MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES I

Lecture 8

MACHINING
 2

MACHINING
• Machining involves the shaping of a part through removal of
material.
• A tool, constructed of a material harder than the part being
formed, is forced against the part, causing material to be cut
from it.
• Machining, also referred to as cutting, metal cutting, or
material removal, is the dominant manufacturing shaping
process.
3
 4

MACHINING

• Machining is both a primary as well as a secondary shaping

process.
• The device that does the cutting or material removal is known
as the machine tool.
• A machine tool is a power driven metal cutting machine which
assist in managing the needed relative motion between cutting
tool and the job that changes the size and shape of the job
material.
 5

MACHINING
 6

The primary reasons for selecting machining over the other

two primary shaping processes (casting, plastic
deformation) are that machining can:

 Improve dimensional tolerances,

 Improve surface finish,
 Produce complex geometry such as:
 a. Holes (generally circular, but also other shapes)
 b. Sharp corners and flat surfaces
 Produce low quantities economically because of
 a. More flexibility in tooling and fixturing
 b. Low operating costs (equipment)
 Lower setup times (time to prepare tooling for
production)
 7

Certain disadvantages are associated with

machining and other material removal processes:

• Wasteful of material: Machining is inherently wasteful of material. The

chips generated in a machining operation are wasted material. Although
these chips can usually be recycled, they represent waste in terms of the
unit operation.
• Time consuming: A machining operation generally takes more time to
shape a given part than alternative shaping processes such as casting or
forging.
 8

Types of Machining Operations

• The machine tools involve various kinds of machines tools commonly named
as lathe, shaper, planer, slotter, drilling, milling and grinding machines etc.
• The machining jobs are mainly of two types namely cylindrical and flats or
prismatic.
• Cylindrical jobs are generally machined using lathe, milling, drilling and
cylindrical grinding whereas prismatic jobs are machined using shaper,
planner, milling, drilling and surface grinding.
 Classification of Machined Parts
1. Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape
2. Nonrotational (also called prismatic) -
block-like or plate-like

Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b) nonrotational,

shown here by block and flat parts
Machining Operations and Part Geometry

Each machining operation produces a characteristic part

geometry due to two factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and workpart
• Generating – part geometry determined by feed trajectory of
cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by the shape of the cutting tool
 Generating Shape

Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c) contour
turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling.
 Forming to Create Shape

Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c)
broaching.
 Forming and Generating

Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a) thread

cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling.
 14

Types of Machining Operations

• Three most common types of machining operations are;
▫ turning, drilling, and milling
• Other conventional machining operations are;
▫ shaping, planing, broaching, and sawing,
▫ also, grinding and similar abrasive operations for achieving a superior
surface finish on the workpart.
 15

Turning
• In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove
material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape.
• The speed motion in turning is provided by the rotating work part, and the
feed motion is achieved by the cutting tool moving slowly in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
 16

Drilling
• Drilling is used to create a round hole.
• It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two cutting edges.
• The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the work part
to form the round hole.
 17

Milling
• In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is fed slowly across the work
material to generate a plane or straight surface.
• The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool’s axis of rotation.
• The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter.
• The two basic forms of milling are peripheral milling and face milling.

peripheral milling face milling

 18

Metal cutting operations

• In metal cutting operation, the position of cutting edge of the
cutting tool is important based on which the cutting operation is
classified as;
▫ orthogonal cutting,
▫ oblique cutting.
 19

Metal cutting operations

 20

Orthogonal cutting
• Orthogonal cutting is also known as two dimensional metal cutting in which the
cutting edge is normal to the work piece.
• In orthogonal cutting no force exists in direction perpendicular to relative motion
between tool and work piece.
 21

Orthogonal cutting

Since the chip thickness after cutting is always greater than the corresponding
thickness before cutting, the chip ratio will always be less than 1.0.
 22

Oblique cutting
• Oblique cutting is the common type of three dimensional cutting
used in various metal cutting operations in which the cutting action
is inclined with the job by a certain angle called the inclination
angle.
 23

CUTTING TOOL
• A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder
than the work material.
• The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the parent work material.
• Connected to the cutting edge are two surfaces of the tool: the rake face and the flank.
 24

CUTTING TOOL
• The rake face, which directs the flow of the newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain
angle called the rake angle α. It is measured relative to a plane perpendicular to the work
surface.
• The rake angle can be positive, or negative.
• The flank of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly generated work
surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish.
• This flank surface is oriented at an angle called the relief angle.
 25

CUTTING TOOL
• Cutting tools performs the main machining operation.
• They comprise of;
▫ single point cutting tool,
▫ multipoint cutting tools.
• It is a body having teeth or cutting edges on it.
• A single point cutting tool (such as a lathe, shaper and planner and
boring tool) has only one cutting edge, whereas a multi-point cutting
tool (such as milling cutter, milling cutter, drill, reamer and broach)
has a number of teeth or cutting edges on its periphery.
 26

Single Point Cutting Tools

• There are mainly two types of single point tools namely;
▫ the solid type,
▫ the tipped tool.
• The solid type single point tool may be made from high speed
steel, from a cast alloy.
• Brazed tools are generally known as tool bits and are used in tool
holders.
 27

Single Point Cutting Tools

• The tipped type of tool is made from a good shank steel on which is mounted a tip of cutting
tool material.
• Tip may be made of high speed steel or cemented carbide.
• In addition to this, there are long index-able insert tools and throwaway.
• The Insert type tool throwaway refers to the cutting tool insert which is mechanically held in
the tool holder.
• Tools may be of the types planning tools, turning tools, facing tool, boring tools, parting and
slotting tools etc.
 28

Single Point Cutting Tools

• Different types of carbide tips are generally used on tipped tool.
• In general the straight shank type tools are cheaper to manufacture as
compared to bent shank type. But bent shank type can be used for turning
either longitudinal or cross feed without resetting and for turning, facing and
chamfering operations.
• Boring tools usually quite long and the crosssection is small.
Cutting-Tool Materials
▫ High-speed steel
▫ Cast alloys
▫ Cemented carbides
▫ Ceramics
▫ Cermets
▫ Borazon and polycrystalline diamond
 Expected Properties
• Hard
• Wear-resistant
• Capable of maintaining a red hardness during machining
operation
▫ Red hardness: ability of cutting tool to maintain sharp cutting
edge even when turns red because of high heat during cutting
• Able to withstand shock during cutting
• Shaped so edge can penetrate work
 High-Speed Steel
• May contain combinations of tungsten, chromium,
vanadium, molybdenum, cobalt
• Can take heavy cuts, withstand shock and maintain sharp
cutting edge under red heat
• Generally two types (general purpose)
▫ Molybdenum-base (Group M)
▫ Tungsten-base (Group T)
• Cobalt added if more red hardness desired
 Cemented-Carbide
• Capable of cutting speeds 3 to 4 times high-speed steel toolbits
• Low toughness but high hardness and excellent red-hardness
• Consist of tungsten carbide sintered in cobalt matrix
• Straight tungsten used to machine cast iron and nonferrous
materials (crater easily)
• Different grades for different work
 Coated Carbide
• Made by depositing thin layer of wear-resistant titanium
nitride, titanium carbide or aluminum oxide on cutting edge
of tool
▫ Fused layer increases lubricity, improves cutting edge wear
resistance by 200%-500%
▫ Lowers breakage resistance up to 20%
▫ Provides longer life and increased cutting speeds
• Titanium-coated offer wear resistance at low speeds, ceramic
coated for higher speeds
 Ceramic
• Permit higher cutting speeds, increased tool life and better
surface finish than carbide
▫ Weaker than carbide used in shock-free or low-shock situation
• Ceramic
▫ Heat-resistant material produced without metallic bonding agent
such as cobalt
▫ Aluminum oxide most popular additive
▫ Titanium oxide or Titanium carbide can be added
 Diamond Toolbits
• Used mainly to machine nonferrous metals and abrasive
nonmetallics
• Single-crystal natural diamonds
▫ High-wear but low shock-resistant factors
• Polycrystalline diamonds
▫ Tiny manufactured diamonds fused together and bonded to
suitable carbide substrate
 36

