SPSC Written Preparation For the Posts of Assistant

Executive Engineer Civil (BPS-17) in Irrigation &

Power Department, Government of Sindh

Irrigation and Drainage Engineering

(Lecture No: 06)

Course Instructor:
Faisal Iqbal Shaikh
Former Assistant Engineer Civil (BPS-17), PHE & RD Department, Govt. of Sindh
Assistant Executive Engineer Civil (BPS-17), Irrigation Department, Govt. of Sindh
B.E Civil (MUET, Jamshoro)
MEM Construction Management (NEDUET, Karachi)
 Lecture Modules
Drainage and Its Types
Surface Drainage
Sub-Surface Drainage (Tile Drainage)
Arrangement of Tile Drains (Quality, Length, Spacing etc)
Drainage Coefficient and Related Problems
Vertical Drainage
 Drainage and Its Types
 Drainage means the removal of excess water from a given place.
 Two types of drainage can be identified:
1. Land Drainage: This is large scale drainage where the objective is to
drain surplus water from a large area by different means such as
excavating large open drains, erecting dykes and levees and
pumping. Such schemes are necessary in low lying areas and are
mainly Civil Engineering works.
2. Field Drainage: This category of drainage is concerned with
agriculture. It is the removal of excess water from the root zone of
crops
 Need of Drainage
 During rain or irrigation the fields become wet.
 The water infiltrate into the soil and is stored in its pores.
 When all the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated and
no more water can be absorbed.
 when rain or irrigation continues, pools may form on the soil surface (as
shown in Figure).

Figure. During heavy rainfall the upper soil layers become saturated and pools
may form. Water percolates to deeper layers and infiltrates from the pools
 Objectives of Field drainage:
 To bring soil moisture down from saturation to field capacity. At field
capacity, air is available to the soil and most soils like to grow at
moisture less than saturation.
 Drainage helps in improving hydraulic conductivity: Soil structure can
collapse under very wet conditions and so also engineering structures.
 In some areas with salt disposition, especially in arid regions, drainage
is used to leach excess salt.
 In irrigated areas, drainage is needed due to poor application efficiency
which means that a lot of water is applied.
 Drainage can shorten the number of occasions when cultivation is
stopped because of waiting for soil to dry out.
 Drainage helps in avoiding the conditions of water logging.
 Types Of Field Drainage
The different field drainage methods can be classified as:
1. Horizontal drainage
 Surface drainage
 Sub-surface drainage
2. Vertical drainage i.e. Tube wells
 Horizontal Drainage:
 Plants need air as well as moisture in their root zones for the survival.

