5.

1. Indo - Greeks
1000 BC Native 2. Syathians South
Ruler 3. Parthians Ruler
Iron Discovery 4. Kushans
1. Sungas 1. Cholas
2. Kanvas Foreign 2. Cheras
Stone Copper 3. Satavahanas Ruler 3. Pandyas
Age Age
Early Later Sisunag
Haryanka Nanda
Pre-historic Vedic Post-
Period Period Magadh Mauryas

I.V.C Mahajanpadas Mauryas Guptas Post-

Harappan Guptas
Civilization Buddhism Jainism
South- North-
India India
Chalukya Vardhana
Pallavas Dynasty
 History
3. Pre-History3. Proto-History History
1. Phase of earlyman 1. Early civilization 1. Complete civilization
2. Excavations- tools, 2. Archeological evidences 2. Inscriptions, written
bones etc. etc. records etc.

Earth is approx 4000 million years old.

CRUST Evolution 4 stages 4th stage = Quaternary
3.
Climate change
Pleistocene Holocene
1. 2000000BC- 10000 BC 1. 10000BC -Present
2. Most Recent Period 2. Warmer conditions
3. Mammoth Animal existed
4. Inter-glaciation period.
 Stone Age

Palaeolithic Age Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age

(Old Stone Age) (Middle Stone Age) (New Stone Age)
( 5,00,000-10,000) BC (10,000-4000) BC (9,000 - 1000) BC

Lower Middle Upper

Palaeolithic Age Palaeolithic Age Palaeolithic Age
(5,00,000-50,000)BC (50,000-40,000)BC (40,000-10,000) BC
Major Part - Ice Age 1. End of Ice Age
2. Modern Humans homosapiene,
3. Fragments of Ostrich egg shell used
as bowls, beads

Pliestocene Period Holocene Period

Warmer Condition
 Climate

Tools Settlement

Occupation
 Palaeolithic Age
Total 566
Lower Middle Upper sites

Ice Age = Colder High Altitude=Ice Last phase of Ice Age

Climate Tropical area: Climate getting
(Fire Discovery)
💡 💡 Rainfall warmer
💡
No knowledge of No knowledge of No knowledge of
house making, lived house making, lived house making, lived in
in caves, rock in caves, rock caves, rock shelter
💡
💡 shelter shelter
💡 Because of warm
3 important sites: - Lower & Middle temperature aridity
Settlement 1. Belan valley Palaeolitic
💡 sites coïncides increased in Rajasthan
(Mirzapur UP)
2. Soan Valley (Punjab) Other sites: Upper palaeolithic sites
3. Bhimbetka (MP) 1. Didwana,Rajasthan reduced
💡 in this region.
Sandstone & 2. Maharashtra Belan valley in UP
Quartzite (Raw 3. Ajmer animal bones were found
Material) 4. Vishakhapatham
Muchchetla chintamanu
People made 5. Narmada
gavi (kurhool, Andhra
tools from it Pradesh)
 No knowledge of No knowledge of No knowledge of
Occupation agriculture agriculture agriculture
Hunting & Food Gathering. Hunting & Food Gathering. Hunting & Food Gathering.
4. 5.
1. Hand axes 1. Flake-based tools 1. Flint-based industry
2. Cleavers 2. Scrappers 2. Parallel sided blades
3. Pebble tools 3. Borers 3. Burins (screw
drivers) (to do hole
Flake in the wood)
4. Handle:-Wood or
Tools bone

Core
 Ice age ended Mesolithic Age Environment change

But climate change

Climate=warmer
was not uniform. Ice Melt
Rivers formed
Berhanpore W.B
Flora & fauna
Aridity
(A) Human beings started to
move to new settlements

(C) (B) Didwana,

Eastern M.P Rajasthan
Climate Wet & Rainfall (High)
warm
Settlement: -
1. Adamgarh, MP
2. Bagor, Rajasthan } Earliest evidence of domestication of animals

3. Belan,UP Plant domestication + Animal domestication

4. Damdama & mahadaha Burials
5. Mirzapur,UP Pottery

Occupation:-
Hunting & Food Gathering + Fishing
Domestication of animals, animal husbandary
Tools:- Microliths (1 cm-5cm) = made up of Quartzite, Chert, zasper, Agate

Geometric Non-Geometric
Pre-historic Paintings:- Palaeolithic + Mesolithic Age

Bhimbedka caves 500 + painted rock shelters

Birds/Animals Hunting

7000 BC
Indian Subcontinent
9000 BC
Several areas Neolithic Age Mehrgarh
World contest

6500 yrs ago = 💡 Occupation

ie 4500BC Beginning of settled life

Potter's wheel Construction of Houses Mud Houses (Circular or

developed Rectangular)
Grannies for storing grains
Pottery for eating food & storing grains
Farming but plough not available use of celts to
 Tools:- Polished stone tools stone axes, bone tools, microlith blades
Settlements:- Based on the type of axes used, neolithic sites can be seen in
three reasons

North- North- Southern

western Eastern 1. Piklihal cattle

Karnataka
1. Mehrgarh Bread basket 1. Assam herding
of Baluchistan ( Evidences 2. Garo hills of 2. Sangakallu
of wheat & Barley) meghalaya 3. Hallur
3. Chopani mondo 4. Maski
2. Burzahom Kashmir sites
5. Utunur Ash Mound
3. Gufkral Kashmir sites
6. Kupgal
4. Chirard Bone tools

5. Koldihwa Rice cultivation

 Burzahom

Economy:- Bone tools

Hunting, Fishing, Agriculture,

Animal domestication Gufkral Cave of potter

Bone tools
 Chalcolithic Age
(4000BC-700 BC)
The use of copper alongside stone is called as Copper-Stone Age
Pottery became prevalent during this age.
Chalcolithic sites:-
Southern Ahar/Banas Culture ( Ahar, Gilund,
Rajasthan. Ganeshwar (2200-1500BC)