Cutting Tool Materials

Ranges of properties for various groups of cutting-tool materials.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid © 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-
227271-7
 37

Single Point Cutting Tools

• A single point cutting tool can be understood by its geometry.
• Geometry comprises mainly of nose, rake face of the tool, flank and shank etc.
• The nose is shaped as conical with different angles.
 38

Nomenclature Single Point Tool

(i) Back rake angle
• It is the angle between the face of the tool
and a line parallel with base of the tool
measured in a perpendicular plane
through the side cutting edge. This angle
helps in removing the chips away from the
work piece.
(ii) Side rake angle
• It is provided on tool to provide clearance
between work piece and tool so as to
prevent the rubbing of work- piece with
end flake of tool. (iii) End relief angle
It is the angle that allows the tool to cut
without rubbing on the work- piece.
 39

Nomenclature Single Point Tool

(iv) Side relief angle
• It is the angle that prevents the interference
as the tool enters the material.
(v) End cutting edge angle
• It provides clearance between tool cutting
edge and work piece.
(vi) Side cutting edge angle
• It is also known as lead angle. It is responsible
for turning the chip away from the finished
surface.
(vii) Nose radius
• It possesses small radius which is responsible
for generating surface finish on the work-
piece
 40

CHIPS

In metal cutting (machining) process, working motion is imparted

to the workpiece and cutting tool by the mechanisms of machine
tool so that the work and tool travel relative to each other and
machine the workpiece material in the form of shavings (or swarf)
known as chips.
 41

Formation of Chip
 42

TYPES OF CHIPS
• Chips are separated from the workpiece to impart the required
size and shape to the workpiece.
• The type of chips edge formed is basically a function of the work
material and cutting conditions.
• The chips that are formed during metal cutting operations can be
classified into four types:
1. Discontinuous or segmental chips,
2. Continuous chips,
3. Continuous chips with built-up edge,
4. Non homogenous chips.
 43

Discontinuous chips
• The chip is produced in the form of small pieces.
• These types of chips are obtained while machining brittle material
like cast iron, brass and bronze.
• Fairly good surface finish is obtained and tool life is increased with
this type of chips.
 44

Continuous chip
• These types of chips are obtained while machining ductile material such as mild steel and
copper.
• A continuous chip comes from the cutting edge of a cutting tool as a single one piece, and it will
remain as one piece unless purposely broken for safety or for convenience in handling.
• Formation of very lengthy chip is hazardous to the machining process and the machine
operators.
• It may wrap up on the cutting tool, work piece and interrupt in the cutting operation.
• Thus, it becomes necessary to deform or break long continuous chips into small pieces.
• It is done by using chip breakers. Chip breaker can be an integral part of the tool design or a separate device.
 45

Continuous chip with built-up edge

• During cutting operation, the temperature rises and as the hot chip passes
overs the face of the tool, alloying and welding action may take place due
to high pressure, which results in the formation of weak bonds in
microstructure and weakened particles might pullout.
• Owing to high heat and pressure generated, these particles get welded to
the cutting tip of the tool and form a false cutting edge.
 46

Non homogenous chips

• Non homogenous chips are developed during machining highly
hard alloys like titanium which suffers a marked decrease in
yield strength with increase in temperature.
47
 48

Cutting Conditions
• Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a
machining operation.
• The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed, v.
• The tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower
motion, called the feed, f.
• The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool
below the original work surface, called the depth of cut, d.
 49

Cutting Conditions
• Speed,
• Feed,
• Depth of cut
are the cutting conditions.

They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain
operations (e.g., most single-point tool operations) they can be used to
calculate the material removal rate for the process:
 50

Cutting Conditions in Turning

 51

Roughing cuts- Finishing cuts

• Roughing cuts are used to remove large amounts of material from the
starting work part as rapidly as possible, in order to produce a shape
close to the desired form, but leaving some material on the piece for a
subsequent finishing operation.
• Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final
dimensions, tolerances, and surface finish.
• In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually
performed on the work, followed by one or two finishing cuts.
 52

Roughing cuts- Finishing cuts

• Roughing operations are performed at high feeds and depths—feeds of
0.4 to 1.25 mm/rev and depths of 2.5 to 20 mm are typical.
• Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths—feeds of
0.125 to 0.4 mm(0.005–0.015 in/rev) and depths of 0.75 to 2.0mm are
typical.
• Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing.
 53

Cutting fluid
• A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool
and lubricate the cutting tool.
• Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so,
choosing the proper cutting fluid, is usually included within the
scope of cutting conditions.
 54

There are four categories of cutting fluids

according to chemical formulation:

(1) cutting oils,

(2) emulsified oils,
(3) semi-chemical fluids,
(4) chemical fluids.
• All of these cutting fluids provide both coolant and
lubricating functions.
• The cutting oils are most effective as lubricants, whereas the
other three categories are more effective as coolants because
they are primarily water.
 55

FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

• The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be separated into
two mutually perpendicular components:
▫ friction force,
▫ normal force to friction.
• The friction force F is the frictional force resisting the flow of the chip
along the rake face of the tool.
• The normal force to friction N is perpendicular to the friction force.
• These two components can be used to define the coefficient of friction
between the tool and the chip:
 56

FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

• In addition to the tool forces acting on the chip, there are two force components
applied by the workpiece on the chip:
▫ shear force,
▫ normal force to shear.
• The shear force Fs is the force that causes shear deformation to occur in the shear
plane,
• The normal force to shear Fn is perpendicular to the shear force.
• Based on the shear force, we can define the shear stress that acts along the shear
plane between the work and the chip:

where As = area of the shear plane.

 57

FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

• None of the four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can be directly measured in a
machining operation, because the directions in which they are applied vary with different
tool geometries and cutting conditions.
• However, it is possible for the cutting tool to be instrumented using a force measuring
device called a dynamometer, two additional force components acting against the tool
can be directly measured:
▫ cutting force, thrust force.
• The cutting force Fc is in the direction of cutting, the same direction as the cutting speed v.
• The thrust force Ft is perpendicular to the cutting force and is associated with the chip
thickness.
 58

FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

• Equations can be derived to relate the four force components that
cannot be measured to the two forces that can be measured.
 59

POWER AND ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS IN MACHINING

• A machining operation requires power.

