1.

1 MARRIAGE: MEANING, FUNCTIONS & TYPES, LIVE-IN

RELATIONSHIPS; DIVORCE AND ITS SOCIAL
CONSEQUENCES
Marriage: Meaning, Functions & Types
Meaning:

Marriage is one of the social institutions that is universal and found in some form or the other in every
society. It is the institution that admits individuals into family life. In fact, it is the basis of family. It is an
institution that has been formed to regulate the sexual life of people in any society.

Various sociologists have defined marriage in the following ways:

 ‘Marriage is more or less durable connection between male and female, lasting beyond the
mere act of propagation and the birth of offspring.’ – Edward Westermarck
 ‘Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children.’ – Malinowski
 ‘Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more people establish a family’ –
Horton and Hunt

Characteristics of Marriage:
From these definitions, it can be seen that marriage is a social institution that establishes an enduring or
continuing bond between men and women, the main aim of which is procreation and establishment of
the family.

Marriage is a Universal Institution: It is found in some form or the other in all types of societies, from
most primitive ones to most modern societies.

Marriage by Definition Takes Place between Two Adults: Marriages between minors is considered
illegal in most countries around the world and will not be accepted in any court of law as legal, unless it
has taken place with the permission of the court or under special circumstances.

Marriages take place between two individuals of the opposite sex, though in today’s world certain
variations of this have been observed.

1) Marriage legalizes and legitimizes a sexual relationship between man and woman.
2) A marriage takes place through a civil or religious ceremony. This is necessary in order to ensure
religious and social sanction. In fact, for most marriages, family members and guests are invited
to witness the marriage, which is one way of ensuring social acceptance.
3) Marriage is an enduring relationship between a man and a woman.
4) Marriage is necessary for setting up a family.
5) Marriage legalizes the rights and obligations of members of a family towards each other. It
ensures legality to certain rights, such as those of property, maintenance in case of break-up of
marriage, and so on.
Functions of Marriage:
The institution of marriage is important for any society, and the functions that this institution performs
is instrumental in the smooth functioning of society.

1) The most important function of marriage is the control of sexual behaviour of people in a
society. Without marriage, there would be widespread sexual promiscuity, and no control over
the most basic human instinct of satisfaction of sexual desires.
2) A marriage legalizes a sexual relationship existing between two adults of opposite sex. In doing
so, it recognizes certain legal rights that are given to the married individuals.
3) A marriage legitimizes the sexual relationship between individuals. This legitimacy is both
religious and social in nature. A religious or civil ceremony ensures religious acceptance, and
social witnessing of a marriage results in social acceptance and legitimacy.
4) Marriage is necessary for setting up a family, with all legal rights and obligations. A family may
also be established outside or without a marriage, but it does not entail any legal rights to any of
the family members.
5) Marriage is necessary for procreation and having children with legal rights.
6) Marriage does division of labour on the basis of sex and age, however, the traditional roles and
bases for division of labour have changed dramatically over the last few decades.

Types of Marriages:
In every society, different types of marriages exist. Marriage as an institution has evolved from a state of
complete promiscuity, where no known forms of marriage existed to the earliest forms of cohabitation. It
followed by group marriage to the systems of having more than one spouse or polygamy, and lastly, to
the more modern marriage, monogamy.

Polyandry Monogamy

Marriage

Group
Marriage Polygamy

1. Monogamy:

Monogamy is a form of marriage where only one spouse exists—one husband and one wife.
As a form of marriage, monogamy is found in almost all countries across the world and is also
the most accepted form of marriage. Many sociologists consider it the most enduring (long
lasting) form of marriage, which ensures that children get maximum attention and care by the
parents. Even aged parents are better looked after under this system of marriage.
 Serial monogamy: In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death
of the first spouse or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the
same time.

Straight monogamy: In straight monogamy the remarriage of the individuals is not allowed.

2. Polygamy:

Polygamy refers to a form of marriage, where there are more than one spouse,
i.e., either more than one husband or more than one wife. Polygamy is divided into two types:
polygyny and polyandry.

“Polygyny When a man marries more than one woman, it is polygyny.”

Polygyny is of two types:

Non-Sororal Polygyny: When a man marries more than one woman, who are not related it is
called nonsororal polygyny.