 Excess irrigation retards the plants growth, because it fills the soil
voids and restricts proper aeration.
 Surface drains are, therefore, needed for removing the excess farm
water, for most of the cultivated crops on flat or undulating
topography.
 Whereas, sub-surface drains are required for soil with poor internal
drainage and a high water table.
 Surface Drainage:
 Surface drainage involves the removal of excess water from the surface of the
soil.
 This is done by removing low spots where water accumulates by land
forming or by excavating ditches or a combination of the two.
 Land forming is mechanically changing the land surface to drain surface
water.
 This is done by smoothing, grading, bedding or leveling.
 Land smoothing is the shaping of the land to a smooth surface in order to
eliminate minor differences in elevation and this is accomplished by filling
shallow depressions using bulldozers or scrapers.
 There is no change in land contour. Smoothing is done using land
levelers or planes.
 Parameters Considered in Design of Surface Drainage
Channels
 The drainage channels are normally designed using the
Manning formula.
 The required capacity of a drainage channel is calculated from
the summation of the inflowing streams.
 The bed level of an open drain collecting flow from field pipe
drains should be such as to allow free fall from the pipe drain
outlets under maximum flow conditions, with an allowance for
siltation and weed growth. 300 mm is a reasonable general
figure.
 Surface Ditch Arrangements:
The ditch arrangement can be random, parallel or cross- slope.
 Random ditch system: Used where only scattered wet lands
require drainage.
 Parallel ditch system: Used in flat topography. Ditches are parallel
and perpendicular to the slope. Laterals, which run in the direction
of the flow, collect water from ditches.
Parallel System
Herringbone System
 Sub-surface Drainage
 Sub-surface drainage is the removal of excess groundwater below the soil
surface.
 It aims at increasing the rate at which water will drain from the soil, and so
lowering the water table, thus increasing the depth of drier soil above the
water table.
 Sub-surface drainage can be done by open ditches or buried drains.
 Advantages of open drains:
 Open Ditches have lower initial cost than buried drains.
 They carry a huge quantity of water.
 They are used to carry the drainage water, rain,
flooding and decrease the ground water level.
 Easy clean up and maintenance at any time it takes.
 There is ease of inspection.
 Open ditches are applicable in some organic soils where tile drains are
unsuitable.
 Disadvantages of open drains:
 They use large (about 15% ) areas of agricultural land i.e they reduce
the land available for cropping.
 They obstruct the functioning and movement of equipment and
agricultural machinery.
 They need regular maintenance and frequent cleaning due to weed
growth and erosion, which increases the maintenance costs.
 There is a need to construct bridges for the transportation of persons
and equipment when these ditches are to be installed.
 Sub-Surface Drainage Using Buried Drains
 Buried drains refer to any type of buried conduits having open joints or
perforations, which collect and convey drainage water.
 They can be fabricated from clay, concrete, corrugated plastic tubes or any
other suitable material.
 The drains can be arranged in a parallel, herringbone, double main or
random fashion.
 They are usually placed in trenches by machines.
 In clay and concrete pipes (usually 30 m long and 5-10 cm in diameter)
drainage water enters the pipes through the joints.
 Flexible plastic drains are much longer (up to 200 m) and the water enters
through perforations distributed over the entire length of the pipe.
Buried Drains
 Advantages of Tile Drains
Tile drainage helps in increasing crop yields by draining the water by
lowering the water table in the following manner:
 Removes the free gravity water that is not directly available to the
plants.
 Increases the volume of soil from which roots can obtain food.
 Increases air circulation.
 Increases bacterial activity in the soil, thus improving soil structure
and making the plant food more readily available.
 Reduces soil erosion. A well-drained soil has more capacity to hold
rainfall, resulting in less runoff and hence, less erosion.
 Reduces and removes toxic substances such as sodium and other
soluble salts, which when present in large concentrations may
retard plant growth.
 Lesser time and labor is required for tilling and harvesting the
soils, as these drains do not obstruct farming operations. With a
crop such as corn, a delay in planting may decrease yields. Planting
in wet soils is also likely to decrease yields. All such troubles are
removed in tile drained soils.
 Tile drains permit deep roots development by lowering the water
table, especially during spring months.

A plant having deep roots can extract water from greater depths and
hence, can withstand droughts better than the one having shallow
roots. Moreover, a deep rooted plant is larger and, therefore, capable
of more transpiration and hence, giving increased yields.
 Envelope Filters or Graded Gravel Filters
 Tile drains, are usually, pipe drains made up of porous earthenware and are
circular in section.
 The diameters may vary from 10 to 30 cm or so.
 These drains are laid below the ground level, butting each other with open
joints.
 The trenches, in which they are laid, are back filled with sand and excavated
material.
 As far as possible; the tile drains should not be placed below less previous
strain. Because in that case, they may remain dry even though the land
above the impervious strain may be water-logged, as the water will not be
able to reach the drain.
 When the drains are placed in less previous soils, they are generally
surrounded by graded gravel filters, called Envelope filters.
 The envelope filter serves two functions:
 It prevents the inflow of the soil into the drain, and
 It increases the effective tile diameter, and thus increases the inflow
rate.
 The filter consists of different gradations, such as gravel, coarse sand,
bajri etc.
 The coarsest material is placed immediately over the tile, and the
size is gradually reduced towards the surface.
 The minimum thickness of the filter is about 7.5 cm.
 The graded filter may sometimes be substituted by a
single gradation, depending upon the availability and cost
considerations.
 Soils that Need Filters
 Uniform soils will cause problems while non-uniform ones are widely
distributed which stabilize themselves.
 Clays have high cohesion and they cannot be easily moved therefore it
doesn’t require filters.
 Big particles like gravel can hardly be moved due to their weight.
 Fine soils are the soils that will actually need filters especially if they are
uniform.
 Outlets for Tile Drains or Closed Drains.
The water drained by the tile drains is discharged into some bigger drains,
called deep surface drains either by gravity or by pumping.

