UNIT 3 PART B

1. List out the set of power quality measurements in detail.

Power-Quality Meters and Analyzers

A number of manufacturers make “power-quality meters” and “power quality analyzers,” which are
instruments similar to oscilloscopes, but that have a number of functions particularly suited to making
power-quality measurements. In measuring power quality, we must be able to trigger on events that are
not continuous (such as voltage sag) or transient (like that caused by lightning strikes or utility faults).
For instance, typical power quality meters/analyzers and analyzers have the following functionalities:

 Data logging—capturing waveforms in real-time for later display

 The ability to trigger on power-quality events such as sags, swells, or transients

 Calculation of power-quality metrics such as total harmonic distortion in real-time

 Spectrum analysis

 Inputs for high-voltage probes and high-current probes

Numerous factors should be considered when selecting a power quality measurement meter/analyzer,
including:

 The number of channels (for instance, single-phase or three-phase)

 The input voltage range

 The current measurement range

 Isolation

Communication capabilities (For example, can the instrument be networked or tied to a stand-alone
computer)
The block diagram of a typical system with a power-quality analyzer is shown in Figure 14.5. The
power-quality analyzer A/D converts system voltages and currents. Power indices such as THD,
harmonic content, and the like are calculated in real-time. In addition, the analyzer has on-board memory
so data may be saved for future analysis. The output of a typical power-quality analyzer is shown in
Figure 14.6, where we see the time waveform of the line current in a copy machine (top trace) and the
harmonics (bottom trace).

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 2. Explain in detail about the wavelet transform with wavelet transform pattern.

WAVELET TRANSFORM

Towards the direction of intelligent power quality monitoring and the development of automatic
classification and analysis tools, appropriate signal processing methods are required in order to extract information
from the signals. Several signal processing methods have been proposed for feature extraction, like Fourier and
wavelet transforms, combined with neural networks, fuzzy expert systems, kalman filter or pattern recognition
methods. For detection and location of power quality disturbances, wavelet transform is far better as compare to
Fourier transform. Various Software packages are available for wavelet analysis, MATLAB is one of them where
wavelet toolbox provide platform for wavelet analysis.

The wavelet transform is the projection of a discrete signal into two spaces: the approximation space and a
series of detail spaces. The implementation of the projection operation is done by discrete-time sub band
decomposition of input signals using filtering followed by down- sampling. The wavelet transform is utilized to
produce representative feature vectors that can accurately capture the characteristics of power quality disturbance,
exploring feature extraction of disturbance signal to obtain dynamic parameters.

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 Wavelet transform consists of a pair of transformations from one domain to another domain. The original
domain is the time domain in wavelet transforms, while the transformed domain is called the time-scale domain.
The transformation process from time domain to time-scale domain is a forward transform, because a given
signal is decomposed into several other signals with different levels of resolution. It is possible to recover the
original time domain signal without losing any information. This reverse process is called the inverse wavelet
transform or signal reconstruction. These two processes compose the wavelet transform.

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 Wavelet theory is an advanced mathematical tool that uses multi resolution techniques to analyze
waveforms and images. Wavelet analysis is capable of revealing aspects of data that other analysis tools would
miss, including trends, breakdown points, discontinuities, and self-similarity. Feature extraction is a vital step
that completes the link between intelligent analysis tools and actual PQ waveforms and data. Wavelet analysis
has proven very strong and efficient in feature extraction from PQ disturbance data.

One very common application discussed and reviewed here is data compression as monitoring system
deals with huge PQ Disturbance data collected in memory of data collection system. The large amounts of data
pose several practical problems in the storage and communication of the data from local monitors to the central
processing computers. Data compression has hence become paramount important issue in the PQ analysis area.
Several methods using wavelet theory have been developed for the compression of PQ data.

General basic blocks of automatic Monitoring system suggested by many research works, An Automatic
Monitoring Scheme given in figure has different stages where wavelet can be employ successfully.

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Block I represents a Pre- processing (PP) stage as detection of PQ disturbance performs segmentation in
different stages e.g. pre- event, during - past event.

Block II represents a feature extraction (FE) stage used to quantify features for different types of PQ signals.

Block III represents the classification (CL) stage knowledge based expert system to differentiate various
events.

Block IV represents the Decision Making (DM) stage assign the type of disturbance using pattern recognition,
ANN, FUZZY logic.

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3. Write notes on following in detail.

a. Harmonic indices

b. Harmonic reduction,

c. Voltage sag reduction. Harmonic

The amplitude of harmonic contents in a current or voltage signal is characterized by the total

harmonic distortion (THD). The percentage total harmonic distortion of a voltage signal with the rms value of

V1 and rms harmonic contents of Vn, n = 2, ..., ∞ is given. In per unit form the THD is given by

The problem with this approach is that the THD become infinity if no fundamental is present. One way to avoid
this ambiguity is to use an alternate definition that represents the harmonic distortion. This is called the
distortion index (DIN) and is defined as

It can be seen that the THD and DIN are interrelated by the following equations

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Harmonic Reduction

The most common concentrated source of harmonics is the rectifier front end on motor drives and
converters, fluorescent lamps and computer power supplies. When the load is a large rectifier then changing
from six pulse rectifiers to twelve pulse or even up to 48 pulse can significantly reduce the strength of low order
harmonics. Perfect cancellation of the low harmonics requires perfect symmetry of transformers and
impedances and practical systems will always have some residual low order harmonics. The voltage at the point
of common coupling with other customers may have low harmonics if the source impedance at that point is
low.