• The product of cutting force and speed gives the power (energy per unit
time) required to perform a machining operation:
 60

POWER AND ENERGY RELATIONSHIPS IN MACHINING

• It is often useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of metal cut.
• This is called the unit power, Pu, also known as the specific energy U.

but
 61

Machining Time
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES I

Lecture 9

MACHINING-Turning-Drilling
 63

Basic principle of a lathe machine

• Lathe machines are normally used to
produce cylindrical surfaces.
• The job is held in the chuck attached to the
head stock or between the centers provided
at the head stock or tail stock.
• The tool is held on the compound rest.
• Job is rotated at the predetermined speed
by the head stock.
• The tool is moved relative to
the workpiece with the help of carriage,
cross slide or compound rest.
• Desired quantity of metal is removed in the
form of chip from the work piece.
 64

Engine Lathe
Specification of a lathe machine
A lathe machine is specified by the following
• Height of the centers measured from the lathe bed.
• Swing diameter over bed. This the largest diameter of work piece which will
revolve without touching the bed. It is equal twice the height of centers from
the bed.
• Swing diameter over carriage. It is the largest diameter that can revolve over
the cross-slide. This always less than the swing diameter over the bed.
• Maximum bar diameter. This is the maximum diameter that will pass
through the head stock spindle.
• Length of the bed.
 66

Operations Related to Turning

 67

Operations related to Turning

 68

Operations related to Turning

69
 70

Turning Operations
 71

Methods of Holding the Work in a Lathe

• Holding the work between centers (a)
• Chuck (b)
• Collet (c)
• Face plate (d)
 72

Collet (c)

Face plate (d)

Turning on lathe machine Drilling on lathe
Boring on lathe Reaming on lathe using reamer tool
Reamers
Knurling on lathe using knurling tool Knurling tool
Grooving on lathe
Threading on lathe machine
 Boring
• Difference between boring and turning:
– Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole
– Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an existing
cylinder
• In effect, boring is internal turning operation
• Boring machines
– Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of the axis of
rotation of machine spindle
 Vertical Boring Mill

A vertical boring mill – for large, heavy workparts.

 Shaping and Planing
• Similar operations
• Both use a single point cutting tool moved linearly
relative to the workpart

Figure 22.29 - (a) Shaping, and (b) planing

Shaping and Planing
• A straight, flat surface is created in both operations
• Interrupted cutting
▫ Subjects tool to impact loading when entering work
• Low cutting speeds due to start-and-stop motion
• Usual tooling: single point high speed steel tools
 ISE 316 -
Manufacturing
Processes
Engineering

Figure 22.30 - Components of a shaper

(old:Fig.25.29)
 ISE 316 -
Manufacturing
Processes
Engineering

Figure 22.31 - Open side planer

Shaping Machines

• A shaper is used for producing relatively small flat surfaces.

• A single point tool is mounted on a tool box fitted to a
reciprocating ram.
• The job is clamped in a vice. There is a cutting action in the
forward motion of the tool while the return stroke is idle.
• Job is given indexed feed.
FIG.- SHAPER
Shaper operations

•Horizontal cutting
•Vertical cutting
•Inclined cutting
•Irregular cutting
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CUTTING ON SHAPER
INCLINED CUTTING ON SHAPER
PLANNING MACHINE OR PLANNER
• Planning machines are used for generating large flat surfaces.
• These flat surfaces may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
• Planing machines also perform all the functions that a shaping
machine does.
• The planning machines handle larger and heavy jobs.
• In planning machines the job is mounted on a table which moves
forward and backward.
• The tool is held firmly on the cross rails in the middle of the
machine.
FIGURE- PLANNER
Planer machine
MACHINING BED ON PLANNER
Diff. between shaper and planer
Planing Machine Shaping Machine
1. Machine is heavy and is used for 1. Machine is light and only small
producing large surfaces job can be produced.
2. Cutting takes place by 2. Cutting takes place by
reciprocating the work piece reciprocating the tool.
3. Heavier cuts can be given 3. Only light cuts can be given.
4. Several tools can be mounted 4. Only one tool is used at a time.
and employed at a time 5. Only one job can be taken up at a
5. Several jobs requiring similar time.
operations can be machined at a 6. Indexed feed is given to the job
time during idle stroke of the ram.
6. Indexed feed is given to the tool
during idle stroke of the work
table.
DRILLING
• Drilling is an operation through which a drilled
hole is produced in a job.
• The machine tool used in this case is called
drilling machine and the cutting tool used is
called a drill bit or drill.
 Drilling
• Creates a round hole
in a workpart
• Compare to boring
which can only
enlarge an existing
hole
• Cutting tool called a
drill or drill bit
• Machine tool: drill
press
 Through Holes vs. Blind Holes
Through-holes - drill exits opposite side of work
Blind-holes – does not exit work opposite side

Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole.

DRILLING OPERATIONS
 99

DRILLING OPERATIONS
Operation performed on a drill machine

• Drilling : Operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a solid body by means of a

drill.
• Reaming : Operation of finishing the drilled hole (that is achieving the closer
tolerances and desired surface finish) by means of a reamer.
• Boring : A drilled hole can be enlarged also by means of boring tool on the drill
machine.
• Counter Boring : Enlarging the diameter of the drilled hole only upto certain
depth. For this counter boring tool is used.
• Counter Sinking : It is enlarging the top end of a drilled hole and giving it a
conical shape by the help of a counter sinking tool.
• Spot Facing : Squaring the surface at the top end of a hole to provide a true seat for
the bolt head or collar.
• Tapping : A tap can be rotated inside an already drilled hole to produce internal
threads.
 Reaming
• Used to slightly enlarge a
hole, provide better
tolerance on diameter, and
improve surface finish

Tapping
• Used to provide internal screw
threads on an existing hole
• Tool called a tap

Counterboring

• Provides a stepped hole, in which a

larger diameter follows smaller
diameter partially into the hole
 Drill Press
• Upright drill
press stands on
the floor

• Bench drill
similar but
smaller and
mounted on a
table or bench
Bench drilling machine
RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE
Radial drilling machine
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES I

Lecture 10

MACHINING-Milling-Grinding
 Milling
Machining operation in which work is fed past a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
• The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of feed.
▫ This orientation between the tool axis and the feed direction is one of the features that
distinguishes milling from drilling.
▫ In drilling, the cutting tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation.
• Creates a planar surface
▫ Other geometries possible either by cutter path or shape
• Other factors and terms:
▫ Interrupted cutting operation
▫ Cutting tool called a milling cutter,
▫ Cutting edges called "teeth"
▫ Machine tool called a milling machine
 108

Milling
• The geometric form created by milling is a plane surface.
• Other work geometries can be created either by means of the cutter path or the cutter
shape.
• Owing to the variety of shapes possible and its high production rates, milling is one
of the most versatile and widely used machining operations.
• Milling is an interrupted cutting operation; the teeth of the milling cutter enter and
exit the work during each revolution.
• This interrupted cutting action subjects the teeth to a cycle of impact force and
thermal shock on every rotation.
• The tool material and cutter geometry must be designed to withstand these
conditions.
MILLING OPERATIONS

Two forms of milling: (a) peripheral milling, and (b) face milling.
 MILLING OPERATIONS
• Peripheral milling
– Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
– Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
• Face milling
– Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
– Cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the cutter
 111

Peripheral Milling

(a)slab milling, (b) slotting, (c)side milling,

(d) straddle milling, (e) form milling
Peripheral Milling-Up Milling and Down
Milling

Two forms of peripheral milling operation with a 20-teeth cutter: (a) up

milling, and (b) down milling.
113
 Slab Milling
• Basic form of peripheral milling in which the cutter width
extends beyond the workpiece on both sides
 Slotting
• Width of cutter is less than workpiece width, creating a slot in the work
 116

Face milling

(a) Conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, (c) end milling, (d) profile
milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring.
Conventional Face Milling
Cutter overhangs work on
both sides

High speed face milling using

indexable inserts
 End Milling

• Cutter diameter is less

than work width, so a slot
is cut into part
 Profile Milling

Form of end milling in which

the outside periphery of a
flat part is cut
 Pocket Milling

• Another form of end milling

used to mill shallow pockets
into flat parts
 Surface Contouring

• Ball-nose cutter fed back and forth

across work along a curvilinear path
at close intervals to create a three
dimensional surface form
 122

Summary
 123

Cutting conditions
 124

Cutting conditions
 125

Cutting conditions- Slab milling

FIGURE 22.21 Slab

(peripheral) milling
showing entry of cutter
into the workpiece.
 126

Cutting conditions- Face milling

Face milling showing approach and overtravel distances for two cases: (a) when cutter
is centered over the workpiece, and (b) when cutter is offset to one side over the work.
 127

Milling Machines
• Horizontal milling machine,
• Vertical milling machine.