Associated with pottery &

copper use.
Kayatha Culture
Chambal
Northern Western (2450-2000 BC)
Maharashtra M.P Malwa Culture
Jorwe Culture Jorwe, Navdatoli, Eran
Daimabad, Inamgaon.
(1400 - 700 BC)
 💡
The use of copper and addition of tin to form bronze is found
Chalcolithic Culture:- Copper-Stone
Skill in Pottery Age Teracotta figurines
mother goddess &
animals([Link])

Skilled copper Rural

smelters Economy

Burnt Bricks were not

used in making houses
Tiny &small (mud was used)
tools were used Copper did not Exception:-Gilund
replace stone
Distinct
💡 chalcolithic culture: -
Ahar - Banas Culture:-
1. Also called Banas Culture.
2. Historically referred to as Tambawati ,signifying its copper production.
3. Advance Knowledge of Copper smelting.
4. Black and red ware pottery
5. Bronze items were also discovered at some sites.
6. Found along Ahar river in south eastern Rajasthan.
7. Gilund: known for stone blade Industry. Fragments of copper & evidence of
burnt bricks structure were found.
8. Ganeshwar: supply copper to harappan civilization.
💡 Balathal: mud fortification
9.
Malwa Culture:-
1. Sites include Daimabad, Inamgaon, Kayastha, Nagda, Vidisha, eran, Mandsaur, and
navdatoli
2. Copper and stone used to make tools.
3. Beads of precious stones found.
4. Pottery: - red, orange and pointed with geometric, floral, animal & human design.
5. Nardatoli findings: - cereal, fire altars, pit storage human figure in pottery
💡
Kayatha Culture:-
1. Found in ujjáin district of MP.
2. Pre-malwa ware culture.
3. Kayatha & Eran were fortified sites.
4. Microliths found.
5. No plough or hoe were found
6. Over 40 sites were excavated including Kayatha & Dangwada
7. Tools and ornaments:- Beads, Copper axes, Bangles necklaces.
8. Features:- jars, red combed ware, no complete house plan, mud reed houses,
💡mud plastered floors, ate tortoise , no grains remains founds
Jorwe Culture:-
1. Found on the bank of Godavari River in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra
2. Found throughout maharashtra, M.P & other states
3. Semi arid area with black soil
4. Materal vegitation: Babul & ber
5. Crops cultivated: barley, wheat & lentils
6. Major sites: Inamgaon & Daimabad (Both fortified)
7. Daimabad:- One of the largest sites influenced by ivc seals, bronze object like
rhino, buffalo elephant
8. Inamgaon: - Crop rotation, settlement planning, artificial irrigation, circular
pit house
Chalcolithic Tools :-
Tools made of ting stone blade and axes, with a flourishing stone blade industry
Housing & Construction: -
Use of mud bricks and rectangular or circular houses
Stone houses in ahar
wattle and daub constructions found. A construction technique involving
wooden lattice (wattle) covered with mud (daub)
Burnt bricks were not commonly used except in Gilund.
Arts & crafts :-
Copper smith work, skilled stone workers
Beads (mala)
Art of spinning & weaving
Artisans including potters, smiths, and terracotta artisans
Pottery: -
Black & Red pottery prevalent from 2000 BC onward.
Wheel-thrown & occasionally painted with white linear designs.
Channel-spouted pots, dishes on stand, bowls on stand found in Maharashtra,
MP, Bihar
Block & red ware pottery varied across regions
Ochre coloured Pottery (OCP) :-
Red-slipped ware
Looked like a degenerated form of Harappan pottery
Copper hoards associated with OCP culture
Largest copper hoards from Gungeria, MP
Domestication & Agriculture:-
Domesticated animals & practised agriculture
Animals includes- cow, sleep, goat, pigs, buffaloes
Hunting of deer, some knowledge of camels, horses, donkeys, and wild ass.
Crop Production:-
Wheat, rice, and bajra were staple crops
Cultivation of pulses- lentil, black gram, green gram, grass pea.
Cotton production in the Deccan region
Ragi, bajra & millets also cultivated.
Burial Practices & Religious Cults:-
Urn burial under house floors.
Elaborate burials with utensils, food grains etc.
Worshipping terracotta figurine of mother goddess and bull cult.
Limitations of Chalcolithic Period:-
Did not use milk for drinking and diary products, couldn't make full
use of animals
Did not practise intensive or extensive cultivation
Did not took advantage of connection with harappans
Cities did not grow, Rural community not advanced like harappans
High infant mortality rate.
Lack of nutrients and medical knowledge
Did not know writing.
Earliest civilization:-
1. Mesopotamian civilization along the Tigris & euphrates rivers.
2. Egyptian civilization near the Nile river
3. Indus Valley Civilization along the Indus River
4. Chinese civilization near the Yellow River (Huang Ho)

Indus Valley civilization (Bronze age)

Named by John Marshal (3000BC - 1700BC)
Harappa Excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921.
more then 1500 sites
Important sites like mohenjodaro, harappa, lothal
Phases of IVC:-

Pre-Harappan Phase Mature Harappan Phase Late Harappan Phase

(3000-2600) BCE (2600 - 1900)BCE (1900-1700)BCE
Early stage of settlement Peak of urbanisation Decline of urban centres, with some
& development and city planning evidence of migrations & shift in
settement patterns. Eg Rangpur.
Extension:- Manda
Chenab River
(J&K)
North

Sutkagendor Alamgirpur
West East
(Balochistan) (U.P)

Dasht River Hindon River

South
Daimabad Pravara River
(Maharashtra)
Other important sites of I.V.C
Ropar Ravi River
Harappa Ravi River
Mehenjo-Daro, Kot Diji, Chunhudaro, Alladinho Indus River
Banawali & Kalibangan Ghaggar -Hakra River
Dholavira didn't have a direct river but may have utilised ocean water from the
near by Runn of Kutch region during that time.
Kalibangan, known for evidence of ploughed fields.
Lothal , famous for its dockyard.
Dholavira, located in present day Gujarat.
Sutkagendor and surkotda in Balochistan.
The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro
Large rectangular tank located within the citadel , Surrounded by small rooms
likely used for changing before & after bathing.
Bricks made up of gypsum mortar for water tight & tank were lined with
bitumen (tar) to prevent water lackage
Believed to have been used for ritualistic purposes.
 Town Planning in the harappan: -
Great
Granary Grid System
Mohenjo-Daro had a Streets intersected
large granary used for at right angles
storing surplus grain.

