Unit 5: Sinusoidal and Non-Sinusoidal Oscillators & Multivibrators

Q.1 Explain the Principle of Positive Feedback in Oscillators.

An oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a continuous, oscillating

(AC) signal without any external input.
The essential principle behind an oscillator is the use of positive feedback.

Principle of Positive Feedback:

- Positive feedback means feeding a part of the output signal back to the input
in phase with the original signal.
- This feedback reinforces the input signal, making it stronger.
- In an oscillator, the amplified output is fed back into the input in such a way
that it sustains the oscillations.

Conditions for Oscillation (Barkhausen Criterion):

For an electronic circuit to work as an oscillator using positive feedback, it
must satisfy the Barkhausen criterion:
1. Loop gain (Aβ) = 1, where:
- A = Amplifier gain
- β = Feedback factor
2. Total phase shift around the loop = 0° or 360° (Positive feedback)

When these conditions are met, the circuit can start and maintain oscillations
indefinitely, provided power is supplied.

Working:
1. Initially, a small voltage (due to noise) is amplified.
2. The positive feedback further amplifies this signal.
3. As the feedback is in phase, it keeps reinforcing the signal.
4. This process continues, leading to continuous undamped oscillations at a
particular frequency.

Application of Oscillators:
- Signal generators
- Radio transmitters and receivers
- Clock generation in microprocessors
- Function generators, etc.

Q.2 What is Barkhausen Criterion and its Use in Oscillator Design

Definition:
The Barkhausen criterion is a fundamental condition required for a circuit to
operate as an oscillator.
It states the necessary conditions for sustained and undamped oscillations in
electronic circuits that use feedback.

Statement of Barkhausen Criterion:

For a circuit to produce continuous oscillations:
1. Magnitude condition (Loop Gain):
|A · β| = 1
Where:
- A = Gain of the amplifier
- β = Feedback factor (proportion of output fed back to input)
2. Phase condition:
The total phase shift around the feedback loop must be 0° or 360°.
This ensures positive feedback, meaning the feedback signal adds to the
input signal.

Use of Barkhausen Criterion in Oscillator Design:

While designing oscillators:
1. The amplifier stage (transistor, op-amp) is designed to provide the
necessary gain.
2. The feedback network (resistor-capacitor or inductor-capacitor
combinations) provides the frequency-selective phase shift.
3. The design ensures that at the desired frequency of oscillation, the loop
gain equals 1, and the phase shift is 0° or 360°.
4. When the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied:
- Small noise or disturbances are amplified and sustained by positive
feedback.
- The result is a stable sinusoidal output of the desired frequency.

Example of Oscillators using Barkhausen Criterion:

- RC Phase Shift Oscillator
- Wien Bridge Oscillator
- Hartley Oscillator
- Colpitts Oscillator
Q.3 Explain the RC Phase Shift Oscillator

Definition:
An RC Phase Shift Oscillator is an electronic oscillator that generates a
sinusoidal output using resistor
resistor-capacitor
capacitor (RC) networks to produce the
required phase shift for sustained oscillations.

Working Principle:
- It uses positive feedback with a phase shift network to satisfy the
Barkhausen Criterion.
- The amplifier stage (usually a transistor or op-amp)
amp) provides gain.
- The RC network produces a total phase shift of 180°.
- The amplifier provides an additional 180° phase shift, making the total
phase shift 360° (or 0°) — satisfying the condition for positive feedback.