• A horizontal milling machine has a horizontal spindle, and this design is well
suited for performing,
▫ peripheral milling (e.g., slab milling, slotting, side and straddle milling) on
workparts that are roughly cube shaped.

• A vertical milling machine has a vertical spindle, and this orientation is

appropriate for,
▫ face milling, end milling, surface contouring, and die sinking on relatively
flat workparts.
 128

Milling Machines
• Other than spindle orientation, milling machines can
be classified into the following types:
(1) knee-and-column,
(2) bed type,
(3) planer type,
(4) tracer mills,
(5) CNC milling machines.
 Milling Machine
• Milling is a metal removing process by the help of a
multi tooth (multi edge) revolving cutting tool.
• The cutting tool is held on a spindle called arbour
and the work piece is fixed on a table.
• The table reciprocates past the cutting tool and horizontal knee-and-column milling machine.
metal removal takes place.
• Feed for the next cut and the depth of the cut are
given by the movement of the table.
• Each tooth has the same profile.
• Each tooth after taking a cut comes in operation
after some interval. This allows the tool to cool
down before the next cut takes place.

vertical knee-and-column milling machine

 130

MILLING MACHINES
 131

MILLING MACHINES

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid © 2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 132

MILLING MACHINES

The universal milling machine which has a table that can be swiveled in a horizontal plane (about a vertical
axis) to any specified angle.
This facilitates the cutting of angular shapes and helixes on workparts.
The ram mill, in which the toolhead containing the spindle is located on the end of a horizontal ram; the ram
can be adjusted in and out over the worktable to locate the cutter relative to the work.
The toolhead can also be swiveled to achieve an angular orientation of the cutter with respect to the work.
These features provide considerable versatility in machining a variety of work shapes.
 133

MILLING MACHINES

Bed-type milling machines are designed for high

production.
They are constructed with greater rigidity than
knee-and-column machines, thus permitting them
to
achieve heavier feed rates and depths of cut
needed for high material removal rates.
 Machining Centers
Highly automated machine tool can perform multiple
machining operations under CNC control in one setup
with minimal human attention
▫ Typical operations are milling and drilling
▫ Three, four, or five axes
• Other features:
▫ Automatic tool-changing
▫ Automatic workpart positioning
Universal machining center; highly automated, capable of multiple
machining operations under computer control in one setup with
minimal human attention
CNC 4-axis turning center; capable of turning and related
operations, contour turning, and automatic tool indexing, all
under computer control.
 Mill-Turn Centers
Highly automated machine tool that can perform turning,
milling, and drilling operations
• General configuration of a turning center
• Can position a cylindrical workpart at a specified angle so a
rotating cutting tool (e.g., milling cutter) can machine
features into outside surface of part
– Conventional turning center cannot stop workpart at a defined
angular position and does not include rotating tool spindles
 Operation of Mill-Turn Center

Operation of a mill-turn center: (a) example part with turned, milled, and drilled surfaces; and (b)
sequence of operations on a mill-turn center: (1) turn second diameter, (2) mill flat with part in
programmed angular position, (3) drill hole with part in same programmed position, and (4) cutoff.
 139

Machining Centers

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid © 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 140

Reconfigurable Machines

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid © 2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Grinding

• It is the process of removing material by the abrasive action of a

revolving wheel from the surface of a work piece, in order to
achieve required dimension and surface finish of the work piece.
• The wheel used for this purpose is called grinding wheel.
• Grinding wheel consists of sharp crystals called abrasives held
together by a bonding material.
 142

Grinding wheel
• A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding material.
• The bonding material holds the particles in place and establishes the shape and structure of
the wheel.
• These two ingredients and the way they are fabricated determine the five basic parameters
of a grinding wheel: (1) abrasive material,
(2) grain size,
(3) bonding material,
(4) wheel grade,
(5) wheel structure.
• To achieve the desired performance in a given application, each of the parameters must be
carefully selected.
143
GRINDING OPERATIONS
INTERNAL GRINDING AND CENTERLESS
GRINDING
 146

Types of surface grinding

(a) horizontal spindle with reciprocating worktable, (b) horizontal spindle with
rotating worktable, (c) vertical spindle with reciprocating worktable, and (d)
vertical spindle with rotating worktable.
 147

Surface grinding
 148

Cylindrical grinding
Types of grinding machines

Grinding machines are normally put in two categories :

Roughing Grinders
• Bench , pedestral or floor grinders
• Swing frame grinders
• Portable and flexible shaft grinders
• Belt grinder

Precision Grinders
• Cylindrical Grinders (three types)
• Surface Grinders
• Horizontal spindle, reciprocating table surface grinders
• Vertical spindle , reciprocating table surface grinders
• Internal Grinders
Hand grinder
Bench grinder
Bench grinder or pedestal grinder
Surface grinder
Cylindrical grinder
Centerless grinding machine
 157

REFERENCES
• Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing
Materials,Processes,andSystems Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Rajender Singh, Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and
Workshop Technology, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers,
2006, ISBN (10) : 81-224-2316-7.
• Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian •
Schmid © 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 1

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES I

Lecture 11

JOINING PROCESSES
2
 3

Joining and Assembly Processes

• The term joining is generally used for welding, brazing,
soldering, and adhesive bonding, which form a permanent
joint between the parts—a joint that cannot easily be
separated.

• The term assembly usually refers to mechanical methods

of fastening parts together. Some of these methods allow
for easy disassembly, while others do not.
 4

JOINING PROCESSES

• Welding,
• Brazing,
• Soldering,
• Adhesive bonding,
• Mechanical fastening; rivet, screw, bolt.
 5

Brazing and Soldering

• Brazing and soldering both use filler metals to join and
bond two (or more) metal parts to provide a permanent
joint.

• Brazing and soldering lie between fusion welding and solid-

state welding.

• A filler metal is added in brazing and soldering as in most

fusion-welding operations; however, no melting of the base
metals occurs, which is similar to solid-state welding.
 6

Brazing and Soldering

Brazing and soldering are attractive compared to welding under
circumstances where
(1) the metals have poor weldability,
(2) dissimilar metals are to be joined,
(3) the intense heat of welding may damage the components
being joined,
(4) the geometry of the joint does not lend itself to any of the
welding methods,
(5) high strength is not a requirement.
 Brazing and Soldering

• Two processes are commonly confused with

welding

• These are Adhesive forces with unlike

material
Brazing and Soldering
• Brazing - two metals, which are not melted, are joined with a third
metal which melts at temperatures above 450º C (copper and zinc
alloy)
• Soldering – two metals, which are not melted, are joined by a
third metal which has a melting point below 450º C (tin or silver)
 9

ADVANTAGES of BRAZING and SOLDERING

(1) any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals;

(2) certain brazing methods can be performed quickly and consistently, thus
permitting high cycle rates and automated production;
(3) some methods allow multiple joints to be brazed simultaneously;
(4) brazing can be applied to join thin-walled parts that cannot be welded;
(5) in general, less heat and power are required than in fusion welding;
(6) problems with the heat-affected zone in the base metal near the joint are
reduced;
(7) joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding processes can be brazed, since
capillary action draws the molten filler metal into the joint.
 10

