cycles.

BFS ensures reaching the solution with the least moves.

📘 7. Tree vs Graph Search – Which to Use?

Problem Type Suitable Approach
Simple puzzles Tree Search

Complex mazes Graph Search

Weighted paths Uniform Cost or A*
Real-time decisions Heuristic-based search

📌 Key Takeaways – Part 4

Search trees explore paths without tracking duplicates, while search graphs avoid revisiting states.

BFS and DFS are foundational algorithms with different advantages.

Heuristic methods like A* improve efficiency using domain knowledge.

State space and search strategies are essential for problem-solving in AI.

If you’re ready, reply with Next, Yes, or Continue and I’ll move on to the next part or elaborate further
with examples and diagrams. Let me know how you want to proceed!

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 yes

✅ Part 5 – Additional Concepts: State Space Representation, Search Tree & Graph – Algorithms,
Example Problems, and Diagrams

📘 1. How State Space is Built

The state space graph is built by expanding nodes starting from the initial state.

Step-by-step Process:

1. Identify the initial state.

2. Generate all possible actions.

3. Apply actions to create new states.
4. Repeat until the goal state is found or all possibilities are explored.

📘 2. Example – Water Jug Problem

Problem Statement:
You have two jugs:

Jug A with 4 liters capacity.

Jug B with 3 liters capacity.

You need to measure exactly 2 liters.

Initial State: (0,0) – both empty.

Goal State: (2, _ ) or (_ , 2).

Actions:

Fill either jug.

Empty either jug.

Pour one jug into another until one is empty or full.

State Space Diagram (Partial):

css

(0,0)
├─ Fill A → (4,0)
│ ├─ Pour A→B → (1,3)
│ └─ Empty A → (0,0)
├─ Fill B → (0,3)

├
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 ├─ Pour B→A → (3,0)
└─ Empty B → (0,0)

The problem can be solved by expanding possible states using actions.

Using BFS ensures finding the minimum number of steps.

📘 3. Example – 8 Puzzle State Space

Start:

1 2 3
4 _ 6
7 5 8

Goal:

1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 _

The state space size is factorial of 9 → 9! = 362,880 possible states.

Search algorithms must efficiently explore states and avoid redundant paths.

📘 4. Representation of State
Each state can be represented as:

A matrix for puzzles.

A node label in graphs.
A tuple or string for implementation.

Example – Jug State:

(4, 3), (2, 3), etc.
Example – Puzzle State:
"123406758"
This linear representation helps in tracking states efficiently.

📘 5. Search Tree Expansion Example

Initial State:

(0, 0)

Step 1: Fill A → (4, 0)

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Step 2: Pour A into B → (1, 3)

Step 3: Empty B → (1, 0)

Step 4: Pour A into B → (0, 1)

Continue expanding until the goal state is found.

📘 6. Cycle Handling in Search Graph

Sometimes, states can be revisited during search → creating cycles.

Example:
From (4,0), you might pour into B → (1,3), but later actions can return to (4,0).
Solution:

Keep a list of visited states.

Before expanding a node, check if it’s already visited.

This avoids infinite loops and improves efficiency.

📘 7. Heuristic Example – Manhattan Distance

In puzzles like the 8-puzzle, the heuristic function estimates how far a state is from the goal.

Manhattan Distance:
For each tile, calculate the distance from its current position to its goal position using row and column
differences.

Example:
Tile 5 in position (2,1) needs to go to (2,1) → distance 0.
Sum of distances for all tiles gives h(n), guiding algorithms like A*.

📘 8. Important Notes for Exams

✔ Always define the initial state, goal state, and available actions.
✔ Illustrate state space using diagrams for clarity.
✔ Understand when to use tree search vs graph search.
✔ Explain BFS and DFS with step-by-step examples.
✔ Know that heuristic functions improve search efficiency.
✔ Practice examples like the water jug and 8 puzzle to solidify concepts.
📌 Key Takeaways – Part 5
State space representation is crucial for solving AI problems.
Actions define how states transition from one to another.
Cycles must be handled to avoid redundant exploration.

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 Heuristic functions like Manhattan distance are widely used in informed search.
Real-world problems can be broken down systematically using state space graphs and search
trees.

If you’re ready to proceed, reply with Next, Yes, or Continue and I’ll move on to additional examples or
we can wrap up this unit’s first part. Let me know how you want to continue!

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 UNIT–II
Search Algorithms: Random search, Search with closed and open list, Depth first and Breadth
first search, Heuristic search, Best first search, A* algorithm, Game Search.

Perfect! We’ll now start with UNIT–II: Search Algorithms.