Components:
1. Amplifier – Provides gain (BJT or op
op-amp)
2. RC Phase Shift Network – Usually 3 RC sections connected in series
3. Feedback resistor

Frequency of Oscillation:
For a 3-stage
stage RC network, the frequency of oscillation is:
f = 1 / (2πRC√6)
Where:
- R = Resistance of each resistor
- C = Capacitance of each capacitor

Advantages:
- Simple design
- Suitable for audio frequency generation (few Hz to hundreds of kHz)
- Good frequency stability

Disadvantages:
- Requires high gain for proper oscillation
- Output amplitude may vary with frequency

Applications:
- Audio signal generation
- Function generators
- Sine wave generation in communication circuits

Q.4 Discuss the Working of Clapp Oscillator

A Clapp oscillator is a type of LC (inductor-capacitor) oscillator that is a
variation of the Colpitts oscillator. It is widely used to generate high-
frequency signals and offers improved frequency stability compared to the
basic Colpitts design.
Circuit Components

1. **Active Device:** Typically a transistor or an operational amplifier.

2. **Tank Circuit:** Comprises an inductor (L) and three capacitors (C1, C2,
and C3). The distinguishing feature is the inclusion of C3 in series with the
inductor.
3. **Feedback Path:** Taken from a capacitive voltage divider (C1 and C2).
4. **Biasing Network:** Provides the correct DC operating point to the
transistor.
Working Principle
5. 1. Feedback and Oscillation Start-up:
 When power is applied, noise in the circuit causes a small oscillation to
begin.
 The capacitive divider (C1 and C2) provides feedback from the output
back to the input.
 The phase shift of 180° from the transistor and 180° from the capacitive
divider satisfies the Barkhausen criteria for oscillation (360° or 0° phase
shift with loop gain ≥ 1).
6. 2. Frequency Determination:
 The oscillation frequency is mainly determined by the LC tank circuit.
 The equivalent capacitance of the circuit is:
C_eq = (1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3)^(-1)

f = 1 / (2π√(L * C_eq))

7. 3. Steady Oscillations:
 The oscillator reaches a steady-state where the energy supplied by the
active device balances the losses in the circuit.
 The output is a continuous sinusoidal waveform.
Advantages of Clapp Oscillator
 Improved frequency stability.
 More precise frequency control (due to C3 dominating C1 and C2).
 Simple design.
Applications
 RF signal generation.
 Local oscillators in communication circuits.
 Test equipment.
Q.5 Explain the Wien Bridge Oscillator with circuit.
Introduction
A Wien Bridge Oscillator is a type of electronic oscillator that generates low-
distortion sine waves in the audio frequency range (from about 10 Hz to 1
MHz). It uses a bridge circuit (Wien bridge) for feedback and is typically built
using operational amplifiers (op-amps).
Circuit Diagram
The basic Wien bridge oscillator circuit consists of:
- An op-amp as the amplifier
- A series RC network and a parallel RC network in the feedback loop
- A positive feedback path using the RC bridge
- A negative feedback path for gain control

Working Principle
1. Feedback Network:
 Composed of a series RC and a parallel RC combination. At a particular
frequency, the network produces zero phase shift (i.e., 0°), allowing
sustained oscillations.
2. Oscillation Frequency:
f = 1 / (2πRC)

3. Gain Condition:
 For sustained oscillations:
A_V = 3
The op-amp must have a gain of 3 to compensate for feedback attenuation.
4. Amplitude Stabilization:
 To prevent distortion, the gain must be stabilized using methods like:
- A nonlinear device (lamp or diode) in the gain path
- Automatic gain control circuits
Advantages
 Produces pure sine wave output
 Stable frequency
 Easy to tune frequency by adjusting R or C
 Commonly used in audio generators
Applications
 Audio frequency generators
 Function generators
 Sine wave reference oscillators
 Testing audio equipment
Q.6 Describe the colpitts oscillator.
Introduction
The Colpitts oscillator is a type of LC oscillator that generates sinusoidal
oscillations at high frequencies. It was invented by Edwin H. Colpitts in 1918.
This oscillator is commonly used in RF (radio frequency) applications.
Circuit Description
The typical Colpitts oscillator consists of:
- An amplifying device (BJT, FET, or op-amp)
- An LC tank circuit, where the tank circuit uses:
- A single inductor (L)
- Two capacitors (C1 and C2) in series
- A feedback network formed by the capacitive voltage divider (C1 and C2)
Circuit Diagram (Textual)