DISADVANTAGES of BRAZING
(1) joint strength is generally less than that of a welded joint;
(2) although strength of a good brazed joint is greater than that of the
filler metal, it is likely to be less than that of the base metals;
(3) high service temperatures may weaken a brazed joint;
(4) the color of the metal in the brazed joint may not match the color of
the base metal parts, a possible aesthetic disadvantage.
 11

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION AREA

• automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes),
• electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables),
• cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide inserts to shanks),
• jewelry making,
• chemical processing industry and plumbing,
• heating contractors join metal pipes and tubes

• The process is used extensively for repair and maintenance work

in nearly all industries.
 12

BRAZED JOINTS
• Butt joint,
• Lap joint.
Butt joints

(a) Conventional butt joint, and adaptations of the butt joint for
brazing: (b) scarf joint, (c) stepped butt joint, (d) increased cross
section of the part at the joint.
 13

Lap joint
 14

BRAZING METHODS

Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing:

(a) torch and filler rod;
(b) ring of filler metal at entranceofgap;and
(c) foil of filler metal between flat part surfaces.
Sequence:
(1) before, and (2) after.
15
 16

Filler Metals and Fluxes

To qualify as a brazing metal, the following characteristics are needed:
(1) melting temperature must be compatible with the base metal,
(2) surface tension in the liquid phase must be low for good wettability,
(3) fluidity of the molten metal must be high for penetration into the
interface,
(4) the metal must be capable of being brazed into a joint of adequate
strength for the application,
(5) chemical and physical interactions with base metal (e.g., galvanic
reaction) must be avoided.
 17

Filler Metals and Fluxes

Filler metals are applied to the brazing operation in various ways,
including;
• wire, rod, sheets and strips, powders, pastes, preformed parts made of
braze metal designed
• to fit a particular joint configuration, and cladding on one of the
surfaces to be brazed.
 18

Filler Metals and Fluxes

• Brazing fluxes serve a similar purpose as in welding; they dissolve, combine with, and
otherwise inhibit the formation of oxides and other unwanted by products in the brazing
process.

• Characteristics of a good flux include;

(1) low melting temperature,
(2) low viscosity so that it can be displaced by the filler metal,
(3) facilitates wetting,
(4) protects the joint until solidification of the filler metal.
(5) flux should also be easy to remove after brazing.

• Common ingredients for brazing fluxes include borax, borates, fluorides, and chlorides.
 19

ADHESIVE BONDING

• Adhesive bonding shares certain features in common with brazing

and soldering.
• It utilizes the forces of attachment between a filler material and
two closely spaced surfaces to bond the parts.
• The differences are that the filler material in adhesive bonding is
not metallic, and the joining process is carried out at room
temperature or only modestly above.
 20

Adhesive Bonding
• Adhesive bonding is a joining process in which a filler material is used to
hold two (or more) closely spaced parts together by surface attachment.
• The filler material that binds the parts together is the adhesive. It is a
nonmetallic substance—usually a polymer.
• The parts being joined are called adherends.
• Curing refers to the process by which the adhesive’s physical properties are
changed from a liquid to a solid, usually by chemical reaction, to accomplish
the surface attachment of the parts.
 21

The strength of the attachment results from several

mechanisms,such as;

(1) chemical bonding,

(2) physical interactions,
(3) mechanical interlocking,
 22

For these adhesion mechanisms to operate with best

results, the following conditions must prevail:

(1) surfaces of the adherend must be clean—free of dirt, oil, and oxide films that
would interfere with achieving intimate contact between adhesive and
adherend; special preparation of the surfaces is often required;
(2) the adhesive in its initial liquid form must achieve thorough wetting of the
adherend surface;
(3) it is usually helpful for the surfaces to be other than perfectly smooth—a
slightly roughened surface increases the effective contact area and promotes
mechanical interlocking.
 23

JOINT DESIGN
 24

JOINT DESIGN
 25

Adhesive Types
Natural adhesives are derived from natural sources (e.g., plants and
animals), including gums, starch, dextrin, soy flour, and collagen. This
category of adhesive is generally limited to low-stress applications, such as
cardboard cartons, furniture, and bookbinding; or where large surface areas
are involved (e.g., plywood).
Inorganic adhesives are based principally on sodium silicate and
magnesium oxychloride. Although relatively low in cost, they are also low in
strength—a serious limitation in a structural adhesive.
Synthetic adhesives constitute the most important category in
manufacturing. They include a variety of thermoplastic and thermosetting
polymer snthetic.
26
 27

Advantages of Adhesive Bonding

(1) the process is applicable to a wide variety of materials;
(2) parts of different sizes and cross sections can be joined—fragile parts can be
joined by adhesive bonding;
(3) bonding occurs over the entire surface area of the joint, rather than in discrete
spots or along seams as in fusion welding, thereby distributing stresses over the
entire area;
(4) some adhesives are flexible after bonding and are thus tolerant of cyclical
loading and differences in thermal expansion of adherends;
(5) low temperature curing avoids damage to parts being joined;
(6) sealing as well as bonding can be achieved;
(7) joint design is often simplified (e.g., two flat surfaces can be joined without
providing special part features such as screw holes).
 28

Disadvantages of Adhesive Bonding

(1) joints are generally not as strong as other joining methods;
(2) adhesive must be compatible with materials being joined;
(3) service temperatures are limited;
(4) cleanliness and surface preparation prior to application of adhesive are
important;
(5) curing times can impose a limit on production rates;
(6) inspection of the bonded joint is difficult.
 29

MECHANICAL ASSEMBLY
• Many consumer products are produced using mechanical
assembly: automobiles, large and small appliances,
telephones, furniture, are ‘‘assembled’’ by mechanical means.
• In addition, industrial products such as airplanes, machine
tools, and construction equipment almost always involve
mechanical assembly.
 30

Industrial Application Area

Mechanical fastening methods can be divided into
two major classes:
(1) those that allow for disassembly; screws,
bolts, and nuts
(2) those that create a permanent joint; rivets

• The main reasons are;

(1) ease of assembly,
(2) ease of disassembly (for the fastening methods that permit
disassembly).
 31

MECHANICAL ASSEMBLY
• Mechanical assembly methods can be divided
into the following categories:
(1) threaded fasteners,
(2) rivets,
(3) interference fits,
(4) other mechanical fastening methods,
(5) molded-in inserts and integral fasteners.
 32

THREADED FASTENERS- SCREWS,

BOLTS, AND NUTS

Typical assemblies using: (a) bolt and nut, and (b) screw.

(a) Stud and nuts used for assembly. Other stud types: (b)threadsononeendonly
and (c) double-end stud.
 33

Stresses and Strengths in Bolted

Joints
 34

RIVETS AND EYELETS

• Rivets are widely used for achieving a permanent mechanically
fastened joint.
• Riveting is a fastening method that offers high production rates,
simplicity, dependability, and low cost.
• Despite these apparent advantages, its applications have declined in
recent decades in favor of threaded fasteners, welding, and adhesive
bonding.
• Riveting is one of the primary fastening processes in the aircraft and
aerospace industries for joining skins to channels and other structural
members.
 35

Rivet
• A rivet is an unthreaded, headed pin used to join two (or more)
parts by passing the pin through holes in the parts and then
forming (upsetting) a second head in the pin on the opposite
side.
• The deforming operation can be performed hot or cold (hot
working or cold working), and by hammering or steady
pressing.
• Once the rivet has been deformed, it cannot be removed except
by breaking one of the heads.
• Rivets are specified by their length, diameter, head, and
type.
 36

Types of Rivets

Five basic rivet types, also shown in assembled configuration: (a) solid,
(b)tubular, (c) semi tubular, (d) bifurcated,and (e) compression.
 37

The tooling and methods used in riveting can be divided

into the following categories:

The tooling and methods used in riveting can be divided into the following categories:
(1) impact, in which a pneumatic hammer delivers a succession of blows to upset the
rivet;
(2) steady compression, in which the riveting tool applies a continuous squeezing
pressure to upset the rivet;
(3) a combination of impact and compression.
 38

Eyelet
• Eyelets are thin-walled tubular fasteners with a flange on one end, usually
made from sheet metal.
• They are used to produce a permanent lap joint between two (or more) flat
parts.
• Eyelets are substituted for rivets in low-stress applications to save material,
weight, and cost.