Let’s begin with Part 1 – Random Search and Search with Closed and Open Lists.

✅ Part 1 – Random Search, Search with Closed & Open Lists

📘 1. Random Search
Definition:
Random search is a search method where the agent selects actions randomly without using any
information about the goal or the path.

Key Characteristics:

No guidance or strategy.

Picks possible moves arbitrarily.

Can take a long time to reach the goal or may never find it.
Used when no knowledge about the problem structure is available.

Example – Random Walk in a Maze:

The agent starts at some point.

At each step, it randomly chooses one of the possible directions.
It continues moving until it reaches the goal.

pgsql

Start → move randomly → move randomly → goal found

This method is simple but inefficient.

📘 2. Search with Open and Closed Lists

To improve search algorithms, we use open lists and closed lists to manage explored and unexplored
states.

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✅ Open List:
Contains all nodes that are generated but not yet explored.

Nodes waiting to be expanded.

Often implemented as a queue or priority queue.

✅ Closed List:
Contains all nodes that have been visited and fully explored.
Prevents revisiting the same state.

Helps in detecting cycles and redundant paths.

How It Works:

1. Add the initial node to the open list.

2. While the open list is not empty:
Remove a node from the open list.

If it’s the goal → stop and return solution.

Else, expand it → generate successors.
For each successor:

If not in open or closed → add to open list.

If already in open/closed → ignore or update based on cost.

Move the current node to the closed list.

📘 Example – Simple Graph Search

mathematica

Graph:
A → B → D
│ ↓
└→ C → E

Process:

1. Open List = [A]

2. Expand A → add B, C → Open List = [B, C]

3. Expand B → add D → Open List = [C, D]

4. Expand C → add E → Open List = [D, E]

5. Expand D → goal reached.

Closed List: Keeps track of already expanded nodes.

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📘 Why Open & Closed Lists Matter
Avoids redundant work.

Prevents infinite loops in cyclic graphs.

Helps in memory and time-efficient searching.
Essential in both uninformed and informed search strategies.

📌 Key Takeaways – Part 1

✔ Random search is simple but inefficient for most problems.
✔ Open list stores nodes to be explored next; closed list stores explored nodes.
✔ Managing these lists prevents revisiting states and cycles.
✔ Most search algorithms use this structure to ensure correctness and efficiency.
If you’re ready, reply with Next, Yes, or Continue and I’ll proceed with Depth First Search and Breadth
First Search along with diagrams and examples. Let’s move forward!

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 yes

✅ Part 2 – Depth First Search (DFS) and Breadth First Search (BFS)
📘 1. Depth First Search (DFS)
Definition:
Depth First Search is a search algorithm that explores as far as possible along one branch before
backtracking to explore other branches.

Key Characteristics:

Uses stack data structure (can be implemented with recursion).

Explores deeper paths first.

May not find the shortest path.

Can get stuck in cycles if not managed with closed lists.

Algorithm Steps:

1. Start from the initial node.

2. Explore one child node fully before moving to the next.

3. If dead-end → backtrack to previous node.
4. Repeat until the goal is found or all nodes are visited.

Example – DFS on Graph

mathematica

Graph:
A → B → D
│ ↓
└→ C → E

DFS Traversal (one possible path):

A→B→D→C→E

✅ Advantages of DFS:
Uses less memory (only stores current path).

Simple to implement using recursion.

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 Suitable when solution paths are deep.

❌ Disadvantages:
May not find the shortest path.
Can get trapped in infinite loops without cycle checks.

📘 2. Breadth First Search (BFS)

Definition:
Breadth First Search is a search algorithm that explores all nodes at the current depth before going
deeper.

Key Characteristics:

Uses queue data structure.

Explores neighbors first before moving to next level.

Guaranteed to find the shortest path in an unweighted graph.

Algorithm Steps:

1. Start from the initial node.

2. Explore all neighboring nodes.

3. Add neighbors to the queue.

4. Expand nodes level by level until the goal is found.

Example – BFS on Graph

mathematica

Graph:
A → B → D
│ ↓
└→ C → E

BFS Traversal:
A→B→C→D→E

✅ Advantages of BFS:
Finds the shortest path (in uniform cost problems).
Complete – it will find a solution if one exists.

❌ Disadvantages:
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 Uses more memory to store all nodes at each level.
Slower for very deep graphs.