Sororal Polygyny: Sororal polygyny comes into existence when a man marries more than one
woman, who are sisters.

3. Polyandry:

Polyandry is a type of marriage in which one woman marries more than one man. It is a
system where there is one wife but many husbands: This type of marriage exists among some
primitive tribes (Todas of Malabar Hills) and in countries such as Tibet.

Polyandry is further divided into two categories:

Non-Fraternal Polyandry: Non-fraternal polyandry takes place when one woman

marries more than one man, who are in no way related to each other.

Fraternal Polyandry: Fraternal polyandry takes place when one woman marries more
than one man, related by blood, like brothers. A number of causes have been attributed
to the existence of polyandry. One of the main reasons is the negative female sex ratio
and lesser number of females in comparison to males.

4. Polygynandry: Polygynandry is a combination of polygyny and polyandry and is also known

as group marriages. In this type of marriage, all men are married to all women. This means there
is no individual husband and wife but common husbands and wives. Children born into such
marriages belong to the group and are looked after by the group. These marriages can be seen
very merely only among very primitive groups and among some religious communes in the
modern world.
5. Group Marriage: Group marriage means the marriage of two or more women with two or more
men. Here the husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are
regarded as the children of the entire group as a whole.
Live-in Relationships
A live-in relationship is generally said to living together without tying the knot. In India, living together
before marriage was seen as a crime or offence as per the Indian culture for a long time. Previously, the
Hindu Dharma preferred ‘Ekapatni Vrat’ which means ‘one man, one wife’ as one of the most holy forms
of matrimony, but now people have started to evolve with time and started accepting a few refusing
practices.

The live-in relationship concept is not recognized as a legal union in India like some other countries.
However, the Supreme Court of India has said that a live-in relationship without tying the knot is not a
criminal offence or illegal. Partners living together without marriage do not have the same legal rights
just like married couples but they have legal protection under laws.

Rights under Live-in Relationships in India

The concept of a live-in relationship is not defined anywhere in India. It is referred to a proposal of two
individuals living together with consent. It allows an individual to understand each other which helps in
making an informed decision for marriage. In addition to this, an individual must also know the rights of
an individual under a live-in relationship in India.

Right to Maintenance

The live-in relationship has the same provisions as Section 125 (1) (a) of the Criminal Procedure Code,
1973 which deals with the right to maintenance. Section 125 (1) (a) of the Criminal Procedure Code,
1973 deals with the Right to Maintenance that states giving monetary assistance to wife, child, or
parents.

Right of Inheritance of Property for Children

As per the Supreme Court of India, a man and woman living together for an extended period are said to
be married and thus they are permitted all legal rights. Section 16 of the Hindu Marriage Act says that
the children are allowed to the self-acquired property of their parents.

Additionally, children have the right to maintenance as per the Criminal Procedure Code, Section 125 (1)
(a), even in the case if their parents’ laws do not grant it and the live-in partners are bound to have the
responsibility to care for their children even if they are no longer together.

Children’s Custody Rights

Child custody becomes an important factor when partners end a live-in relationship. Due to the lack of
special laws governing the custody rights for children born in live-in relationships; hence, such situations
are handled by the courts in the same manner as marriages. The well-being of the minor is the most
priority concern, and the court takes it into account while determining custody.

Divorce
 Divorce, the legal dissolution of a marriage, is a complex social phenomenon with far-reaching
consequences that extend beyond the couple involved. While it often reflects personal incompatibilities,
its impact reverberates through families, communities, and societies at large. The social consequences of
divorce are multifaceted, affecting children, the institution of family, economic stability, mental health,
and societal norms.

Social Consequences:-
1. Impact on Children

 Emotional Distress: Children may experience confusion, sadness, guilt, anger, and anxiety. These
feelings can influence their academic performance and social development.
 Behavioural Issues: Studies indicate an increase in behavioral problems among children from
divorced families, including aggression, defiance, and withdrawal.
 Academic Challenges: Instability at home often reflects in poor academic performance and
decreased school attendance.
 Long-Term Effects: Adult children of divorced parents may develop trust issues, fear of
commitment, and a higher likelihood of experiencing divorce themselves.