Upper & Drainage

lower Towns System

Both are located at different Covered drains ran along

location the streets
Citadel (upper town) located
at elevated platform. Use of Burnt
Lower town: - where the Bricks
common people lived.
For making the buildings durable and
long-lasting, baked bricks were used.
Agriculture in IVC:-
IVC was fertile with more natural vegetation.
Annual inundation by the Indus River.
Walls made of burnt bricks were raised to protect from floods.
Use of Gabardbands or nala for storing water.
No ploughshare has been discovered, but there is evidence of wooden ploughs..
Evidence of ploughed field in Kalibangan
Crops:- Wheat, Barley, Rai (Mustard) peas and rice (evidence from Lothal)
Granaries consist of two rows and were built close to the river, used to store
food grains like wheat.
Harappan Culture & Society
Housing:- single roomed
Religious practices:- no temples, worshipped an earth mother goddess
(depicted on seals) & phallus (lingam) symbol. Earth Mother seal :- Nude
women, head down wards with legs apart and a plant issuing out of her vagina.
Artefacts like the red sandstone Nude male Torso have been found.
Burial Practices:- buried in an extended portion ( head in North direction),
Goods were not burried with the dead.
 Entertainment:- Dice Games
Cemeteries & burrials:- Coffins were made of wood. Cemeteries were located
outside the cities and a Post -Harappan burial site called R-37(200 burials)
were discovered in an H-Type gave pattern.

Mohenjo-Daro. (mound of the dead)

Discovered by R.D. Banarjee in 1922
Situated modern day in Sindh, Pakistan ,. largest site of IVC
2nd discovered site of IVC located near the Indus River.
Town Planning:-
Citadel: - a raised area of the city that housed the administrative and ruler's
building & structures.
Great Bath:- used for ritualistic bathing
Multi Pillared Hall:- structure with numerous pillers, possibly used for
gatherings or administration.
Great Granary:- large wooden structure, the largest building in citadel likely
used for grain storage demonstrating advanced urban planning & management
of food supplies.
Seals:- found at Mohenjo-daro , made from steatite (soft stone), likely used
for trade, identity, education, and possibly for administrative purposes. Earth
Mother Seal:- Nude women, head down wards with legs apart and a plant
issuing out of her vagina. Swastika seal:- associated with protective function or
auspiciousness. Pashupati Mahadeva Seal:- seal with male deity surrounded by
an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, a buffalo below his throne and two deer at
his feet is identified as a Pashupati Mahadeva.
Priest-king statue: - made up of steatite (soopstone), representing an elite or
religious leader (Bearded priest having shawl decorated with trefoil pattern).
Famous dancing girl sculpture also found crafted using the lost- wax technique
Burial Practices:-
Complete Entire body is buried without
Burial modification

Post- Cremation Fractional

Burial Burial

After the body is cremated, only Dead body left for scavangers and
the ashes are buried only the remaining bones are
collected & buried later

Meluhha:- Mesopotamian term likely referring to the indus region.

Lothal:- mound of the dead
Excavated by S.R. Rao
Ist tidal water port. Dockyard
Found near river Bhogava.
Referred to as “Manchester of IVC” because it was major centre for trade or
industry.
Connected to Mesopotamia through trade.
Archaeological Findings:- Coppersmith's furnace, Persian Gulf Seal, fire altars,
Chess board , Bead factory, Double burial site, Evidence of rice cultivation.
The Citadel was not fortified.
Dholavira:-
Situated in the arid region of Kutch, Gujarat.
Located on the arid island of khadir.
Notable for sophisticated water conservation techniques including reservoirs
and large-scale water storage. Importance of managing scarce water resource
in the arid climate.
Architecture:- use of large stone blocks in construction different from other
IVC sites which primarily used baked bricks , Polished Pillars, 2 stone pillars in
the citadel.
 Cemetery:- located outside the city or fortification. Evidence of megalithic burial
suggesting special funerary practices.
Inscribed as UNESCO World Heritage Site as an exceptional example of Urban
planning and architecture of the IVC.
Domestication of Animals at IVC
Oxen, buffalo goat, sheep, pigs, humped bull, dogs and cats and Camels no
evidence of cows.
Horses:- Evidence found at mohenjo-daro (terracotta), lothal (terracotta clay)
and surkotada (remains of horses). not with conclusive proof. Harappan city
was "not horse centred"
Wild animals: - Elephants and Rhinoceres.
Technology and craft in IVC
Import of tin from Afghanistan for creating Bronze. Bronze was a significant
part of Chalcolithic culture indicating copper and tin usage from mines like
those in Khetri.
Crafts :- Spindle whorls ( used in weaving), Bricklaying, Boat making, Seal
making & terracotta figurines, Bead Making, Pottery, Goldsmithing & Jewellery
 Exports Stone, metal and shell