📘 3. Comparing DFS and BFS

Feature DFS BFS
Data Structure Stack / Recursion Queue

Memory Usage Lower (current path only) Higher (all neighbors)

Solution Quality May not be shortest Guaranteed shortest path
Completeness Not always Yes, if solution exists
Efficiency Fast for deep paths Slower but thorough

📘 4. Example Problem – Simple Maze

mathematica

Start at A → goal at E

A neighbors → B, C
B neighbors → D
C neighbors → E

DFS path: A → B → D → C → E

BFS path: A → B → C → D → E → finds the shortest path A → C → E first.

📘 5. Important Notes for Exams

✔ DFS is depth-driven; BFS is breadth-driven.
✔ BFS always finds the shortest path when the path cost is uniform.
✔ DFS may fail if cycles are not handled.
✔ Open and closed lists are essential in both algorithms.
✔ Practice tracing examples by hand to understand order of exploration.
📌 Key Takeaways – Part 2
DFS and BFS are foundational search algorithms with distinct behaviors and applications.
DFS uses stacks and explores deeper paths first; BFS uses queues and explores level by level.

BFS guarantees shortest paths in unweighted graphs, while DFS may not.
Proper cycle handling is critical for DFS.
Both algorithms form the basis for more advanced AI search methods.

Reply with Next, Yes, or Continue to move on to Heuristic Search, Best First Search, and A Algorithm* with
examples and diagrams. Let’s keep going!

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 yes

✅ Part 3 – Heuristic Search, Best-First Search, and A Algorithm*

📘 1. Heuristic Search
Definition:
Heuristic search uses domain-specific knowledge to make search more efficient by estimating which
paths are likely to lead to the goal faster.

Key Points:

Uses a heuristic function h(n) that estimates the cost from node n to the goal.
Helps prioritize which nodes to explore.
Speeds up search compared to uninformed methods (like DFS or BFS).

Example – 8-Puzzle Problem:

Goal: Arrange tiles in order.

Heuristic h(n): Number of misplaced tiles or Manhattan distance of tiles from their goal positions.
Nodes with lower h(n) are explored first.

📘 2. Best-First Search
Definition:
Best-First Search expands the node that appears closest to the goal based on a heuristic function.

Algorithm Steps:

1. Add the initial node to the open list.

2. Select the node with the lowest heuristic value h(n) from the open list.
3. Expand the node → generate successors.

4. Add successors to the open list if not already visited.

5. Move the expanded node to the closed list.
6. Repeat until goal is found.

Example – 8-Puzzle:

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 Start with initial state.
Compute h(n) for each possible move.
Always expand the node with minimum h(n).
Continue until the goal is reached.

📘 3. A Algorithm*
Definition:
A* search combines actual cost g(n) from the start node and heuristic cost h(n) to estimate total cost
f(n):

f (n) = g(n) + h(n)

g(n): cost so far to reach node n.

h(n): estimated cost to goal from node n.

f(n): estimated total cost of the path through n.

Algorithm Steps:

1. Place the start node in the open list.

2. While the open list is not empty:

Choose node n with minimum f(n) from the open list.

If n is the goal → return solution.
Else, expand n → generate successors.
Compute f(successors) = g + h.
Add successors to open list if not in closed list or if better f(n).
Move n to closed list.

3. Repeat until goal found.

Example – A on Grid:*

Grid:

makefile

S = Start, G = Goal, X = Obstacle

S . . .
. X . .
. . . G

g(n): steps taken from start.

h(n): Manhattan distance to goal.
f(n) = g(n) + h(n) → pick node with smallest f(n) to expand.
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 Ensures optimal path if h(n) is admissible (never overestimates cost).

📘 4. Comparison – Best-First vs A*
Feature Best-First Search A* Search
Uses g(n) No Yes
Uses h(n) Yes Yes

Optimality Not guaranteed Guaranteed (if h(n) admissible)

Completeness May fail Complete (if finite)
Efficiency Faster but risky Balanced efficiency and correctness

📘 5. Important Notes for Exams

✔ Heuristic search improves search efficiency using domain knowledge.
✔ Best-First Search prioritizes nodes based solely on h(n).
✔ A* Search guarantees optimal path if h(n) is admissible.
✔ Open and closed lists are crucial to prevent cycles.
✔ Examples: 8-puzzle, robot path planning, maze navigation.
📌 Key Takeaways – Part 3
Heuristic methods use problem-specific knowledge to guide search.
Best-First Search explores nodes closest to the goal using h(n).
A* Search combines path cost and heuristic for optimal search.
Properly designed heuristics significantly reduce search effort.

Reply with Next, Yes, or Continue to move on to Game Search, including Minimax and Alpha-Beta
Pruning with examples and diagrams.