Gravity outlets:
 If the bed level and the full supply level (FSL) of the outlet drain is lower
than the invert level of the tile drains, then the water can be discharged
easily by the mere action of gravity.
 Corrugated metal pipe with a flap
shutter to prevent entry of rodents
is generally provided at the outlet
point.
 If there is a danger of back flowing
of the flood water into the tile
drain from the deep surface drain,
then, a flood gate may be
provided.
Water flowing from drain into a ditch,
note animal prevention screen
Typical Animal Guards
 Pump Outlets:
 When the bed level of the outlet drain is higher than that of the discharging
tile drain; a pump outlet has to be installed.
 It consists of an automatic controlled pump with a small sump for storage.
 Pump outlets are costly and require technicality. The cost of installing and
maintaining a pump outlet should be compared with that of excavating and
maintaining a deeper outlet drain before making final selection.
 Drawdown Curve or Movement of Water into the Tile Drains
 The drawdown will be more near the tile then at the points farther
away.
 After the saturated soil has drained for a day or so, the resulting water table
will be, as shown in following Figure:

 When a filter is provided around the tile drains to surround the drains with
more pervious soil, then the overall drawdown will be more.
 The rate of drop of water table mainly depends upon the soil permeability
and spacing of the drains.
 Depth Of Tile Drains
 The closed drains are generally spaced at such a distance as to be
capable of lowering the water table sufficiently below the root zones of
the plants.
 For most of the plants, the top point of the water table must be at least
1.0 to 1.5 meters below the ground level; although this distance may
vary from 0.7 to 2.5 m., depending upon the soil and the crop.
 The tile drains may be placed at about 0.3 meter below the desired
highest level of the water table.
 Spacing Of The Tile
Drains

Let
S = spacing between drains;
a = depth of impervious stratum from the center of the drains;
b = maximum height of the drained water table above the impervious
layer;
y = height of the water table above the impervious stratum at any distance x
from the center of a drain;
Then, according to Darcy’s law, we have
Q=KiA
Where K = permeability coefficient in m/sec.
Therefore, discharge per unit length of drain passing the section at y
(qy) is given as:
dy
qy  K y
ds
 q b  a 2 
4K 2 (5)
S

or S b  a 2 
4K 2
(6)
q

 Equation (6) can be used to predicate the spacing (S) between the drains, if
q is known.

 q will depend on the infiltration discharge into the ground which should
be removed by the drains.

 Generally, a value equal to 1% of the average annual rainfall at a place is

considered to be drained by the tile drains in 24 hours.
If the average annual rainfall of the place is PAA (meters), then
 0.01 PAA 
q  S *1) cumecs / m length of drains
 24*3600 

0.01 PAA S PAA S PAA S

q   (7)
24*3600 8,640,000 8.64 *106
Equating with equation (5), we get

q b  a 2  PAA S 6
4K 2
S 8.64 *10

S
8.64 *10  4K b
6 2
 a2 
(8)
PAA

Hence, spacing (S) can determined easily by using above equation (8).
Problem-1: In a tile drainage system, the drains are laid with their
centers 1.5 m below the ground level. The impervious layer is 9.0 m
below ground level and the average annual rainfall in the area is 80 cm.
If 1% of the annual rainfall is to be drained in 24 hours to keep the
highest position of the water table to 1 meter below ground level,
determine the spacing of the drain pipes. Coefficient of permeability may
be taken as 0.001 cm/sec.
Solution:
Eq. (8) can be directly used in this question, since that eqn. has been
derived for designing the drains to take 1% of the average annual rainfall
in 24 hours, which tallies with the given data:

S
8.64 *10  4K b
6 2
 a2 
PAA
Here, K = 0.001 cm/sec = 0.00001 m /sec; b = 9 - 1 = 8 m;
a = 9 – 1.5 = 7.5 m; PAA = 80 cm = 0.8 m.

Putting the values, we get, S = 57.86 m

 Drainage Coefficient (D.C.)
 The rate at which the water is removed by a drain is called the Drainage
Coefficient.
 It is expressed as the depth of water in cm or meters, to be removed in 24 hours
from the drainage area.
 It largely depends upon the rainfall but varies with the type of soil, type of crop
and degree of surface drainage, etc. Drainage is different in rain fed areas and
irrigated areas. Its recommended value is 1% of the average annual rainfall to be
removed per day.
 A suitable value of drainage coefficient (DC) may be taken for the calculations,
depending upon the local recommendations. Values of 1 to 2.5 cm/day for
mineral soils and 1.25 to 10 cm/day for organic soils for different crops, have
been suggested for humid regions, by U.S. Soil Conservation Service.
 Drainage Area:
 The area actually drained by the tile drain system is called its Drainage Area.
 Sometimes, the surface water is also to be removed by the tiles. In that case, the
watershed area will be the drainage area, even through it may not be entirely
tiled.
 Various Methods For Obtaining Drainage Coefficient in Rain-Fed
Areas
 Hudson suggestions:
MAR > 1000 mm, Drainage coefficient = MAR/1000 mm/day
MAR < 1000 mm, Drainage coefficient = 10 mm/day.
 From rainfall records: Determine peak rainfall with a certain
probability depending on the value of crops or grounds to be protected
e.g. 5 day rainfall for 1: 2 return period.