Trade in IVC
Copper, tin, wheel,
Imports ekka (transportation
innovations or carts.)
Script of IVC
Script was pictorial (like hieroglyphics or early form of writing).
Harappans did not produce lengthy written records indicating a different
kind of record keeping or communication system compared to later civilization.
Post Urban Phase of Harappan Culture :-
Sometimes called sub-indus culture, this phase saw significant change such as
pottery change and emergence of new people.
Decline of IVC
Possible cause includes:- floods, earthquake, plague etc.
Aryan invasion
Internal conflict and clashes.
 Vedic Period
Aryans:-
Originated in the steppes, ranging from Southern Russia to Central Asia.
Spoke Indo-European language sharing common terms for various aspects like
flora, fauna, mountains & rivers.
Economy was based on pastoralism & agriculture
Horses played a crucial sole, facilitating swift migration to western Asia and
aiding in warfare through the use of chariots
Male dominated society.
First appeared in Central Asian & Iran region.
The term ‘Arya’ is mentioned 36 times in Rigveda, the earliest text of the Indo -
European language family.
Rigveda divided into 10 mandals contains players for gods like Indra, Varuna,
Agni and Mitra.
Evidence:-
Rigveda:- shares similarities with the Avesta, an Iranian text in the names of
several god.
2200 BC inscription:- Provides the evidences of Endo-European language.
 Hittite Inscription:- Found in Anatolia, Turkey, which also provides evidence of
early Indo-European connections.
Kassite inscription:- Aryan names appear in kassite inscription of about 1600 BC
from Iraq
Advent of Aryans in India:-
Aryans arrived around 1500 BC
Used tools Swords, socketed axes, and bronze dirks for warfare.
Settlement was in North-West-Frontier Provinces of Punjab characterised by
the land of seven rivers.
Arrival occured in multiple waves, Conflicts arose with Dasas (soft) and
Dasyus (harsh, potential original inhabitants)
Ruling aryan class were Bharat & tristu, facing opposition from 10 chiefs (5
Aryans & 5 non Aryan tribes)
Battle of Dasarajan, involving the Bharat tribe against a confederation of 10
kings, was a crucial event mentioned in the Rigveda.
Battle took place near the Parushni River.
 Vedic Period
1000BC(discovery of (1500-600) BC
Iron )
Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period
(1500 - 1000)BC (1000-600)BC
(Rig Vedic Period)

Economy = Pastoral Agricultural = Economy

Polity = Jana Janapada = Polity
Society = Tribal Varna = Society
Religion = Agni, Varuna, Indra Brahmanical Religion = Religion

Economy of Vedic Period:-

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period
(1500 - 1000)BC (1000-600) BC
Primarily Pastoral, with key animals Primarily agricultural , evidence by the
including cows and houses. Rig Veda, which mentions plough rituals
Gavisthi refers to the search for cows, Shatapatha Brahmana discusses the
Gavisthi also has a broader connotation practice of clearing forest by fire;
in the Rig Veda however this was not an easy task . Iron
Cow were a symbol of wealth & dispute tools were essential for clearing the
often arose over them. forest, as they were dense & tightly
Several deities were named after bound to the soil.
horses:- Ashwins, Maruts, Purandan Balram, the brother of Krishna, is
Rigveda mentions cereals particularly depicted holding the plough, known as
“Yava” Haldhar, which symbolises prestige.
Agriculture was known but it wasn't Introduced new crops like wheat & rice,
extensively practiced. expanding the variety of crops.
This absense hindered trade & commerce Agricultural Economy but there was still
and as a result, a barter system no surplus production.
prevailed with no established currency. Copper was used in trade activities.
No Currency.
Art & craft:- Copper based creation
emerged, leather work, pottery(black &
red ware, slipped ware, red ware) and
the mention of Painted grey ware
indicates a diversified economic
landscape.
Polity of Vedic Period:-
Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period
(1500 - 1000)BC (1000-600) BC
People living in single units known as jana, Transition of agrarian economy and the
establishment of settled civilizations.
such as Kund & tobe.
Birth of state System kuru tribe founding
Tribal Assemblies:- Led by a tribal chief.
Kurukshetra and the settlement of panchala &
Sabha:- composed of elder members of
Videha. Important king of Videha was Raja
the community
Janak.
Samiti:- Head of samiti was known as Merging of sabha & samiti into a parishad
Ishan (king) elected by the members. with dominance from the Brahmins &
Vidatha:- socio-religious protector of the Kshatriyas.
tribe. Disappearance of vidatha.
Gana:- Assembly of the people. Lack of surplus in the agricultural economy
Functionaries:- Rajan(king) , Purohit leading to the absence of a standing army due
(Priest) , senanai (Armed forces) to the absence of a currency system
No standing army, no tax collection Royal Ceremonies:- ashwamedha, Rajasuya (to
show the power of king in front of families &
officer ; offerings were voluntary (Bail)
relatives), vajapeya. (To show that kig has the
power)
Society of Vedic Period:-
Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period
(1500 - 1000)BC (1000-600) BC
Economy:- Primarily Pastoral. Economy:- shifted to agriculture.
Polity:- Organised by janas Polity: - Organised into jahapadas.
Social structure:- tribal, clan-based Social structure:-divided into varnas Brahmin
society (priest), Kshatriya (Warrior), Vaishya (collection) and
Shudra (serve).
Women's rights: - right to education,
Family Dynamics:- increased power for the head of the
right to participate in assemblies, family, with premogeniture and the ability to
and right to choose their groom. disinherit sons.
Discrimination:- no clear division in Gotra system:-Gotra indicating a group that
society based on occupation, traditionally involved the cattle of all class. it
represent a concept of descent over time , where
discrimination still existed based on individual of the same gotra share a common lineage.
color and some against dasas & Impact of gotra: - diminished women's right, treating
dasyus. them as object for matrimonial alliances & territorial
expansion.
Ashram System:- 4 stages of life Brahmacharya
(Student life), Grihastha (Householder), Vanaprastha
(Hermit),& Sanyasin.
Religion in Vedic Period:-
Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period
(1500 - 1000)BC (1000-600) BC
Vedas considered aparushay (not created Brahminical Dominance:-shift towards
by humans) rituals & sacrifices.
Worship of war god Indra /Purandhar, Scriptures: - Introduction of Yajurveda
Agni (god of fire), Varuna (God of water), detailing rituals, samveda with hymns for
and Soma (God of plants) as per Rigveda. rituals and AtharvaVeda involving tantra
Aditi & Usha were the female deities of mantra (charms & spells) practices.
the Rig Veda. Gods:- Emergence of Brahma (creator) ,
Vishnu (Saviour) & Rudra (God of
animals)
Yajman:- Performer of yajna (sacrificial
rites).
Varna System:-
Brahman - Priest
Kshatriya - Warrior
Vaishyas - Traders
Shudras - Serving
Causes of Origin of Buddhism & Jainism
Buddhism & Jaïnisms Rise of coins cities, trade & the economic importance of vaishyas in society.
In 6th Century BCE rise of urbanisation & trade, especially in the gangatic plains.
The vedic religion, prevalent A new class of merchants & traders emerged., who sought spiritual teachings
during this period, emphasised that were simpler and more in tune with their pragmatic lives.
complex rituals & sacrifices Buddhism appealed to this growing urban class.
(yajnas) which were often
inaccessible to common people. The Rise of new agricultural
priestly class (Brahmins) Reaction against economy & related
monopolised religious knowledge, Brahmanical Domination economic changes
and the rituals became
increasingly rigid & expensive.

