Geographers Contribution
Tor Bergeron Frontogenesis concept
Hutton Uniformitarianism – Present is the key to past
GK Gilbert Graded streams
Concept of equilibrium
JW Powell Base level
Genetic classification of landform
WM Davis Normal, Arid, Glacial Cycle of erosion
Slope Decline
Decay Equilibrium (Relief-Time graph)
W Penck Model of Landform Development
Slope replacement, Bosch, Haldenhang
LC King Parallel Retreat of Slope
Pediplanation, Bornhardt, Castle Kopies
Wood Debris limited model
JT Hack Dynamic Equilibrium (Relief-Time graph)
Post WW II -Process paradigm
Schumm Meta-stable dynamic equilibrium (Relief-Time graph)
Kober Book – ‘Der Bau der Erde’ – concept of geosyncline & Mt building
Force of contraction- Lithogenesis, Orogenesis, Glyptogenesis
Koeppen
Thornthwaite
Trewartha ABCDEFH – 7 primary types, more focus on temp, potential vegetation,
microclimates
Newton Equilibrium Theory of Tides- Gravitational force, Centrifugal force, Barycenter
Laplace Dynamic Theory of Tides – Tides are produced as horizontal movement of
water particles takes place towards sub-lunar & anti-podal point.
William Whewell Progressive Wave Theory – Map of co-tidal lines, Origin at Southern Ocean,
Primary waves travel westward, secondary waves travel northward, Tides at
different times on same longitude
CD Harris Standstill Theory – Regional phenomenon, Ocean basin, Bottom topography,
oscillate around amphidromic points in circular manner - Anti-clockwise in
northern hemisphere, Local relief may create secondary waves – e.g. 4 tides a
day (Southampton, UK)
Darwin Subsidence Theory: emergent coast – absence of barrier or atolls, reefs below
1800 m shows subsidence, thickness increases seaward, in stable land lagoon
would be filled with sediments.
Murray Standstill Theory: Atolls over sea mounts, ridges, guyots. Fringing reef – wave
erosion, deposited on sea floor – outward growth as barrier
Daly Glacial Control Theory: After Pleistocene formation, however much older
reefs exist
Davis Balance between subsidence and glacial control theory
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Dukuchaiev Zonal soil distribution bases on climate, vegetation etc
Marbut Zonal – Pedalfer (Tundra, Podzol, Latosol, Brown Forest),
Pedocals (Chernozem, Chestnut, Sierozem)
Azonal – Lithosol, Regosol, Alluvial
Intrazonal – Hydromorphic, Halomorphic, Calcimorphic
Shelford’s Law Concept of range of tolerance
Takhtajan 6 Floristic Regions – Holarctic, Paleotropical, Neotropical, Australian, Cape,
Antarctic
AR Wallace 6 Biogeographic regions – Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropical, Ethiopian,
Oriental, Australian
Nikolai Vavilov Major Gene Pool centers – South Mexican- Central American, South American,
Mediterranean, Middle-East, Abyssinian, Indian, Chinese, Central Asian
Odum Ecological Succession is Ecosystem Development – orderly, directional,
predictable, mutual reaction, environment sets limits, ultimately stabilised
ecosystem with maximum biomass & symbiotic functions.
(((Nudation-Invasion-Establishment-Aggregation-Competition & Coaction-
Reaction-Stabilisation)))
Samuelson Interlocking Theory – Population Size, Technology, Natural Resources, Efficient
mode of production (free market)
Francois Perroux GP Theory – Spatial Economic Theory, Dynamic propulsive Firm, Leading
Boudeville propulsive Industry, Forward-Backward linkage, Polarisation, Agglomeration,
Spill-over effects
Walt Whitman Rostow Non-spatial Model of economic growth – Traditional Society- Precondition to
take-off, Take-off, Drive to maturity, Age of mass consumption
Mahbub Ul Haq (1990) HDI – Health, Education, Standard of living (economic determinism to
humanism, composite index)
Meadows et al of Club Limits to Growth – Neo-Malthusian model – Simulation of Population,
of Rome (1972) Industrialisation, pollution, resource depletion, food production
Ricardo Extensive differential Rent – Land rent based on fertility
Von Thunen Land rent based on relative location, study in Mecklenburg of Germany
Valkenburg & Applied Von Thunen to Europe
Colbert Held
William Alonso Applied land rent concept to urban land use – CBD-Mfg-Res-Agri
Marx and Engel Land rent is capitalist. Land belongs to community.
Whittlesey 13 regions - Agricultural typology criteria – Partial Chorology approach-
“Crop & livestock association, Methods of farming, Intensity of land use,
Consumption pattern, Infrastructure”
MJ Watts Space of vulnerability – Empowerment, Entitlement, Political-economy
Max Weber Least transport cost, Role of labour cost, Agglomeration
Isotim, Isodapane, Critical Isodapane
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Malthus Positive check, preventive check, arithmetic, geometric etc
Example – West Africa, Global warming, Covid19
JS Mill Agreed with Malthus, but had a possibilistic approach – Humans are rational
to act before catastrophe.