2. Changes in Family Structure

 Single-Parent Families: These are more vulnerable to economic challenges, social stigma, and
emotional stress.
 Blended Families: Remarriages may lead to stepfamilies, which can cause adjustment issues for
both children and adults.
 Custody Disputes: These can lead to prolonged legal battles, further straining familial
relationships and children’s emotional well-being.

3. Economic Consequences

 Income Decline: Often, the household income drops post-divorce, especially for women who
may rely on spousal or child support.
 Legal Costs: Divorce proceedings can be expensive and financially draining.
 Division of Assets: Splitting property and finances can reduce the standard of living for both
partners.
 Employment Changes: Some may need to find employment or take on additional work to
support themselves or their children, affecting work-life balance.

4. Mental and Emotional Health

 Depression and Anxiety: The breakdown of a marriage is emotionally taxing and may lead to
mental health issues.
 Social Isolation: Individuals may withdraw from social circles, particularly if friendships were
centered around the couple.
 Loss of Identity: Some may struggle with redefining their identity after the end of a long-term
relationship.
5. Social Stigma and Cultural Impact

 Shame and Judgment: Divorced individuals may face societal judgment, especially women, who
are often blamed for the breakdown of the marriage.
 Cultural and Religious Constraints: In some cultures, divorce is frowned upon or even
prohibited, making it emotionally and socially challenging.
 Changing Norms: However, in modern, urban societies, attitudes towards divorce are becoming
more liberal and accepting.

6. Gendered Consequences

 Women: Often face greater social and economic repercussions. They may encounter reduced
financial security, societal blame, and responsibility for child-rearing.
 Men: May face issues like reduced custody rights, emotional estrangement from children, and
societal pressure to suppress emotional distress.

7. Effects on Society

 Changing Perceptions of Marriage: Increasing divorce rates may lead to changing attitudes
towards marriage, cohabitation, and family life.
 Legal and Policy Implications: Governments may need to implement supportive policies for
single-parent families, child welfare, and mental health support.
 Workplace Impacts: Divorce can affect productivity and attendance due to emotional distress or
legal proceedings.

1.2 FAMILY: MEANING, FEATURES, TYPES OF FAMILY;

FUNCTIONS & CHANGING PATTERNS
Meaning of Family:
Broadly speaking, family refers to the group comprising parents and children. It may also refer,
in some cases, to a group of relatives and their dependants forming one household. All these refer to
the compositional aspect of this institution. Another aspect is that of residence of its members.

They usually share common residence, at least for some part of their lives. Thirdly, there is the relational
aspect of the family. Members have reciprocal rights and duties towards each other. Finally, the family is
also an agent of socialisation. All these aspects make this institution different from all other units of
social structure.

Various sociologists have defined family in the following ways:

 As Mack and Young say, “The family is the basic primary group and the natural matrix of
personality”.
 According to the Bureau of Census (U.S.A.). “Family is a group of two or more persons related by
blood, marriage or adoption and residing together”. Some of other important definitions of
family are as follows.
  According to Maclver and Page, “Family is a group defined by a sex relationship, sufficiently
precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children”.

Features of Family
1. Biological or Social Bond

 Family members are connected by blood , marriage, or adoption.

 In modern contexts, chosen families (e.g., in LGBTQ+ or close friendship circles) are also
recognized.

2. Living Arrangement (Co-residence)

 Traditionally, families live together in a household.

 However, nuclear families and migrant families may not always live together but still function as
a family unit.

3. Economic Cooperation

 Families often share financial responsibilities—providing food, shelter, clothing, healthcare, and
education.
 In agrarian and working-class societies, family members also work together.

4. Emotional Support

 A family provides emotional care, affection, love, and security.

 It acts as the primary social and psychological support system for its members.

5. Socialization Function

 Families are the first agents of socialization, teaching values, culture, language, and norms.
 They shape personality, moral outlook, and behavior patterns.

6. Reproductive and Sexual Regulation

 Through marriage, families regulate sexual behavior and ensure the continuation of society
through reproduction.

7. Role and Status

 Every member has a defined role and status within the family.
 These roles evolve with time and cultural changes.

8. Authority and Hierarchy

 Families usually have a power structure.

 Parents or elders often make decisions or provide guidance.