Fastening with an eyelet: (a) the eyelet, and (b)assembly sequence:

(1) inserting the eyelet through the hole and
(2) setting operation.
 WELDING

• Welding may be described as a metal-working process in

which metals are joined by heating them to the melting
point and allowing the molten portions to fuse or flow
together

• Cohesive force with like material

 40

WELDING

• Welding involves localized coalescence or joining together of two

metallic parts at their faying surfaces.
• The faying surfaces are the part surfaces in contact or close
proximity that are to be joined.
• Welding is usually performed on parts made of the same metal,
but some welding operations can be used to join dissimilar metals.
 41

WELDING
• Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are
coalesced at their contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat
and/or pressure.
• Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone, with no
pressure applied; others by a combination of heat and pressure; and still
others by pressure alone, with no external heat supplied.
• In some welding processes a filler material is added to facilitate
coalescence.
• The assemblage of parts that are joined by welding is called a
weldment.
 42

Terminological Elements of Welding Process

• The terminological elements of welding process are;

▫ base metal, fusion zone, weld face, root face, root
opening, toe and root

Rajender Singh, Introduction to Basic Manufacturing

Processes and Workshop Technology, New Age
International (P) Ltd., Publishers, 2006, ISBN (10) : 81-
224-2316-7.
 43

Edge preparations
• For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared
first.
• Different edge preparations may be used for welding joints.

Rajender Singh, Introduction to Basic Manufacturing

Processes and Workshop Technology, New Age
International (P) Ltd., Publishers, 2006, ISBN (10) : 81-
224-2316-7.
 44

ADVANTAGES of WELDING
• Welding provides a permanent joint. The welded parts become a single entity.
• The welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a filler metal is used that has
strength properties superior to those of the parents, and if proper welding techniques are
used.
• Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in terms of material usage
and fabrication costs.
• Alternative mechanical methods of assembly require more complex shape alterations (e.g.,
drilling of holes) and addition of fasteners (e.g., rivets or bolts).
• The resulting mechanical assembly is usually heavier than a corresponding weldment.
• Welding is not restricted to the factory environment. It can be accomplished ‘‘in the field.’’
 45

DISADVANTAGES of WELDING
• Most welding operations are performed manually and are expensive in terms of labor cost.
• Many welding operations are considered ‘‘skilled trades,’’ and the labor to perform these
operations may be scarce.
• Most welding processes are inherently dangerous because they involve the use of high
energy.
• Since welding accomplishes a permanent bond between the components, it does not allow
for convenient disassembly.
• If the product must occasionally be disassembled (e.g., for repair or maintenance), then
welding should not be used as the assembly method.
• The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects that are difficult to detect.
• The defects can reduce the strength of the joint.
 46

Application area of welding

(1) construction, such as buildings and bridges;
(2) piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage
tanks;
(3) shipbuilding;
(4) aircraft, aerospace;
(5) automotive and railroad
 47

Automation in Welding
• Machine welding,
• Automatic welding,
• Robotic welding.
 48

The Weld Joint

The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been joined
by welding
• Two issues about weld joints:
▫ Types of joints
▫ Types of welds used to join the pieces that form the joints
 49

Five Types of Joints

(a) Butt joint. In this joint type, the parts lie in the same plane and are joined at their edges.
(b) Corner joint. The parts in a corner joint form a right angle and are joined at the corner
of the angle.
(c) Lap joint. This joint consists of two overlapping parts.
(d) Tee joint. In a tee joint, one part is perpendicular to the other in the approximate shape
of the letter ‘‘T.’’
(e) Edge joint. The parts in an edge joint are parallel with at least one of their edges in
common, and the joint is made at the common edge(s).
 Types of weld

1. Fillet weld: Used in T joints,corner joints, lap joints.

2. Groove weld:Used in butt joints.
3. Plug weld: Used in lap joints.
4. Slot weld: Used in lap joints.
5. Spot weld: Used in lap joints.
6. Seam weld: Used in lap joints.
7. Flange weld:Used in edge joints.
8. Surfacing weld:Not a joining process, it is used to increase
the thickness of the plate, or provide a protective coating on
the surface.
50
 Fillet Weld Slot and Plug Weld

Groove weld

51
 52

Fillet Weld
• Used to fill in the edges of plates created by corner, lap, and tee
joints
• Filler metal used to provide cross section in approximate shape of
a right triangle
• Most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel welding
• Requires minimum edge preparation
 Fillet Welds
Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single fillet corner joint; (b)
outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double fillet lap joint; and (d)
double fillet tee joint. Dashed lines show the original part edges.
 54

Groove Welds

• Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a groove to facilitate

weld penetration
• Edge preparation increases cost of parts fabrication
• Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U, and J, in single or
double sides
• Most closely associated with butt joints
 Groove Welds
Figure 30.4 Some groove welds: (a) square groove weld, one side; (b)
single bevel groove weld; (c) single V-groove weld; (d) single U-groove
weld; (e) single J-groove weld; (f) double V-groove weld for thicker
sections. Dashed lines show original part edges.
 Plug welds and slot welds
• Plug welds and slot welds are used for attaching flat plates, using
one or more holes or slots in the top part and then filling with
filler metal to fuse the two parts together.

(a) Plug weld; and (b) slot weld

 Flange weld and Surfacing weld
• A flange weld is made on the edges of two (or more) parts, usually
sheet metal or thin plate, at least one of the parts being flanged.
• A surfacing weld is not used to join parts, but rather to deposit filler
metal onto the surface of a base part in one or more weld beads

(a) Flange weld; and (b) surfacing weld.

 Spot Weld

Fused section between surfaces of two plates

• Used for lap joints
• Closely associated with resistance welding

Figure
30.6 (a)
Spot
weld
 59

Physics of Welding
• Fusion is most common means of achieving coalescence in welding
• To accomplish fusion, a source of high density heat energy must be
supplied to the faying surfaces, so the resulting temperatures cause
localized melting of base metals (and filler metal, if used)
• For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to melt the metal with
minimum energy but high heat densities
 60

Features of Fusion Welded Joint

Typical fusion weld joint in which filler metal has been added
consists of:
• Fusion zone
• Weld interface
• Heat affected zone (HAZ)
• Unaffected base metal zone
 61

Heat Affected Zone

• Metal has experienced temperatures below melting point, but high
enough to cause microstructural changes in the solid metal.
• Chemical composition same as base metal, but this region has
been heat treated so that its properties and structure have been
altered
▫ Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is usually negative, and it is here
that welding failures often occur
 Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Figure 30.8 Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint: (a)

principal zones in the joint, and (b) typical grain structure.
 63

MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES I

Lecture 12

JOINING PROCESSES
 TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES
(1) Fusion welding
(1) Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)
(2) Arcwelding (AW)
(3) Resistance welding (RW)
(4) Other fusion-welding processes

(2) Solid-state welding

(1) Diffusion welding (DFW)
(2) Friction welding (FRW)
(3) Ultrasonic welding (USW)
 Fusion Welding
• Fusion-welding processes use heat to melt the base metals.
• In many fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added to
the molten pool to facilitate the process and provide bulk and
strength to the welded joint.
• A fusion-welding operation in which no filler metal is added is
referred to as an autogenous weld.