Working Principle
1. Feedback Mechanism:
 The LC tank circuit determines the oscillation frequency. The capacitive
divider (C1 and C2) provides the necessary positive feedback.
2. Frequency of Oscillation:
f = 1 / (2π√(L · C_eq))

C_eq = (C1 · C2) / (C1 + C2)

3. Barkhausen Criteria:
 The loop gain must be ≥ 1.
The total phase shift around the loop must be 0° or 360°.
Advantages
 Simple design
 Good frequency stability
 Suitable for RF applications
Applications
 RF signal generation
 Local oscillators in receivers
 Sine wave generators
 Communication transmitters
Q.7 Explain the operation of Hartley Oscillator
Introduction
The Hartley oscillator is an LC oscillator that generates sinusoidal
oscillations. It was invented by Ralph Hartley in 1915. This oscillator is
widely used in radio-frequency
frequency (RF) applications.
Circuit Description
The typical Hartley oscillator includes:
- An active amplifying device (BJT, FET, or op
op-amp)
- A tank circuit consisting of:
- Two inductors (L1 and L2) or a tapped inductor
- One capacitor (C) in parallel with the series inductors
- A feedback path h derived from the inductive voltage divider (L1 and L2)
Text-Based
Based Circuit Diagram

Working Principle
1. Feedback Mechanism:
 The LC tank circuit produces oscillations. The voltage developed across L1
and L2 provides
vides the necessary positive feedback.
2. Frequency of Oscillation:
f = 1 / (2π√(L_eq · C))

L_eq = L1 + L2 + 2M (if coils are magnetically coupled)

3. Barkhausen Criteria:
 The total phase shift must be 0° or 360°.
The loop gain must be equal to or greater than 1 for sustained oscillation.
Advantages
 Simple circuit configuration
 Easy to adjust frequency
 Efficient for high-frequency oscillations
Applications
 RF oscillators
 Signal generators
 Communication transmitters
 Amateur radio equipment
Q.8 What is Tuned LC Oscillator
Introduction

A Tuned LC Oscillator is an electronic oscillator that uses a tuned circuit (an

inductor (L) and a capacitor (C)) to generate sinusoidal oscillations. It is
widely used in radio frequency (RF) and communication systems.
Basic Concept
- A tuned LC circuit (resonant circuit) resonates at a specific frequency.
- Energy oscillates between the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric
field of the capacitor.
- When connected with an amplifying device (transistor or op-amp), this
energy exchange can be sustained.
Frequency of Oscillation
The resonant frequency of the LC tank circuit is given by:
f = 1 / (2π√(LC))
Where:
- f is the frequency in hertz
- L is the inductance in henrys
- C is the capacitance in farads
Working Principle
1. Initial noise causes voltage changes in the circuit.
2. The LC tank begins oscillating at its resonant frequency.
3. The amplifier compensates for energy loss, maintaining a steady output.
4. In-phase feedback satisfies the Barkhausen criterion for sustained
oscillations.
Types of Tuned LC Oscillators
 Hartley Oscillator (feedback from tapped inductor)
 Colpitts Oscillator (feedback from capacitive divider)
 Clapp Oscillator (variation of Colpitts with added capacitor for better
frequency control)
Advantages
 High-frequency generation
 Stable and continuous output
 Simple design using passive LC elements
Applications
 RF transmitters and receivers
 Signal generators
 Communication circuits
 Test equipment
Q.9 What is Multivibrators Classification and Types
Introduction
A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple
two-state systems, such as oscillators, timers, and flip-flops. These circuits
are widely used in digital electronics, timing circuits, and waveform
generators.
Classification of Multivibrators
Multivibrators are mainly classified into three types:
 Astable Multivibrator
 Monostable Multivibrator
 Bistable Multivibrator
1. Astable Multivibrator
Astable Multivibrator Using IC 555
Definition:
An Astable Multivibrator is a type of oscillator circuit that continuously
switches between HIGH and LOW states without any external triggering. It is
also known as a free-running oscillator.