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 yes

✅ Part 4 – Game Search (Minimax and Alpha-Beta Pruning)

📘 1. Game Search in AI
Definition:
Game search is a type of search algorithm used for two-player, turn-based games like Chess, Tic-Tac-
Toe, or Checkers, where players take turns and have conflicting objectives.
Key Points:

One player tries to maximize the outcome (Max).

The other tries to minimize the outcome (Min).

Search algorithms evaluate possible moves ahead to choose the best strategy.

📘 2. Minimax Algorithm
Definition:
Minimax is a decision-making algorithm used in two-player games to minimize the possible loss for a
worst-case scenario.

How It Works:

1. Construct a game tree with all possible moves to a certain depth.

2. Assign utility values to terminal nodes (end-game outcomes).

Win = +1, Loss = -1, Draw = 0

3. Backpropagate values:
Max nodes → choose the maximum value among children.
Min nodes → choose the minimum value among children.
4. The root node’s chosen move corresponds to the best strategy.

Example – Tic-Tac-Toe (Partial Game Tree):

mathematica

Max (X)
/ \
Min (O) Min (O)
/ \ / \
+1 0 -1 0

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 Max chooses the move leading to +1 (winning strategy).
Min chooses moves to minimize Max’s score.

📘 3. Alpha-Beta Pruning
Definition:
Alpha-Beta pruning is an optimization of Minimax that reduces the number of nodes evaluated in the
game tree without affecting the final result.

Key Concepts:

Alpha (α): Best value for Max along the path to the root.
Beta (β): Best value for Min along the path to the root.
Pruning: Ignore branches that cannot affect the final decision.

How It Works:

1. Initialize α = -∞, β = +∞.

2. Traverse the game tree using Minimax.
3. At Max node:

If value ≥ β → prune remaining children (Min won’t allow this).

4. At Min node:
If value ≤ α → prune remaining children (Max won’t allow this).
5. Continue recursively until all relevant nodes evaluated.

Example – Alpha-Beta Pruning:

mathematica

Game Tree:

Max
/ \
Min Min
/ \ / \
+3 ? ? +5

- Evaluate left Min: children +3 and ?

- Max knows α = -∞, β = +∞
- Prune branches that cannot improve Max’s outcome

Reduces computational effort significantly.

Allows deeper searches in the same time.

📘 4. Key Points for Exams

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✔ Game search is used in competitive, turn-based games.
✔ Minimax chooses the move that maximizes the player’s minimum gain.
✔ Alpha-Beta Pruning avoids unnecessary evaluation of branches.
✔ Depth of the tree can be limited for practical implementations.
✔ Always draw a small game tree in exams for clarity.
📌 Key Takeaways – Part 4
Minimax Algorithm: Optimal strategy for two-player, zero-sum games.
Alpha-Beta Pruning: Optimized Minimax, reduces number of nodes evaluated.
Heuristic evaluation may be used for non-terminal nodes in complex games.
Understanding small game trees is sufficient for exams; implement with simple examples.

This completes UNIT–II: Search Algorithms.

If you want, I can now create a summary sheet for UNIT–II with all key algorithms, formulas, and
diagrams in one concise, exam-friendly page.
Do you want me to do that next?

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 yes

✅ UNIT–II Summary Sheet – Search Algorithms (Exam-Friendly)

1. Random Search

Definition: Select actions randomly; no guidance.

Pros: Simple.
Cons: Inefficient, may never reach goal.
Example: Random walk in a maze.

2. Search with Open & Closed Lists

Open List: Nodes to be explored.

Closed List: Nodes already explored.
Purpose: Avoid cycles, prevent redundant exploration.
Algorithm:

1. Add initial node to open list.

2. While open list ≠ empty:
Remove node, expand → successors.
If successor not in open/closed → add to open.
Move expanded node to closed list.

3. Depth First Search (DFS)

Explores deepest nodes first.

Data structure: Stack / Recursion.
Pros: Low memory usage, simple.
Cons: May not find shortest path, may loop in cycles.

Traversal Example: A → B → D → C → E

4. Breadth First Search (BFS)

Explores level by level.

Data structure: Queue.
Pros: Finds shortest path, complete.

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 Cons: High memory usage.
Traversal Example: A → B → C → D → E

5. Heuristic Search

Uses domain-specific knowledge (h(n)) to guide search.

Speeds up finding goal.

Example: 8-puzzle → h(n) = misplaced tiles or Manhattan distance.

6. Best-First Search

Expands node with lowest h(n) (closest to goal).

Does not guarantee optimality.

Uses open and closed lists to track nodes.