Ownership of
Social Status
private property
Vaishya involvement in trade rather than Private Properties give rise to inequalities in
warfare - society
Rigid caste system, which was deeply Buddhism, in contrast emphasised renunciation
entrenched in vedic society marginalised & detachment from material prossessions
lower caste/varnas
Political
Buddhism rejected the caste system and
Conditions
preached equality, offering a path of
liberation to everyone,regardles of their Political instability in many kingdoms with frequent conflicts among local
social status. rulers.
The republican form of government (like the sakyas, where Buddha was
born) Provided a favourable environment for the quotioning of authority
& tradition, fostering the development of new philosophies like Buddhism.
 Jainism
Followers Jainas
Propagation is led by the teaching of the 24 Tirthankaras (spritual teachers,
who lead people to salvation.)
First Tirthankara Rishabhdeva
23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha
24th Tirthankara Mahavir born in Kundalgrama (Bihar)
Life of Mahavira
Born in 540 BC and renounced the world in 510 BC
Attained kevala (perfect knowledge/ salvation) in 498 BC and died in 468 BC at
pavapuri
Mahavira's family was connected with the royal family of Magadh.
His father was Siddhartha & mother was Trishala (daughter of king chetaka
of magadh)
He was related to Bimbisara of Magadh through marriage this wife Chellana
was Bimbisara’s daughter.)
Doctrine of Jainism:-
Non violence or non-injury
to living beings (central Truthfulness(do
doctrine) not lie)

Ahimsa Satya

Asteya Aparigraha

Non- stealing Non-attachment to

possessions

Brahmacharya

Celibacy or observing self-control

(given by Lord Mahavira)
Other Principles of Jainism:-
Emphasis on Ahimsa (non-injury to living beings)
Belief in the existence of soul (jiva) in all entities which experiences knowledge.
Didn't explicitly oppose the Varna (caste) system but focused on individual
action & karma for liberation.
Prohibited Wars & Agriculture
Three Jewels of Jainism
Right faith ( Samyak
Darshan)

Right Conduct
Right Knowledge
(Samyak Charitra)
(Samyak Jnana)
Ahimsa
God = No
Aparigraha
Soul = Yes
Asteya
World existing without
Brahmacharya
creator = Yes
Satya
 Jania Monastic Spread to regions
establishment such as like Gujarat, Malwa
Basadis in Karnataka & Kalinga

Chandragupta adopted
Spread to areas where Jainism & spread to
Spread of
Brahmins was weak Southern region
Jainism
particularly Karnataka.

Practised
naked Wear white
Famine in Magadh robes
asceticism

Known as South North Known as

digambara Led by Led by Svetambaras
(sky - clad ). Bhadrababu Sthulabhadra (white-clad)

23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha tought non-violence truth & non possession

24th Tirthankara promoted simplicity, non-attachment & asceticism.
 Development of Prakrit
language such as
Shauraseni.
1st Mitigate the
evils of the Varna Growth of
System regional language

Contribution Not worshipper

Jain literature of idols initially.
Written in Ardhamagadhi language of Jainism
Early Jainism focused on
Literature includes Agamas spiritual liberation rather
(canonical scriptures), than idol. Later Mahavira
Puranas(mythological was worshipped as an idol.
narratives), & epic Jaina composed his early work
literature (like Jain in Apabhramsa (and prepared
versions of the its grammar texts)
Mahabharata)
 Buddhism
Life of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)
Birth place:- Lumbini (Modern Day Nepal) in 563 BCE
His birth is symbolised with a Lotus flower.
Mother:- Maya Devi ( Queen, who died shortly after his birth)
Step Mother :- Prajapati Gautami (raised Siddhartha after Maya Devi’s death
Father:- Suddhodana (King of the Shakya clan in Kapilavastu )
At the age of 16 Years, married to Yashodhara, and had a son named Rahula
At the age of 29 Years, he renounced the world.
Meditated under the Bodhi Tree near Phalgu river at Bodh Gaya and attained
enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of 35 Years.
After 49 days of meditation he becomes Buddha of the " Enlightened One”
First Sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana) at Sarnath where he fought the 4 Noble
Truth & eightfold path to his disciples.
At the age of 80 Years he attained Parinivana (final liberation from the cycle of birth &
death) in Kushinagar
 Dharma Wheel Lotus flower
Represents Buddha’s Symbolise the Buddha’s
first sermonat Sarnath Birth