Dumont Social Capillarity Theory – Tendency of people to rise higher in stratified social
classes- more capillarity- less fertility
Marx Wage rate, demand-supply of labour, rich-poor divide
Zimmerman Technocentric scholar – Resources are dynamic. Innovation in free market
economy- new resources
Thomson & Notestein Demographic Transition Theory
Ravenstein Laws on Migration – Distance Decay, Stepped migration, male-female,
economic center, counter-migration
S Stouffer Theory of intervening opportunities
WJ Rally Law of retail gravitation – Volume of Migration = P1*P2/r2
DJ Bogue Mental maps become more important in decision making. (Behavioural
Approach of migration)
Everett Lee 4 factors – Origin, Destination, Intervening obstacles, personal factors
Robert D Putnam Book – ‘Bowling Alone’ (Bonding, Bridging, Linking)
Social Capital – key for building and maintenance of DEMOCRACY.
Patrick Geddes ‘Cities in Evolution’ – Concept of Megalopolis
Satellite town concept derived from ‘Garden City’ concept in UK –
popularised by Geddes
Edward Soja “Six discourses on the post-metropolis” – Flex City, Cosmopolis, Exopolis,
Metropolarities, Carceral Archipelagos, SimCity
Nelson Standard deviation technique for functional classification of cities in US - 1950
census data – 9 activity groups
RL Singh Sphere of Urban Influence for Varanasi city – vegetable, milk, grain supply,
bus, newspaper, administrative boundary
RP Mishra Growth Pole – G Centre – G Points – Service Centre – Central Village
Metro – District HQ – Sub-division – Block - GP
RJ Pryor – 1968 Concept of Rural-Urban Fringe
Wirth & Pahl Rural-Urban continuum : Gradation – Interconnectedness – population flow,
information, commodity, monetary, environmental flow
Ferdinand Tonnies Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft – Rural- Urban dichotomy–
Kinship, neighbourhood, collectivism to impersonal, individualistic,
instrumental relations
EW Burgess Concentric Zone Model – 1927
Homer Hoyt Sectoral Model - 1939
MR Davis
CD Harris Multiple Nuclei Model - 1945
EL Ullman
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Schaefer ‘Exceptionalism in Geography’ – Criticised Hettner and Hartshorne’s Aerial
Differentiation, Uniqueness should not prevent geographers from
generalisation and scientific theory/model building
Peter Hagget Locational Analysis
Richard Chorley Systems Analysis in Geography
DM Smith Welfare Approach - 7 indicators of social well-being – Employment, Health,
Education, Housing, Social order, Recreation/Leisure.
‘Who gets What, Where & How” , Qualitative tool like HDI over GDP
Humanist Geography Active role to Human awareness, Human Agency,
Human consciousness and Human creativity.
Yi Fu Tuan Sense of Place – Places are centres of felt value where biological needs are
satisfied such as food, rest, procreation.
Book – ‘Space and Place’ - Place is confined, restricted and safe; whereas
Space is open, freedom & possibility.
Book – ‘Topophilia’ – Effective bond between place and people.
Edward Relph Insideness, Outsideness, Placelessness (based on Phenomenology)
Book – ‘Place and Placelessness’ – Lack of authentic sense of place leads to
Placelessness – during QR period - standardised common architecture without
distinctive local elements.
Engels Marxist Geographer - Economic laws are not eternal laws of nature.
(Radical Approach)
Richard Peet Structural change – Anarchist method of community control over resources
and production (Radical Geography)
Jean Brunhes Against the imperialist approach towards exploitation of natural resources of
colonial/sub-ordinate countries
Allison Hayford Geographers need to investigate spatial roles of women.
(Feminist Geographer)
Mackinder ‘The Geographical Pivot of History’ paper in 1904
Modified concept of strategic heartland in 1919
Concept of Midland Basin 1943
Spykman ‘The Geography of Peace’ book – Rimland Theory
Domino Fall of any single country in Rimland to Soviet’s communism would defeat
American interest in the region
Alfred Mahan Whoever controls the Indian Ocean will dominate Asia.
The destiny of the world will be decided on its waters.
Six fundamental elements of sea power – Geographical position, Physical
conformation, Extent of territory, Population size, Character of the people,
Character of the Govt
Indian Monsoons Edmund Halley – Differential heating
H Flohn – ITCZ shifting
MT Yin – STWJS shifting
Koteswaram – Tibetan Plateau & TEJS
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Environmental Green Good Deeds campaign by MoEFCC
Education National Green Corps/ Eco-clubs
EEAT Scheme – schools students participation