Types of Family:
 Though family is a universal institution, its structure or form vary from one society to another.
Sociologists and anthropologists have mentioned about different types of families found in different
cultures.

Classification of families is generally done on the basis of organisation (nuclear and joint), forms of
marriage (monogamous or polygamous), authority (matriarchal or patriarchal) and residence etc.
Classification of families on different basis is given below.

A. On the Basis of Organisation:

In terms of organisation families may be of two broad types

1. Nuclear Family:

The nuclear family is a unit composed of husband, wife and their unmarried children. This is the
predominant form in modern industrial societies. This type of family is based on companionship
between parents and children. While discussing the nature of nuclear family in India, Pauline Kolenda
has discussed additions / modifications in nuclear family structure. She has given the following
compositional categories.

 Nuclear family refers to a couple with or without children.

 Supplemented nuclear family indicated a nuclear family plus one or more unmarried, separated
or widowed relatives of the parents, other than their unmarried children.
 Single person household.

2. Extended / Joint Family:

The term extended family is used to indicate the combination of two or more nuclear families based on
an extension of the parent-child relationships. According to Murdck, an extended family consists of two
or more nuclear families affiliated through an extension of the parent-child relationship … i.e. by joining
the nuclear family of a married adult to that of his parents.

In an extended family, a man and his wife live with the families of their married sons and with their
unmarried sons and daughters, grand children or great grant children in the paternal or maternal line.
Different types of extended family are still common in Asia, says Bottomore.

The size of joint family is very large. Generally, the eldest male is the head of the family. The rights and
duties of the members in this type of family are laid down by the hierarchy order of power and
authority. Children of the joint family are children of all the male members in the parental generation.

The father-son relationship (filial relationship) and the relationship between brothers (fraternal
relationship) are more crucial for the joint family system than the conjugal relationship (husband-wife
relationship).

B. On the Basis of Authority:

The family may be either patriarchal or matriarchal on the basis of authority.

1. Patriarchal Family:

Patriarchal family is a type of family in which all authority belongs to the paternal side. In this
family, the eldest male or the father is the head of the family. He exercises his authority over the
members of the family. He presides over the religious rites of the household; he is the guardian of the
family goods. In the developed patriarchal system of the past, the patriarch had unlimited and
undisputed authority over his wife, sons and daughters.

2. Matriarchal Family:

It is a form of family in which authority is centred in the wife or mother. The matriarchal family
system implies rule of the family by the mother, not by the father. In this type of family women are
entitled to perform religious rites and husband lives in the house of wife. Matriarchal family is also
called mother-right family or maternal family under which the status, name and sometimes inheritance
is transmitted through the female line. This type of family is now found among the Khasi and Garo tribes
of Assam and Meghalaya, among Nayars of Malabar in Kerala.

C. On the Basis of Residence:

I. Patrilocal Family: When the wife goes to live with the husband’s family, it is called the
patrilocal family.
II. Matrilocal Family: When the couple after marriage moves to live with the wife’s family, such
residence is called matrilocal. The husband has a secondary position in the wife’s family
where his children live.
III. Neolocal Residence: When the couple after marriage moves to settle in an independent
residence which is neither attached to the bride’s family of origin nor bridegroom’s family of
origin it is called neolocal residence.
IV. Avunculocal Family: In this type of family the married couple moves to the house of the
maternal uncle and live with his son after marriage. Avonculocal family is found among the
Nayars of Kerala.

D. The Basis of Descent:

On the basis of descent, families may be divided into two types such as patrilineal and matrilineal.

I. Patrilineal Family: When descent is traced through the father, it is called patrilineal family. In
this type of family inheritance of property takes place along the male line of descent. The
ancestry of such family is determined on the basis of male line or the father. A patrilineal family
is also patriarchal and patrilocal. This is the common type of family prevalent today.
II. Matrilineal Family: In this type of family descent is traced along the female line and inheritance
of property also takes place along the female line of descent. The Veddas, the North American
Indians, some people of Malabar and the Khasi tribe are matrilineal. Generally, the matrilineal
families are matriarchal and matrilocal.
 E. On the Basis of Marriage:

On the basis of marriage, family has been classified into two types such as monogamous and
polygamous.