Endless Knot Reflects

Bodhi tree site of Important the interconnectedness
Buddha’s enlightenment Symbols of all being and the cycle
of birth & rebirth

Stupa Symbolises
burial mounds
 Doctrines of Buddism

Four Noble Trust Ashtangika Marga Madhyam Marga Code of conduct

(8-fold Path) (Middle Path)

Four Noble Trust :-

1. Dukkha (Truth of Sorrow or suffering) World is full of sorrow.
2. Samudaya (Truth of the cause of sorrow) Desire is the cause of sorrow.
3. Nirodha (Truth of the end of Sorrow) If desires are conquered then sorrow can be
eliminated.
4. Astangika Marga ( Truth of the path leading to the end of sorrow) there is a path
that leads to the end of sorrow
Madhyam Marga (Middle Path):-
The doctrine teaches moderation and balance, avoiding the extremes of indulgence and
asceticism. and forms the foundations of Buddhist ethical and philosophical [Link]
promotes a balanced approach to life, encouraging ethical living, mental discipline & wisdom.
 Right Observation
(Samyak Drishti) Pragya Skanda
(Wisdom)
Right Concentration Right Determination
(Samyak Samadhi) (Samyak Sankalpa)
Samadhi Skanda
(Concentration)

Right Mindfulness Ashtangik Right speech

(Samyak Smriti) Marg (8-Fold (Samyak vak)
Path)

Right effort Right Action Sheel Skanda

(Samyak vyayama) (Sanyak Karma) (Morality)

Right Livelihood
(Samyak Ajiva)
 Do not covet Do not commit
property of others violence

Do not use Code of Do not tell

intoxicants conduct lie

Do not indulge in
corrupt practices
 Rejected the caste-based division

Condemnation of the
varna system

No Belief in God Denial of a Soul

Rejection of Features of Democratic &

Vedic Authority Buddhism Liberal Nature

Inclusion of Women Opposition of Social

in the Sangha Discrimination
 Structure of Buddhism

Optional Compulsory

UPASAK BHIKSHU (Monk)

Common People
Ceremonies UPASIKA Ceremonies BHIKSHUNI (Nuns)
Pravrajya Upsam-Pada
Vow of continence
SANGHA

Certain
Prajika Fortnightly Patimokkha Rules
(Defeat) cross-check To maintain discipline

If rules are
broken
Spread of Buddhism
After death of
Buddha Bhikshu/Nuns
teachings Buddha in 483BC

To write down in 1st Buddhist Council to record

the form of text teachings of Buddha at
Rajgriha
Vinaya Sutta By AJATASHATRU
Pitaka Pitaka (Haryanka Dynasty)
Rules to be followed Composed Composed
by Bhikshus by Upali by Ananda

Teachings of Buddhism
(Dialogue forms)
AJATASHATRU KALASOKA ASHOKA KANISHKA
483 BC 383 BC 250 BC 98 AD

1st Buddhist 2nd Buddhist 3rd Buddhist 4th Buddhist

Council Council Council Council
At Raigriha At Vaishali At Pataliputra At Kashmir
 Pali Language
(Common Man)
Sanskrit Language
(Intellectual)
Fallen back to rituals & Cut-off from
ceremonies originally mainstream
denounced

Started practising idol

Turkish Invasion
Decline of worship & started receiving
Buddhism numerous offerings

Later Brahman Ruler Women became an

1. Pushyamitra Sunga object of Lust
2. Huna king Mihirakula
3. Shaivite Shashanka of Gauda
 Elimination of Social
inequalities
Development of
Code of conduct
Hybrid Sanskrit

Construction of Importance & Material changes

Chaityas & Viharas Influence of in Life
Buddhism

Educational Upliftment of
Institutions Women’s status
 Mahajanpada
Literally means “Great kingdom"
During 6th Century BC widespread use of Iron, Production of Agriculture
increased and consumption decreased.
Military Needs Surplus Towns
Jana = People
Pada = Foot } Janapada = Land where Jana
set feet & settle down
JANAPADA

JANA

VISU VISU VISU

GRAM GRAM
GRAM GRAM

KULA KULA
KULA KULA
 Till 600 BC After 600 BC

King(won) Tribute King(lost) King(won) Tax King(lost)

Annex

Iron Material Advantages Agriculture

Enable people to Expansion to

stick to land neighbouring territories
Birth of 16
During the time of
Mahajanpadas
Gautama Buddha

Books which tells about Mahajanpadas:-

Anguttar Nikaya (Buddhist Text)
Mahavastu (Buddhist Text)
Bhagwati Sutra (Jaina texts)
NOTE:- Gardhara & Kamboj are mentioned in Anguttara Nikaya
Mahajanpadas:-
 KASHI Varanasi KOSALA Sharavasti
Extent:- Nepal hills

Gomati Gandhak
River River
At starting most Later submitted to
powerful Kosala

Siyandika River

Present day Sahet-Mahet (on the

border of gonda & bahraich districts of UP
Kashya Clothes Economy Textile
(robes) wore by Industry
Buddha
manufactured here

Shakyas of kapilvastu Ayodhya

Capital Piprahwa
Capital Lumbini (Birth
 ANGA Champa Separated by MAGADH Rajgriha
We find mud fort of about 5th Champa River
Century BC
Swallowed by Magadh Present Day Patna, Gaya,
Shahbad district of Bihar
On bank of river Champa

Rajgriha was Extent

Known for weath Present Day impregnable

Champa River
Ganga River
& Commerce Munger & Bhagalpur
Son River
district of Bihar. Surrounded by 5 hills
 VAJJIS Vaishali Seperated by MALLAS PAVA/ Kushinagar
Extent:- Gandhak River
On North of Ganga till Nepal Hills
On West Gandhak River
Pava Kushinagar