• Certain arc and oxyfuel processes are also used for cutting
metals
 66

Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW)

• These joining processes use an oxyfuel gas, such as a mixture of

oxygen and acetylene, to produce a hot flame for melting the base
metal and filler metal, if one is used.
 67

OXYFUEL WELDING
 68

Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

• It is a fusion-welding process performed by a high-temperature flame
from combustion of acetylene and oxygen.
• The flame is directed by a welding torch.
• A filler metal is sometimes added, and pressure is occasionally applied
in OAW between the contacting part surfaces
 69

Oxyacetylene Gas Welding

Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations:
(a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame.
The gas mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene. (d) The principle of
the oxyfuel-gas welding operation.
 70

Oxyacetylene Torch

The acetylene valve is opened first; the

gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot
light; then the oxygen valve is opened
and the flame adjusted.

Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-gas welding. To ensure correct connections, all threads on acetylene
fittings are left-handed, whereas those for oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen regulators are usually painted
green, and acetylene regulators red.
 71

Oxyfuel gas welding

71
 Arcwelding (AW)
• Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes in which
heating of the metals is accomplished by an electric arc.
• Some arc welding operations also apply pressure during the
process and most utilize a filler metal.

Basics of arc welding: (1) before the weld; (2) during the weld (the base metal is melted and filler metal is
added to the molten pool); and (3) the completed weldment. There are many variations of the arc-welding
process.
 73

ARC WELDING (AW)

• AW is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence of the metals is achieved by the heat
of an electric arc between an electrode and the work.
• The same basic process is also used in arc cutting.
• An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit.
• It is sustained by the presence of a thermally ionized column of gas (called a plasma)
through which current flows.
• To initiate the arc in an AW process, the electrode is brought into contact with the work
and then quickly separated from it by a short distance.
• The electric energy from the arc thus formed produces temperatures of 5500 C or higher,
sufficiently hot to melt any metal.
• A pool of molten metal, consisting of base metal(s) and filler metal (if one is used) is
formed near the tip of the electrode.
• In most arc welding processes, filler metal is added during the operation to increase the
volume and strength of the weld joint
 74

Arc Welding
• Productivity of arc welding is often measured as arc time (also
called arc-on time)— the proportion of hours worked that arc
welding is being accomplished:

▫ Arc time = time arc is on / hours worked

 75

Arc Welding

75
 76

Arc Welding-Electrodes
• Consumable electrodes provide the source of the filler metal in arc
welding.
▫ These electrodes are available in two principal forms: rods (also called sticks)
and wire.
▫ Welding rods are typically 225 to 450 mm long and 9.5 mm or less in
diameter.
▫ The problem with consumable welding rods, at least in production welding
operations, is that they must be changed periodically, reducing arc time of the
welder.

• Non-consumable electrodes are made of tungsten (or carbon,

rarely), which resists melting by the arc.
 77

Arc Welding-Arc Shielding

• At the high temperatures in arc welding, the metals being joined are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the air.
• The mechanical properties of the weld joint can be seriously degraded by
these reactions.
• Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip, arc, and
molten weld pool with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibit
exposure of the weld metal to air.
• Common shielding gases include argon and helium, both of which are
inert.
• In the welding of ferrous metals with certain AW processes, oxygen and
carbon dioxide are used, usually in combination with Ar and/or He, to
produce an oxidizing atmosphere or to control weld shape.
 78

Arc Welding-Arc Shielding

• Flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of oxides and other unwanted
contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.
• During welding, the flux melts and becomes a liquid slag, covering the operation and
protecting the molten weld metal.
• Flux is usually formulated to serve several additional functions:
(1) provide a protective atmosphere for welding,
(2) stabilize the arc,
(3) reduce spattering.
• The method of flux application differs for each process. The delivery techniques include;
(1) pouring granular flux onto the welding operation,
(2) using a stick electrode coated with flux material in which the coating melts during
welding to cover the operation,
(3) using tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the core and released as the
electrode is consumed.
 79

Power Source in Arc Welding

• Direct current (DC),
• Alternating current (AC)

• AC machines are less expensive to purchase and

operate, but are generally restricted to welding
of ferrous metals.
• DC equipment can be used on all metals with
good results and is generally noted for better arc
control.
P= Power, W;
E= voltage,V;
P = IE I= current, A.
 80

Power Source in Arc Welding

 81

Consumable Electrode Arc Welding

Processes

 Shielded metal arc welding,

 Gas metal arc welding,
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding
 Submerged arc welding,
 Electrogas Welding
 82

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

• Filler metal rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding.
• Typically 225 to 450mm long and 2.5 to 9.5 mm in diameter.
• The filler metal used in the rod must be compatible with the metal to be welded, the
composition usually being very close to that of the base metal.
• The coating consists of powdered cellulose (i.e., cotton and wood powders) mixed
with oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients, held together by a silicate binder.
• Currents typically used in SMAW range between 30 and 300 A at voltages from 15 to
45 V.
• Selection of the proper power parameters depends on the metals being welded,
electrode type and length, and depth of weld penetration required.
 83

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

• Performed manually.
• Common applications include;
▫ construction,
▫ pipelines,
▫ machinery structures,
▫ Ship building,
▫ job shop fabrication,
▫ repair work.

• It is preferred over oxyfuel welding for thicker sections—above 5

mm because of its higher power density.
 84

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process.

About 50% of all large-scale industrial welding operations use this
process.
 85

Advantages-Disadvantages

• The equipment is portable and low cost, making SMAW highly versatile and probably the
most widely used of the AW processes.

• A disadvantage of SMAW is the use of the consumable electrode stick. As the sticks are
used up, they must periodically be changed. This reduces the arc time with this welding
process.
• An other limitation is the current level that can be used. Because the electrode length
varies during the operation and this length affects the resistance heating of the electrode.
 86

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

• GMAW is an AW process in which the electrode is a consumable bare metal wire, and
shielding is accomplished by flooding the arc with a gas.
• The bare wire is fed continuously and automatically from a spool through the welding
gun.
• Wire diameters ranging from 0.8 to 6.5mm are used in GMAW, the size depending on
the thickness of the parts being joined and the desired deposition rate.
• Gases used for shielding include inert gases such as argon and helium, and active gases
such as carbon dioxide.
• Selection of gases (and mixtures of gases) depends on the metal being welded, as well
as other factors.
• Inert gases are used for welding aluminum alloys and stainless steels, while CO2 is
commonly used for welding low and medium carbon steels.
 87

(a) Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process, formerly known as MIG (for
metal inert gas) welding. (b) Basic equipment used in gas metal-arc welding operations.
 88

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

• It was applied to the welding of aluminum using inert gas (argon) for arc shielding. The
name applied to this process was MIG welding (for metal inert gas welding).
• When the same welding process was applied to steel, it was found that inert gases were
expensive and CO2 was used as a substitute.
• Hence the term CO2 welding was applied. Refinements in GMAW for steel welding have
led to the use of gas mixtures, including CO2 and argon, and even oxygen and argon.
 89

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)

• It is an arc-welding process in which the electrode is a
continuous consumable tubing that contains flux and other
ingredients in its core.
• There are two versions of FCAW:
▫ (1) self-shielded: arc shielding was provided by a flux core
▫ (2) gas shielded: it utilizes an electrode containing its own flux
together with separate shielding gases.
 90