Working of the Circuit:

1. Capacitor Charging:
- The capacitor C charges through R1 and R2.
- When voltage reaches 2/3 Vcc, output goes LOW via the discharge
transistor.
2. Capacitor Discharging:
- C discharges through R2 and pin 7.
- When voltage drops to 1/3 Vcc, output returns HIGH.
- The cycle repeats indefinitely.
Circuit Diagram:

Output Waveform:

Time Period and Frequency Calculations:

T_HIGH = 0.693 × (R1 + R2) × C
T_LOW = 0.693 × R2 × C
T = T_HIGH + T_LOW = 0.693 × (R1 + 2R2) × C
f=1/T
Duty Cycle = (T_HIGH / T) × 100

Features:
- No external trigger needed
- Output frequency and duty cycle can be set using R1, R2, and C
- Used in clocks, LED flashers, tone generators

Applications:
- LED blinkers
- Tone generation
- Clock pulses for digital circuits
- PWM signal generation
2. Monostable Multivibrator

Definition:
A monostable multivibrator has one stable state and one quasi-stable state. It
generates a single pulse of fixed duration in response to an external trigger.
Circuit Description:
The circuit includes:
- IC 555 Timer
- One resistor (R)
- One capacitor (C)
- Trigger pulse input (to pin 2)
Pin Connections:
- Pin 8 (Vcc): Power supply
- Pin 1: Ground
- Pin 2: Trigger input (active low)
- Pin 3: Output
- Pin 4: Reset (connected to Vcc)
- Pin 5: Control voltage (optional, usually grounded via 0.01 µF capacitor)
- Pin 6: Threshold
- Pin 7: Discharge
- Pins 6 and 7 are connected together
- R between Vcc and pin 7, C between pin 6 and ground
Working of the Circuit:
1. Initial Condition (Stable State):
- Output (Pin 3) is LOW.
- Capacitor C is discharged.

2. Triggering:
- A negative pulse at Pin 2 drops voltage below 1/3 Vcc, triggering the IC.
- Output goes HIGH, and capacitor starts charging through resistor R.

3. Timing Period (Quasi-Stable State):

- Capacitor charges toward Vcc.
- When voltage across C reaches 2/3 Vcc, output goes LOW.

4. Cycle Ends:
- The circuit returns to its stable state until next trigger.
Waveform:

Time Duration of Output Pulse:

T = 1.1 × R × C
Features:
- One stable output state
- Output goes HIGH for a fixed time when triggered
- Precise pulse generation
Applications:
- Pulse generation
- Timers and delays
- Frequency counters
- Switch debouncing
- Touch switches
3. Bistable Multivibrator
Definition:
A Bistable Multivibrator is a circuit that has two stable states and can stay in
either indefinitely until an external trigger is applied to switch it. It is also
called a flip-flop.
Circuit Diagram:

Working Principle:
A bistable multivibrator uses positive feedback to create two stable output
states.
Operation Steps:
Initial State:
- Suppose Q1 is ON, then its collector is at low potential.
- This low voltage is coupled to Q2's base through capacitor C2, keeping Q2
OFF.
- The collector of Q2 is high, which keeps Q1 turned ON through capacitor C1.
Triggering:
- When an external trigger pulse is applied to Q1's base:
- It turns OFF, and Q2 turns ON.
- The states of Q1 and Q2 flip.
Stable States:
- This new state is also stable.
- Another external trigger can switch it back.
Thus, the output toggles between two states with each trigger pulse.
Waveform:

Applications:
• Memory elements in digital electronics
• Flip-flops (SR, JK, D, T types)
• Toggle switches
• Pulse dividers

Type Stable States Trigger Output Type

Required
Astable 0 No Continuous
square wave
Monostable 1 Yes Single pulse
Bistable 2 Yes Toggle
between states
Summary Table