7. A Algorithm*

f(n) = g(n) + h(n)

g(n): cost so far

h(n): estimated cost to goal

f(n): total estimated cost
Guarantees optimal solution if h(n) is admissible.
Uses open and closed lists.
Example: Pathfinding on grid (Manhattan distance as h(n)).

8. Game Search

Used in two-player, turn-based games.

Minimax Algorithm: Maximize your minimum gain.
Max node → choose max of children.
Min node → choose min of children.
Alpha-Beta Pruning: Optimized Minimax

α = best value for Max, β = best value for Min

Prune branches that cannot affect decision.

9. Comparison of Key Algorithms

Algorithm Strategy Data Structure Optimal Memory Notes

DFS Deep first Stack/Recursion No Low May loop without closed list

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 Algorithm Strategy Data Structure Optimal Memory Notes
BFS Level first Queue Yes High Guaranteed shortest path
Best-First Heuristic guided Priority Queue No Medium h(n) only
A* Heuristic + cost Priority Queue Yes Medium f(n) = g(n)+h(n)
Random Random None No Low Inefficient
Minimax Game tree Tree Yes High Two-player zero-sum games

Alpha-Beta Optimized Minimax Tree Yes Medium Prunes unnecessary branches

10. Quick Exam Tips

Draw small search trees for examples.

Always label open & closed lists in BFS/DFS.
Show f(n) = g(n)+h(n) calculation for A* questions.

For game search, illustrate Minimax with utility values and pruning.
Memorize heuristic examples: misplaced tiles, Manhattan distance.

This sheet is concise, covers all important algorithms from UNIT–II, and is exam-ready.
If you want, I can now start preparing UNIT–III notes in the same structured, step-by-step way.
Do you want to proceed to UNIT–III?

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 Hill climbing algo

✅ Hill Climbing Algorithm (AI Search Technique)

Hill climbing is a local search algorithm often studied under heuristic search methods. It is widely used
in AI for optimization problems.

📘 1. Definition
Hill Climbing is an iterative search algorithm that starts from an initial state and moves to the
neighboring state which has a higher value (better heuristic). It continues this process until it reaches a
peak (local maximum).

Think of it as climbing a hill: you always step upwards toward higher values.

📘 2. Key Characteristics
Local Search: Considers only the current state and its neighbors.
Greedy Approach: Chooses the neighbor with the highest heuristic value.

No Backtracking: Does not consider previously visited states (unless modified).

Terminates: When no neighbor has a better value (local maximum).

📘 3. Types of Hill Climbing

1. Simple Hill Climbing
Evaluate neighbors one by one and move to the first better one found.

Stops if no better neighbor exists.

2. Steepest-Ascent Hill Climbing
Evaluates all neighbors and moves to the one with the highest value.
More systematic than simple hill climbing.
3. Stochastic Hill Climbing

Randomly selects a better neighbor rather than always picking the best.
Useful to avoid being trapped in plateaus or ridges.
4. First-Choice Hill Climbing
Randomly generates neighbors and moves to the first better one found.
Reduces computation for large search spaces.

📘 4. Algorithm (Steepest-Ascent Hill Climbing)

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 1. Start with an initial state S.
2. Loop:
Generate all successors of S.
Select the successor S’ with the highest heuristic value h(S’).
If h(S’) ≤ h(S) → stop (local maximum reached).

Else → S = S’ (move to better neighbor).

3. Return S as the solution.

📘 5. Example – Simple Hill Climbing

Problem: Find the maximum of the function

f (x) = −x2 + 4x

on x ∈ [0,4].
Steps:

1. Start with x = 0 → f(0) = 0

2. Evaluate neighbors: x = 1 → f(1) = 3
3. Move to x = 1 → evaluate neighbors x = 2 → f(2) = 4

4. Move to x = 2 → neighbors: x = 3 → f(3) = 3

5. No neighbor better than 4 → stop at x = 2

Result: Local maximum at x = 2, f(x) = 4

📘 6. Advantages
Simple and easy to implement.
Uses less memory (does not store entire search tree).
Good for optimization problems with smooth landscapes.

📘 7. Disadvantages
Can get stuck in local maxima (not global maximum).

May reach a plateau (neighbors have same value).

Cannot handle multiple peaks well without modifications.

📌 8. Key Exam Notes

Always mention heuristic function h(n).

Illustrate using graph or simple function plot showing upward movement.

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 Be able to differentiate from gradient ascent (continuous) and other global search algorithms.
Variants (simple, steepest-ascent, stochastic) are commonly asked in exams.

If you want, I can also prepare a diagram-based example of hill climbing showing the local maxima,
plateau, and peak, which is very useful for exams.

Do you want me to do that next?

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