I. Monogamous Family: A monogamous family is one which is consisted of one husband and one
wife. In this type of family one man has one wife or one woman has one husband at a given
time. Hence a husband and a wife living together, constitute a monogamous family. It is an ideal
form of family prevalent widely.
II. Polygamous Family: When one man marries several woman or one woman marries several men
and constitute the family, it is polygamous family. Again polygamous family is divided into two
types such as polygynous family and polyandrous family.

F. On the basis of Blood-relationship:

Ralph Linton has classified family into two main types namely, consanguine and conjugal.

I. Consanguine Family: The consanguine family is built upon the parent-child relationship (on
blood descent). The family is a descent group through the male line which is firmly vested with
authority. The consanguine family comprises a nucleus of blood relatives surrounded by a fringe
of wives and others who are incidental to the maintenance of the family unit. Such families can
become very large. The Nayar family is a typical example.
II. Conjugal Family: The conjugal family is a nucleus of the husband, the wife and their offspring,
who are surrounded by a fringe of relatives only incidental to the functioning of the family as a
unit. In this type family, the authority and solidarity of the family group reside solely in the
conjugal (husband and wife) pair. In contrast to consanguine type of family, the conjugal family
is much more isolated from wider kinship relationships.

Functions of Family
As a social institution the family has certain functions to perform for the society and the individual. It
plays important role for survival, protection and support, socialisation and societal identification of the
individual. The Family serves the society as an instrument of sexual control and cultural transmission.

Different sociologists have classified the functions of the family differently.

K. Davis has mentioned four main functions of family.

1. Reproduction
2. (Ii) Maintenance
3. (Iii) Placement
4. (Iv) Socialisation Of The Young

Ogbum and Nimkoff have divided the functions of family into six categories
 1) Affectional Functions
2) Economic Functions
3) Recreational Functions
4) Protective Functions
5) Religious
6) Educational Functions

According to Lundberg

1) Regulation of sexual behaviour.

2) Care and training of the children.
3) Cooperation and division of labour.
4) Primary group satisfaction.

Groves has classified the functions family in the following way.

1) Protection and care of the young.

2) Regulation and control of sex impulses.
3) Conservation and transmission of social heritage and
4) Provision of opportunity for the most intimate contacts.

Maclver divides the functions of the family into two categories: Essential and Nonessential functions

Essential Functions:

1. Satisfaction of Sex Needs: This is the essential function which the family performs. The sex
instinct is the natural and biological urge of human beings. The satisfaction of sex desire
requires that male and female should live together as husband and wife. Hence, family is the
only place where husband and wife can satisfy their sex instinct. Family satisfies sexual desires
of male and female through the institution of marriage.
2. Reproduction: The task of race perpetuation has always been an important function of the
family. A ongoing society must replace its members. It primarily relies on the biological
reproduction of its own members. The family is an institution par excellence of the reproduction
and the rearing of children.
3. Sustenance Function: The family provides the daily care and personal protection to its
dependant members namely aged, children etc. The family is an insurance for the individual in
times of crisis. Family provides protection and shelter to orphans, widow and her children.
4. Provision of a Home: Establishment of household life or provision of a home is another
essential function of the family. The desire for a home is a powerful instinct for men as well as
women. Family provides a opportunity for husband and wife to live together happily. Man after
the hard work of the day returns home where in the presence of his wife and children he sheds
off his fatigue.
5. Socialisation: Man is a social animal. But he is not born human or social. He is made social
through the process of socialisation. Socialisation refers to the process through which the
growing individual learns the habits, attitudes, values and beliefs of the social group into which
 he has been born and becomes a person. From the point of view of society, it is the process
through which society transmits its culture from generation to generation and maintains itself.