Where Gautama
Confederation of Buddha passed away
8 clans/Kulas
One such clans
licchavi clan NOTE:- Vajji & Mallas were 2 out of 16
Mahajanapada where monarchial rule didn’t
exist.
Initially, it was a monarchy later monarchy
declined
State establishment during time of Mahavira
& Buddha
Vatsya:- Matsya:-
Capital - Kaushambi Location-Rajasthan(Modern
Yamuna River day alwar region)
West of Malla Capital - virat
Chedi:- Kamboj:-
Capital - suktanati Location - Afghanistan
Present Day - Bundelkhand Capital - Rajapura
Gandhar:-
Surusen:-
Capital - Taxila
Capital - Mathura
Location - Kabul Valley of
Location-Present Day UP
Afghanistan
KURU:-
Avanti:-
Capital - Hastinapur,Indraprastha Capital - Ujjain in the north
(Around Delhi Merrut) (on the bank of Shipra river) &
Present Day-Western UP mahishmati in the south
Panchal:- (Modern Maheshwar)
Capital - Ahichchatra (Northern Present Day- Malwa & Central
Panchala) & Kampilya (Southern MP
Panchala)
Asmaka:-
Location- Near the Godavari River
Capital- Potoli

Rise of Magadha
100 Years Rivalry

Matrimonial Defeated
MAGADH Alliance KOSALA VATSYA AVANTI

Founder of Magadh = Brihadratha (his name was mentioned in Rig Veda). In his
name, the “Brihadratha Dynasty” was established in Magadh.
 Bimbisara
Haryanka Ajatshatru
Dynasty Udayin
Naga-dask

Sisunag
Nanda
Dynasty
Dynasty
Sisunaga
Mahapada Nanda
Kalasoka or Kakavarin
Dhananand
 Haryanka Dynasty(544-414BC)
Bimbisara (544-492BC) Ajatshatru (492-460BC) Udayin (460-444 BC)
He was a contemporary of He was the son of Bimbisara & Built a fort on the
Buddha. Chellana. confluence of Ganga and son.
His capital is Girivraja He became the ruler after killing Shifted the capital to
(Rajgir) his father. Patliputra from Rajgir.
He was the first king to have He followed an agressive policy of Successor of Ajatshatu
a regular standing army. expansion and won war against
1. Kosala Devi daughter of Kosala and Vaishali.
He annexed Kosala , the Lichchhavi Naga-dask(437 - 414)BC
Kosala king Prasenjit
(Bimbisar got Kashi in Dohri) republic, Kashi & Avanti. Last & incomplete ruler of this
2. Chellana, a Lichchavi princess It took him a full 16 years to dynasty.
from Vaishali. destroy Vaishali. They were later succeeded by
3. Khema, princess of Punjab He succeeded in doing so because the Sisunaga Dynasty.
state (Madra clan) of his innovative armament:- NOTE:-Sisunaga, a minister of
1. Rathamusula chariot with a Naga-dask lead a popular revellian
mace attached in front which against him & and over threw him
faciliated mass killings. in 414 BC.
2. Mahashila kantak Catapult
which used to hurl stones at
enemies.
He fortified the Capital city of
Rajgir.
 SISUNAGA DYNASTY (414-345) BC
Sisunga (414-396)BC
Shifted his capital to Vaishali
Long drawn rivalry between Magadh and Avanti ended avanti became part of Magadh
and remained its part till the end of Mauryas.
Kalasoka (396-368) BC
Was the son of Sisunaga
Conducted the 2nd Buddhist Council in Vaishali.
He was later succeeded by kings such as Nandivardhana, Mahanandin, who were weak
rulers. They were later succeeded by the Nanda Dynasty.
NANDA DYNASTY
Were rich & enormously powerful.
Effective Taxation System to maintain his huge army
Alexander didn't advance against Nandas.
Mahapadma Nanda (366 329)BC
First Historical Emperor of India.
First emperor builder of India.
He was also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas) ,
“Ekchattra” and “Ekrat”.
 He conquered many kingdoms including Kalinga and Kosala.
Hathigumpha inscription states that Mahapadma Nanda brought an image of Jina
from Kalinga as a symbol of victory.
Dhana Nanda (329 - 321) BC
Last Nanda Ruler.
Alexander invaded North-Western India in 326BC during his reign.
He inherited a huge empire from his father.
He possessed a standing army of 200,000 infantry , 20,000 cavalry , 3000 elephants
& 2000 chariots.
He became impopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of extorting taxes.
He was thrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with Chanakya which led to the
foundation of the Mauryan empire in Magadh.
 Indian Situation

North-West n North-East
sio
va Small Principalities
Principalities = Kamboj , Gandhara In

Kamboj
Merger & form
Magadha.
Gandhara Magadh
Political Disunity

Arabian Bay of
Sea Bengal

Indian
Ocean
 Foreign Invasion.

Persian Inviasion Mecedonian Invasion

Persian Invasion
Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire in ancient Iran invaded the north-west
front of India in 550BC
At that time many small provinces like Gandhara, Kamboj and Madra were constantly
fighting one another.
Cyrus succeeded in bringing all the Indian tribes west of the Indus like Gandhara, under
Persian control.
Punjab & Sindha were annexed by Darius, Cyrus’s Grandson
These areas became province (or satrapy) of the Persian Empire known as Hindush or
the 20th Satrapy.
The son of Darius, Xerxes could not move ahead with the further conquest of India
because of war with the Greeks
 Impact of Persian Invasion
This is evidenced by the Inscription of Ashoka
discovery of many Iranian coins Trade & Kharosthi (Right
to were written in this
in the region Commerce script
Left) script

The tern 'dipi' in

Influence on Linguistic Persian was used to
Mauryan Art Influence denote inscriptions,
& Architecture which became "lipi" in
India.
Persian artistic traditions influenced the
Mauryan Empire, particularly in the Knowledge The Persian invasion played a
construction of Ashokan pillars transfer to crucial role in Alexander the Great’s
Alexander decision to invade India.
4th Century