Because of the adverse effects that harmonics have on loads, standards have been developed to define
the worst case environment that manufacturers should design equipment to operate within. The standards also
set a basis for defining responsibility for correction if a new load is to be connected which could have adverse
effects.

There are two approaches conventionally applied to reduce harmonic problems when they arise. These are

- Reduce the level of harmonics from the source.

- Correct at the PCC or deep into the network.

The source reduction may involve a higher pulse number in rectifiers to achieve some net cancellation
of lower harmonics. It could include filtering components within the equipment. Network solutions could
include changing the placement of capacitor banks to reduce resonance. However the more common
requirement is to install harmonic filters to provide a preferential path for harmonic current. Typically this
consists of a set of shunt LC filters tuned for each of the troublesome frequencies often combined with a
general high pass filter to attenuate the higher frequency distortion.

Voltage Sag or Dip Reduction

The duration of a voltage dip is limited by the ceasing of the transient causing the sag or by fault
clearing through the operation of a protective device. For a motor start transient the duration is set by the run-up
time of the motor. For a conductor clash the system may not experience a follow through arc and the fault will

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self clear at the next zero crossing. A branch could brush against a line and cause a temporary line fault. More
commonly a circuit breaker or fuse must operate to break the fault current and provide sufficient time for the
ionized air to dissipate and recombine. For many distribution circuit breakers and fuses there are characteristics
which determine the clearing time setting. A very high fault current initiates a very rapid trip while a fault
producing a mild over current may take a minute or more before the protection operates.

The depth of the voltage dip and the number of customers affected to a given level depends on the fault
model and the distribution and level of source impedance. Consider a high impedance transformer feeding two
feeders as in Figure 3.16 (a). A severe fault on a feeder, such as on Bus 2 of the left feeder, will cause voltage
dips for all customers on both feeders until the circuit breaker on the left feeder operates producing an outage
for those customers. Those on the right feeder will experience sag until the breaker clears the faulted feeder. For
the second case in Figure 3.16 (b) there will be only mild sag on the right feeder for the fault on bus 2. All
customers on the left feeder will experience an outage until the fault is cleared and the breaker reclosed or until
the faulted section is isolated and supply is given through an alternate feeder.

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The vast majority of faults are single line to ground. This means that the fault current can be limited by
inclusion of additional impedance in the zero sequence path. For example consider the distribution system of
Figure 3.17. A standard adopted in many countries is the use of star delta transformers with the delta always on
the high voltage side. For a line to ground fault on the line to the customer premises, the zero sequence current
must flow through the neutral of the transformer at Bus-2. Inclusion of a neutral earthing Reactor or neutral
resistor on the star side of transformers can significantly reduce fault currents. If phase-a of the line is faulted,
the line voltages will show a zero sequence offset but this will not be seen by customers on the far side of the
star delta transformers who will thus only experience a mild voltage dip. The disadvantage of a large impedance
can be in the overvoltage transient created on the un faulted phase leading to insulator breakdown.

If a feeder is of high impedance, then for faults at the far end even a high impedance fault can cause a
severe depth of sag in the proximity of the fault. But the high impedance can mean that there is little sag for
customers connected near the substation. For a low impedance line, a high impedance fault will cause only mild
voltage dips. One of the severe difficulties for rural supplies using overhead lines is that there is a long length
of exposed line with each of the branching feeders. In many cases there is a common source impedance so a
line or medium voltage customer fault can cause a voltage dip over areas of hundreds of square kilometers.

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 If there are some industrial customers very sensitive to voltage dips, the frequency of faults on that
feeder can be reduced by setting switches such that only a short line section becomes part of the industrial
feeder. This reduces the exposure to faults. This will not however greatly affect voltage dips unless the
common source impedance is kept very low. For voltage drop under loads and for loss reduction it may be
desirable to operate transformers as in Figure 3

.16 (b) in parallel by joining buses 1 and 5. From the viewpoint of voltage dips it is essential to keep the
buses split. The expected sag level in a distribution system can be predicted by knowing the system
structure, the distribution of faults per kilometer of line, and the distribution of fault impedances. For a radial
distribution system the faults can be applied in sequence to each bus to determine the voltages for all other
buses. The duration of the dip is determined by the protection characteristics. Thus knowing the fault
location and impedance, the duration of the fault until it is cleared can be determined. Recording the depth
and duration and based on the fault probability, a probability assignment table is formed. When all buses
have been examined, the probability of occurrence and its duration are recorded; the probability of crossing
the CBEMA curve is established. The probability contours can indicate sensitive system areas or where
tuning of protection can aid in sag effect reduction.

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