Non-Essential Functions:

1. Economic Functions: Family serves as an economic unit. The earlier agricultural family was a self
supporting ‘business enterprise’. It was producing whatever the family needed. Today the
importance of family as an economic unit has been lessened as most of the goods for
consumption are purchased readymade from the market. The family still remains as an
important economic unit from the point of view of ‘consumer’s outlay’. In other words, the
modern family is a consuming unit and not a self-sufficient ‘producing unit’.
2. Property Transformation: The family acts as an agency for holding and transmission of property.
Most families accumulate much property such as land, goods, money and other forms of
wealth. The family transmits these property.
3. Religious Function: Family is a centre for religious training of the children. The children learn
various religious virtues from their parents. The religious and moral training of children has
always been bound up with the home. Though formal religious education has reached into the
earliest years the family still furnishes the matrix of religious ideas, attitudes and practice.
4. Educative Function: The family provides the bases of all the child’s latter formal education
learning. Family is the first school of children. The child learns the first letters under the
guidance of parents. In the words Mazzin, the first lesson of child begins between mother’s kiss
and father’s care. The child learns language, behaviour and manners from the parents. The
virtues of love, cooperation, obedience, sacrifice and discipline are learnt by the child in the
family.
5. Recreational Function: The family provides recreation to its members. The members of the
family visit their relations. They enjoy various occasions in the family jointly and derive
pleasure. Now recreation is available in clubs and hotels rather than at home.

Characteristics of family:
1. A Mating Relationship: A family comes into existence when a man and woman establish mating
relation between them.

2. A Form of Marriage: Mating relationship is established through the institution of marriage. The
society regulates sexual behaviour between opposite sexes through the institution of marriage. Through
the institution of marriage, mating relationship is established. Without marriage family is not possible.
Hence, family is a form of marriage.

3. A Common Habitation: A family requires a home or household for its living. Without a dwelling place
the task of child-bearing and child rearing cannot be adequately performed. The members of a family
have a common habitation or household.

4. A System of Nomenclature: Every family is known by a particular name. It has own system of
reckoning descent. Descent may be recognized through male line or through the mother’s line. In
patrilineal families descent is recognized through male line. Similarly, in matrilineal families descent is
recogned through mother’s line.

5. An Economic Provision: Every family needs an economic provision to satisfy the economic needs. The
head of the family carries on certain profession and earns to maintain the family.

6. System of Interaction and Communication: The family is composed of persons who interact and
communicate with each other in their social roles such as husband and wife, mother and father, son and
daughter etc.

Changing Patterns of Family

The concept of the family has evolved significantly over time, influenced by various social,
economic, cultural, legal, and technological developments. Traditionally seen as a stable, nuclear unit
consisting of parents and children, the family today is increasingly diverse and dynamic. Below is a
comprehensive look at the changing patterns of family in both global and Indian contexts.

1. From Joint to Nuclear Families

 Traditional Pattern: In many societies, especially in India, joint families (extended families living
together) were the norm.
 Current Trend: Due to urbanisation, industrialisation, and increased mobility, nuclear families
(parents and children only) have become more common.
 Implication: Greater independence and privacy, but also increased burden on individuals for
caregiving and financial support.

2. Rise of Single-Parent Families

 Cause: Divorce, separation, death of a partner, or a decision to raise a child independently.

 Impact: A shift in traditional parenting roles; children may face emotional and economic
challenges, but many also thrive in supportive environments.

3. Increase in Divorce and Remarriage

 Changing Social Attitudes: Divorce is no longer heavily stigmatised in many parts of the world.
 Result: Higher rates of remarriage and the emergence of blended families (step-parents and
step-siblings).
 Challenge: Navigating complex family dynamics and ensuring stability for children.

4. Delayed Marriage and Childbearing

 Reasons: Career aspirations, education, financial stability, and personal choice.

 Effect: Smaller families, older parents, and a shift in parenting styles.

5. Rise of Child-Free Families

  Voluntary Choice: Some couples choose not to have children for personal, environmental, or
economic reasons.
 Social Perception: Becoming more accepted, although traditional societies may still view this as
deviant.

6. Same-Sex Families

 Legal Recognition: Increasingly recognised through laws permitting same-sex marriage or civil
unions in many countries.
 Family Formation: Includes adoption, surrogacy, or children from previous heterosexual
relationships.
 Challenge: Still faces stigma in conservative societies.

7. Living Together and Cohabitation

 Trend: Unmarried couples living together is more accepted in many cultures today.
 Impact: Redefines traditional concepts of family and commitment.

8. Technological Impact on Family

 Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART): In vitro fertilisation (IVF), surrogacy, and sperm
donation have enabled new forms of family-making.
 Digital Families: Technology helps maintain long-distance family relationships, while also
introducing concerns like screen addiction and decreased face-to-face bonding.