Iranian Greek
Under leadership of
Alexander
Alexander reached on border Fighting for supermacy of world
of India Defeats Iran
 Father of History Herodotus He had a profound interest in
glorified India’s wealth. geography and Exploration. He was
Particularly in terms of precious intrigued by reports of the Caspian
stones, spices and other resources. Sea extending east of India

Wealth of Geographical
India Curiosity
Reasons behind
Alexander’s Invasion of
India

Mythological Political Disunity in

Inscriptions North-West India

Inspired by the legends & myths India was fragmented with

surrounding India, including the various small kingdoms &
exploits of various legendary rulers tribes often in conflict with
and heroes. each other.
 Mecedonian Invasion
Alexander (356-323) BC:-
Son of Philip of Macedonia. Became the King in 336BC.
In northwest India, just before Alexander’s invasión there were many small rulers like
Ambhi of Taxila and Porus of the region of the Jhelum (Hydaspes)
Ambhi accepted Alexander’s sovereignty but porus put up a valiant but Unsuccessful
fight.
Alexander was so impressed with porus's fight that he granted him his territory back.
The battle between him and porus is called as the Battle of Hydaspes.
After that Alexander’s army crossed the river chenab and annexed the tribes between
Ravi and Chenab . But his army refused to cross the river Beas because:-
1. Hot Climate condition in India.
2. They were exhausted after years of battles.
3. Already got the taste of fighting with Indian Soldiers.
4. Feared by the large number of war elephants in the Dhananand Army.
Alexander was forced to retreat in 326 BC.
In Northwest India,Alexander left four of his general incharge of four regions, including
Seleucus Nicator (Governor of Baluchistan,Pakistan)who would trade his territories in
the Indus Valley with Chandragupta Maurya.
On his way back, he died in Babylon in 323 BC (aged 32)
 Hi
nd
uk
us
Tr h
ibe
s

Am
bh
i
Po
Tr

ru
s
ib
es
 Impact of Alexander’s Invasion

Cultural Exchange between

Ancient Greek & Indian
Civilizations.

Greek Establishment set up in

India namely, Alexandria in Incorporated parts of
Kabul north westeren india
Boukephala near Jhelum river into his empire
which served as centres of
administration & trade

Revealed new land routes that

connected iIndia with Persia, the
Mediterranean &
beyond ,significantly enhancing trade
opportunities
 Mauryan Empire
The Mauryan Empire is considered the first subcontinental Empire that stretched
across the Indian Subcontinent excluding Kerala, Tamil Nadu and some parts of North
East India. It was an Innovative and Stable goverenment.
Founder of Empire Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya, who is known
as Kautilya of Vishnugupta
Sources of Mauryan History-
Kautilya's Arthashastra.
Vishakhadutta’s Mudrarakshasa.
Accounts of Justin, a greek writer.
Magasthenes’ Indica (magastheres accounts compiled by Greek writers later on in a book
called Indica).
Mauryan Empire
Chandragupta Maurya (321-298) BC
Bindusara (297-272) BC

Ashoka (268-232) BC
 Chandragupta Maurya (321 - 298) BC
Origin of Chandrgupta Maurya is considered as Ambiguous.
Greek Scholars called Chardragupta Maurya as Sandrocottus

He was born of Mura - a shudra Belonged to a Kshatriya clan called

woman in the court of the Nandas. Mauryas living in the region of Gorakhpur
adjoining the Nepalese Terai
Brahmanical Texts Buddhist Texts -

Jain Source Origin Greek writer

He belonged to high caste and was the He had a humble origin

son of village headman's daughter.

Mudrarakshasa

He belonged to a low origin

 Imperial Organisation Administation.

Kautilya-Arthashastra Source Megasthehese - Indica

Economy Army Administation

6,00,000 - Army
30,000 - Cavalry
9,000-Elephants.
8,000 - Chariot
 Administration:- EMPIRE Divided into 5 Provinces. ( Evidence by Ashoka Edicts )
Northern Province King
Taxila
Council of Minister called
Mantriparishad.
Western Province Central Province Eastern Province
Ujjain Patliputra. Tosali 1. Yuvraja(Crown Prince)
2. Purohit (Priest)
Southern Province 3. Senapati (Commander)
Suvarnagiri 4. Mantrin (Other
Ministers)
Economy:-

Toll Tax Water Tax - If Control Certain

farmers used state Industries
Tax on Agricultures provided irrigation.
More fertile land - 1/4th of the produce
less fertile land - 1/6th of the produce.
New land brought under Mining
cultivation leading to increase Sale of liquor
production & state revenue. Manufacture of Arms
 Chandragupta Maurya.

Autocrat
Concentrated all powers in his hand
In 321 BC Conquered Nanda Dynasty.

In 317 BC Conquered North-Western region of India.

In 305 BC defeated selucus nicator ( Governor of

Alexander & signed a treaty.

1. Ceded trans indus territory to Chandragupta.

2. Gave his daughter Helena in marriage to Chandragupta.
3. Also Chandragupta offered him 500 elephants..
In 297BC, 6th Jain Theran Badrabahu predicted a serious famine in Ganga Valley.
Reason- Killing & death caused by Chandragupta.
He gave his throne & became a jaina for replenishment.
He went to Shravenbelagola (Karnataka)
Practised Sallekhna (fast till death), jain tradition & died.
He made his son Bindusara as Emperor.
 BINDUSARA
Refered by Greeks as Amitra Ghata (Amitra Chates in Greek)
Maintains good relations with Greek.
Son of Selucus Nicator, Antiochus I sent a greek ambassador Deimachus to Bindusar’s
Court.
Bindusar requested sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist (Greek Phisophe) from
Antiochus I
Wine & figs were sent, the request for a sophist was denied as greek traditions
prohibited sending a philosopher abroad