 Divide the rainfall of the heaviest rainfall month by the days of the
month e.g. if in an area, the heaviest rainfall month is August with 249
mm.
i.e. Drainage discharge = 249/31 = 8.03 mm/day.
Use this method as a last resort.
Problem-2: A tile drainage system draining 12 hectares, flows at a
design capacity for two days, following a storm, if the system is
designed using a D.C of 1.25 cm, how many cubic meters of soil water
will be removed during this period?

Solution:
Drainage Coefficient = 1.25 cm
Drainage Area = 12 hectares = 12 x 104 m2
Volume of water entering the drain per day
= Water Depth drained per day x Drainage Area

 
1.25 
 1210
4

 100 
= 1,500 m3/day
Volume of water passing the drain within two days of flow
= 2 x 1500
= 3000 m3 Answer
 Design Approaches for Drain Diameters and Gradients
There are two approaches to design:
 Transport approach:
 Assumes that pipes are flowing full from top to end of field.
 Assumes uniform flow.
 Widely used in United States, Canada and Germany.
 Used to design collector drains.
 Drainage approach:
 Assumes that water enters the pipe all down the length as it is perforated.
 This is more realistic.
 Widely used in United Kingdom, Holland and Denmark.
 This is used to design lateral drainage pipes.
 Size of the Tile Drains:
 Tile drains are designed according the Manning’s formula to carry a
certain discharge decided by D.C. and drainage area.
 The drains are laid on a certain longitudinal slope varying from 0.05 to
3%.
 A desirable minimum working grade is 0.2%. Where sufficient slope is
not available, the grade may be reduced to 0.1%.
 The size of tile drains can easily be evaluated from Manning’s formula.
 10 to 15 cm tiles are minimum recommended sizes.
 The minimum size for perforated tubes or pipes can be reduced, as in
that case, the misalignment at joints or cracks is not a problem.
Example-3: Determine the size at the outlet of a 6 hectare drainage
system, if the D.C. is 1 cm and the tile grade is 0.3 %. Assume the
rugosity coefficient for the material as 0.011.
Solution:
 Material of Tile Drains:
 Pipe used for tile drains are generally made from materials, such as clay or
concrete, in short lengths.
 Sometimes, they may be made of bituminous fiber or steel.
 Corrugated plastic perforated pipes are gaining popularity, because of there
lightness and reduced labor in handling them.
 Comparison between clay and concrete pipes:
 Good quality concrete pipes are very resistant to freezing and thawing
(melting), but may deteriorate in alkaline and acidic soils.
 Clay pipes, on the other hand, are not affected by acid or alkaline soils.
 When subjected to continuous freezing or thawing conditions, concrete pipes
are found to be safer than the clay pipes, although clay pipes are resistant to
frost damage.
 Good clay or concrete pipes should have the following characteristics:
 Resistant to weathering and deterioration in the soil.
 Low water absorption, i.e. high density
 Uniformity in shape and wall thickness, etc.
 Freedom from defects, such as cracks, etc.
 Resistant to freezing, thawing and frost damage.
 Sufficient strength to withstand static and impact loads for which
designed.
 Layout of Sub-Surface
or Tile Drains:
 The tile drains may be aligned
in different fashions, depending
upon the topography of the
area.

 Generally, laterals (branch

drains) run through most of the
drainage area and join the
mains, which it turn; discharge
through the outlets into deep
open drains.

 A simple network of the

drainage arrangement is shown
in the following Figure.
Fig. General Layout of a Tile Drain
Network
 Vertical Drainage:
 It is done by providing drainage tube wells.
 The areas where there is sweet water, the pumped water is directly
utilized for irrigation.
 In case of saline sub-soil water and availability of fresh surface water, the
drainage water can be used for irrigation after mixing with appropriate
ratio.
 Drainage tube wells have larger pumping capacity.
 In the Indus basin most of the drainage wells are having 0.08
cumecs capacity.
 In the Indus basin, even 0.17 cumecs wells have been found
economically viable.
 Drainage tube wells are installed in groups in such a way that cone of
depression of individual wells overlap each other sufficiently.
 Conditions Required for Vertical Drainage
If following conditions are present, then vertical drainage is preferred
over the surface or sub-surface methods:
 An aquifer of adequate transmissivity;
 Adequate vertical permeability between the root zone and the water
table;
 Extremely flat land, natural/surface drains are non existent;
 Highly developed land where other forms of drainage may become
expensive or not possible; and
 Pumped drainage water can be utilized for irrigation purposes; etc.