9. Working Women and Dual-Income Households

 Shift: More women in the workforce has changed family dynamics, gender roles, and
expectations.
 Result: Shared parenting responsibilities and need for childcare facilities.

10. Changing Roles and Gender Dynamics

 Old Norms: Clear gender-based division of labour.

 Current Trend: Greater equality in domestic chores, parenting, and decision-making in many
families.

1.3 RELIGION: MEANING, ELEMENTS OF RELIGION,

THEORIES OF RELIGION; RECENT TRENDS IN RELIGION
Religion Meaning
Religion is a range of social-cultural systems, including designated behaviors and
practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that
generally relate humanity to supernatural, transcendental, and spiritual elements—although there is no
scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion. It is an essentially contested
concept. Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from
the divine, sacredness, faith, and a supernatural being or beings.

The origin of religious belief is an open question, with possible explanations including awareness of
individual death, a sense of community, and dreams. Religions have sacred histories, narratives,
and mythologies, preserved in oral traditions, sacred texts, symbols, and holy places, that may attempt
to explain the origin of life, the universe, and other phenomena. Religious practice may
include rituals, sermons, commemoration or
veneration, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, matrimonial and funerary services, meditation
, prayer, music, art, dance, or public service.

Definitions:

1. According to Maclver, “Religion as we understand the term implies a relationship not merely
between man and man but also between man and some higher power.”
2. According to Emile Durkheim, “Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relating to
sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.”
3. According to Ogburn, “Religion is attitudes towards superhuman powers.”

Elements or Components of Religion:

According to Anderson and Parker religion mainly consists of four primary components such as:

 Belief in Supernatural Power: Every religion believes in some supernatural power i.e. powers
outside of man and the present world. The supernatural powers are believed to influence
human life and conditions.
 Man’s adjustment to Supernatural Powers: It is another component of religion. As man is
dependent on these supernatural powers hence he must adjust himself to the powers. As a
result every religion provides for some external acts or rituals such as prayer; Kirtans Utterance
of hymns etc. Non-performance of these rituals regarded as sinful.
 Acts defined as Sinful: It is another component of religion. Every religion defines some acts as
sacred and some other as sinful which suppose to destroy the harmonious relationships
between man and god.
 Belief in some sacred things: Every religion believes on some holy or sacred things which
constitute the centre of religion. These sacred or holy things are symbolic. But this belief based
on faith. For example, Cow is sacred for Hindus.
 Procedure of Worship: It is another component of religion. Every religion has its own specific
procedure of worshipping. The follower of religion worship the supernatural power either in the
form of a statute or in a formless manner.
 Place of Worship: Every religion has its own definite place of worship in which its followers offer
their prayer to the supernatural power.

Theories of Religion
 Scholars have different views regarding how religion originated in human society. According to
evolutionary writers, modern civilized society is a progressively developed form of tribal or primitive
societies, due to which religion must have originated in tribal societies first. Therefore, many scholars try
to find the origin and early form of religion by analyzing the life of the tribes. Some theories of the origin
of religion will make this fact even more clear-

Durkheim's theory of religion

Durkheim presented a complete social explanation regarding the origin of religion, mentioning the
shortcomings of many scholars. According to you 'society' is the root cause of the origin of religion.
Religion is a reflection of the 'society' itself.

According to Durkheim, all the things of collective life, whether they are simple or complex, real or ideal,
can be divided into two main parts - (1) ordinary, (2) sacred. All religions are concerned with holy things.
But this does not mean that all sacred things are divine or related to religion, although everything or
thoughts related to religion must be sacred. These sacred objects are the symbols or community
representatives of the society. In primitive societies, the individual finds his power completely
meaningless before the collective power and therefore bows before it. This collective power is felt during
public rites and festivals etc. Primitive man considers this collective power to be sacred and is therefore
influenced by it. The people of the society always try to keep what they consider to be holy, unholy and
away from the ordinary, and for the fulfillment of this purpose, they give birth to many beliefs, practices,
rites and festivals. Religion is the result of these efforts.