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)

Fluxcored arc welding. The presence or absence of externally supplied shielding gas
distinguishes the two types: (1) self-shielded, in which the core provides the ingredients for
shielding; and(2)gasshielded, in which external shielding gases are supplied.
 91

Electrogas welding (EGW)

• It is an AW process that uses a continuous consumable electrode (either flux-
cored wire or bare wire with externally supplied shielding gases) and molding
shoes to contain the molten metal.
• The process is primarily applied to vertical butt welding.
• Principal applications of electrogas welding are steels (low- and medium-
carbon, low-alloy, and certain stainless steels) in the construction of large
storage tanks and in shipbuilding. Stock thicknesses from 12 to 75 mm.
 92

Electrogas welding (EGW)

Electrogas welding using flux-cored electrode wire

(a) front view with molding shoe removed for clarity, and (b) side view
showing molding shoes on both sides.
 93

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

• It is an arc-welding process that uses a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, and arc shielding is provided by a cover of granular flux.
• The electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into the arc.
• The flux is introduced into the joint slightly ahead of the weld arc by gravity
from a hoppe.
• The blanket of granular flux completely submerges the welding operation,
preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation that are so hazardous in other AW
processes.
 94

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

• Steel plates of 25-mm thickness and heavier are routinely welded by this
process.
• Low-carbon, low-alloy, and stainless steels can be readily welded by SAW;
but not high-carbon steels, tool steels, and most nonferrous metals.
 95

Nonconsumable Electrode Arc

Welding Processes
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding,
• Plasma Arc Welding,
• Other Arc-Welding and Related Processes.
 96

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

• IT is an AW process that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an
inert gas for arc shielding.
• The term TIG welding (tungsten inert gas welding) is often applied to this
process (in Europe, WIG welding is the term—the chemical symbol for
tungsten is W, for Wolfram).
• GTAW can be implemented with or without a filler metal.
• Tungsten is a good electrode material due to its high melting point of 3410
C.
• Typical shielding gases include argon, helium, or a mixture of these gas
elements.
 97

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

• Its most common applications are for aluminum and stainless steel.
• Cast irons, wrought irons, and of course tungsten are difficult to weld by GTAW.
• In steel welding applications, GTAW is generally slower and more costly than the consumable
electrode AW processes, except when thin sections are involved and very-high-quality welds are
required.
• When thin sheets are TIG welded to close tolerances, fillermetal is usually not added.
 98

Plasma arc welding (PAW)

• It is a special form of gas tungsten arc welding in which a constricted plasma
arc is directed at the weld area.
• In PAW, a tungsten electrode is contained in a specially designed nozzle that
focuses a high-velocity stream of inert gas (e.g., argon or argon–hydrogen
mixtures) into the region of the arc to form a highvelocity, intensely hot
plasma arc stream.
• Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 17,000C.
 99

Other Arc-Welding and Related

Processes
• Carbon arc welding (CAW) is an arc-welding process in which
a nonconsumable carbon (graphite) electrode is used.

• Stud welding (SW) is a specialized AW process for joining

studs or similar components to base parts.
 100

Arc Welding & Cutting

• Application
▫ Applies to a large and varied group of processes that use an electric
arc as the source of heat to melt and join metals.
• Installation
▫ Arc welding requires proper installation of equipment.
▫ A critical part of installation is ensuring that proper grounding is
completed.
 Arc Welding and Cutting
• Definition:
▫ A fusion process wherein the coalescence of the metals is
achieved from the heat of an electric arc formed between an
electrode and the work.
 Application
 Installation
 Operation & Maintenance
 102

Resistance Welding
Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion-welding processes
that uses a combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence, the heat being generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at the junction to be welded.

Two opposing electrodes, a means of applying pressure

to squeeze the parts between the electrodes, and an AC
power supply from which a controlled current can be
applied.
The operation results in a fused zone between the two
parts, called a weld nugget in spot welding.
 103

Resistance Welding
 Spot Welding,
 Seam Welding,
 Projection Welding,
 104

Spot Welding
A process typically used in high-volume, rapid welding
applications.
 The pieces to be joined are clamped between two electrodes
under force, and an electrical current is sent through them.

(1) parts inserted between open electrodes, (2) electrodes close and force is applied,
(3) weld time current is switched on, (4) current is turned off but force is maintained or increased (a
reduced current is sometimes applied near the end of this step for stress relief in the weld region), and
(5) electrodes are opened, and the welded assembly is removed.
 105

Press-type spot welders

 106

Resistance Seam Welding

• In resistance seam welding (RSEW), the stick-
shaped electrodes in spot welding are replaced
by rotating wheels,
 107

Different types of seams produced by electrode wheels

(a) conventional resistance seam welding, in which overlapping spots are

produced; (b) roll spot welding; and (c) continuous resistance seam.
 108

Resistance projection welding (RPW)

• It is an RW process in which coalescence occurs at one or more
relatively small contact points on the parts.
 109

Flash welding (FW)

• Normally used for butt joints, the two surfaces to be joined are brought
into contact or near contact and electric current is applied to heat the
surfaces to the melting point, after which the surfaces are forced together
to form the weld.
 110

Advantages of resistance welding

(1) no filler metal is required,
(2) high production rates are possible,
(3) lends itself to mechanization and automation,
(4) operator skill level is lower than that required for arc
welding,
(5) good repeatability and reliability.
Disadvantages of resistance welding
(1) equipment cost is high—usually much higher than most
arc-welding operations,
(2) types of joints that can be welded are limited to lap joints
for most RW processes.
 111

High-frequency resistance welding

(HFRW)
 112

Other fusion-welding processes

• Other welding processes that produce fusion of the metals joined
include;
▫ electron beam welding,
▫ laser beam welding.
 113

Arc Welding Machines

Arc • Generator (DC),
welding
• Inverter (DC),
AC DC
• Transformer (AC).
welding welding

• DC welding are used for all types of welding{thick or thin material},

• AC welding machine are not because AC welding polarity are not fixed.
 Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Alternating Current (from Transformer)

More efficiency
Power consumption less
Cost of equipment is less
Higher voltage – hence not safe
Not suitable for welding non ferrous metals
Not preferred for welding thin sections
Any terminal can be connected to the work or electrode
 Comparison of A.C. and D.C. arc welding

Direct Current (from Generator)

Less efficiency
Power consumption more
Cost of equipment is more
Low voltage – safer operation
suitable for both ferrous non ferrous metals
preferred for welding thin sections
Positive terminal connected to the work
Negative terminal connected to the electrode
 116

Solid-State Welding
• Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which
coalescence results from application of pressure alone
or a combination of heat and pressure.
• If heat is used, the temperature in the process is below
the melting point of the metals being welded.
• No filler metal is utilized.
 117

Diffusion welding (DFW)

• Two surfaces are held together under pressure at an elevated
temperature and the parts coalesce by solid-state diffusion.

Ultrasonic welding (USW)

• Moderate pressure is applied between the two parts and an
oscillating motion at ultrasonic frequencies is used in a direction
parallel to the contacting surfaces.
 118

Friction welding (FRW)

Coalescence is achieved by the heat of friction between
two surfaces.
119
 120

REFERENCES
• Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern
Manufacturing Materials,Processes,andSystems Fourth
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Rajender Singh, Introduction to Basic Manufacturing
Processes and Workshop Technology, New Age
International (P) Ltd., Publishers, 2006, ISBN (10) : 81-
224-2316-7.