Comparison Between Astable, Monostable, and Bistable Multivibrators

Parameter Astable Monostable Bistable
Multivibrator Multivibrator Multivibrator
Stable States No stable state One stable Two stable
state states
Trigger No external Requires one Requires two
Requirement trigger external external
required trigger to triggers to
change state toggle states
Output Continuous Single pulse Latches
square wave output between two
states (Set and
Reset)
 Nature of Free running One-shot pulse Memory or
Operation oscillator generator flip-flop
behavior
Example Use Clock Timers, pulse Flip-flops,
generation, width control digital
blinking lights memory
Waveform Continuous Single high or Maintains
Output high-low low pulse logic level
pulses until triggered
Common IC 555 Timer in 555 Timer in 555 Timer in
Used astable mode monostable bistable mode
mode or Flip-Flop
ICs

Summary:
• Astable = Oscillates without trigger (no stable state)
• Monostable = One pulse per trigger (one stable state)
• Bistable = Toggle between two states (two stable states)

Q.10 Draw & Explain IC 555 Timer – Block Diagram and Explanation

Introduction
The IC 555 Timer is a widely used integrated circuit for generating accurate
time delays and oscillations. It can operate in monostable, astable, and
bistable modes.
IC 555 Block Diagram
The internal block diagram of the 555 timer consists of voltage divider
resistors, comparators, an SR flip-flop, a discharge transistor, and an output
stage.

Functional Blocks
1. Voltage Divider
Comprises three 5kΩ resistors in series. It divides the supply voltage into 1/3
Vcc and 2/3 Vcc levels. These serve as reference voltages for the two
comparators.
2. Comparator 1 (Upper Comparator)
Compares the Threshold voltage with 2/3 Vcc. If Threshold > 2/3 Vcc, it
resets the flip-flop.
3. Comparator 2 (Lower Comparator)
Compares the Trigger voltage with 1/3 Vcc. If Trigger < 1/3 Vcc, it sets the
flip-flop.
4. SR Flip-Flop
Acts as a bistable circuit that stores the logic state and controls the Output
and Discharge transistor.
5. Discharge Transistor
Connected to pin 7. Discharges the timing capacitor to ground when turned
ON.
6. Output Stage
Provides the final output from pin 3. It can source or sink a current, typically
up to 200 mA.
7. Reset
Connected to pin 4. When held LOW, it overrides all other inputs and resets
the flip-flop.
Applications of IC 555
 Pulse generation
 Timers and delays
 Oscillator circuits
 Frequency generators
 LED and motor drivers
Q.12 Discuss Applications of Multivibrators Using IC 555
Introduction

IC 555 is a versatile timer IC used to implement various multivibrator circuits

cir
such as astable, monostable, and bistable multivibrators. These circuits are
essential in digital electronics for generating timing pulses, delays, toggling,
and waveform generation.
1. Astable Multivibrator Applications
In astable mode, the 555 time
timerr continuously switches between high and low
states to generate a free-running
running square wave.
 Common applications include:
 Clock pulses for digital circuits
 LED and lamp flashers
 Tone generators
 Pulse Width Modulators
 Frequency generation
2. Monostable Multivibrator
vibrator Applications
In monostable mode, the 555 timer produces a single pulse output when
triggered.
 Common applications include:
 Timers and delay circuits
 Switch debouncing
 Missing pulse detection
 Frequency divider circuits
  Pulse stretching
3. Bistable Multivibrator Applications
In bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a flip-flop with two stable states,
toggled by trigger inputs.
 Common applications include:
 Digital memory storage (1-bit)
 Toggle switches
 Simple flip-flop circuits
 Latching relay control
 Push-button ON/OFF controls
Conclusion
The IC 555 timer provides a simple and effective way to build multivibrator
circuits for various practical applications. Its ease of use, availability, and
reliability make it a preferred choice in both educational and industrial
electronics projects.