Marx’s Theory of Religion

Karl Max was not a religious man, and he never even did a detailed study on the subject. Still, he has
quite an influence whenever the topic of sociological theories of religion is discussed. He derived his
views on the topic from the theological and philosophical authors of the 19th century, like Ludwig
Feuerbach. Feuerbach was of the view that people cannot understand society. As a result, they project
their own customs and values that are based on culture onto separate entities like gods, angels, demons
and spirits. So, after realising that their values are projected onto religion, they can attain them in this
world instead of the afterlife.

Thus, Marx called religion the ‘opium of people. He stated that religion teaches people to accept their
life as it is, no matter how bad and postpone the rewards or happiness for an after life. As a result,
religion forbids social change as it teaches non-resistance to oppression and diverts the attention of
people from the injustices happening in the world. Similarly, it also justifies the inequality of power and
wealth that the privileged lot possess.

Weber’s Theory of Religion

Although Durkheim’s study and conclusion concerned a limited set of examples, he claimed that the
theory was applicable to religion in general. On the contrary, Max Weber’s study was done on a large
scale, based on religions all over the world. Thus, he focused on millions of believers all over the world
following different religions like Christianity, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. He evaluated
Christianity’s impact on the Western culture and thought process. He aimed to discover the impact of
religion on social change. Consequently, he noticed the roots of Capitalism in Protestantism, and it was
the opposite in Eastern religions. For instance, Hinduism leaned towards achieving spirituality and
escaping the hustle of the mundane physical world.

Tyler's Theory of Religion

According to Tyler, "the concept of the soul is the basis of the philosophy of religion from primitive men
to civilized men." This Spiritism is divided into two broad beliefs—the first is that the human soul exists
after death or the body remains even after destruction and the second is that apart from the souls of
human beings, there are other souls of the mighty gods. According to Tyler, spirits range from spirits to
powerful gods. These transcendental souls are not only immortal, but they also control and direct all the
happenings in this material world and the direction of human life. Apart from this, keeping these souls
happy can bring benefits to a man and harm if he is unhappy. That is why it is necessary to pray or
worship them, so that they do not harm us. With this belief, primitive humans started praying and
worshiping ancestors etc., and this later developed in the form of religion.

Recent trends in Religion

1. Secularization and the Rise of the "Nones"

 Trend: Increasing number of people, especially in the West, identify as having "no religion"
(called religious nones).
 Sociological Insight: Reflects a move from institutional religion to individual spirituality or
secularism.

2. Individualized & Privatized Religion

 Trend: Religion is increasingly practiced privately rather than through formal institutions.
 Key Idea (Thomas Luckmann): Describes this as the “invisible religion” where belief is personal,
fluid, and customized.

3. Spiritual but Not Religious (SBNR)

 Trend: Many, especially youth, reject religious institutions but still seek spiritual meaning.
 Sociological View: Indicates a shift from collective practice to personal exploration, challenging
traditional frameworks of belief.

4. Desecularization and Religious Revivals

 Trend: In many parts of the world (e.g., Africa, India, Latin America), religion is not declining but
growing in influence.
 Sociologists like Peter Berger note that secularization is not universal.

5. Religion and Identity Politics

 Trend: Religion is increasingly tied to ethnic, national, and political identity.

 Sociological Insight: Religion becomes a marker of group belonging, rather than just belief.
6. Globalization and Religious Pluralism

 Trend: Global migration has led to diverse religious communities coexisting, especially in urban
centers.
 Sociological Effects:
 Greater interfaith dialogue and hybridity.
 Emergence of multi-faith societies.

7. Digital Religion

 Trend: Online spaces are becoming major platforms for religious interaction and identity.
 Heidi Campbell's Concept: "Networked religion" where faith practices, communities, and rituals
migrate to the digital sphere.

8. Commodification of Religion

 Trend: Religious symbols, practices, and experiences are turned into consumer goods or tourism
products.
 Sociological Lens: Shows how religion adapts to capitalism and mass culture.

9. Feminist and Queer Approaches to Religion

 Trend: New interpretations of sacred texts challenge patriarchal and heteronormative religious
traditions.
 Sociological View: Religion is reinterpreted through the lens of gender equality and inclusion.

10. Religious Fundamentalism and Extremism

 Trend: Reactionary religious movements seek to reassert "pure" forms of faith in response to
modernity.
 Sociological Explanation: Often rooted in social dislocation, inequality, or identity threat.