Chapter 9 – Software Evolution
Lecture 1
Chapter 9 Software evolution 1
Topics covered
Evolution processes
Change processes for software systems
Program evolution dynamics
Understanding software evolution
Software maintenance
Making changes to operational software systems
Legacy system management
Making decisions about software change
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Software change
Software change is inevitable
New requirements emerge when the software is used;
The business environment changes;
Errors must be repaired;
New computers and equipment is added to the system;
The performance or reliability of the system may have to be
improved.
A key problem for all organizations is implementing and
managing change to their existing software systems.
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Importance of evolution
Organizations have huge investments in their software
systems - they are critical business assets.
To maintain the value of these assets to the business,
they must be changed and updated.
The majority of the software budget in large companies
is devoted to changing and evolving existing software
rather than developing new software.
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A spiral model of development and evolution
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Evolution and servicing
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Evolution and servicing
Evolution
The stage in a software system’s life cycle where it is in
operational use and is evolving as new requirements are
proposed and implemented in the system.
Servicing
At this stage, the software remains useful but the only changes
made are those required to keep it operational i.e. bug fixes and
changes to reflect changes in the software’s environment. No
new functionality is added.
Phase-out
The software may still be used but no further changes are made
to it.
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Evolution processes
Software evolution processes depend on
The type of software being maintained;
The development processes used;
The skills and experience of the people involved.
Proposals for change are the driver for system evolution.
Should be linked with components that are affected by the
change, thus allowing the cost and impact of the change to be
estimated.
Change identification and evolution continues throughout
the system lifetime.
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Change identification and evolution processes
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The software evolution process
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Change implementation
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Change implementation
Iteration of the development process where the revisions
to the system are designed, implemented and tested.
A critical difference is that the first stage of change
implementation may involve program understanding,
especially if the original system developers are not
responsible for the change implementation.
During the program understanding phase, you have to
understand how the program is structured, how it
delivers functionality and how the proposed change
might affect the program.
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Urgent change requests
Urgent changes may have to be implemented without
going through all stages of the software engineering
process
If a serious system fault has to be repaired to allow normal
operation to continue;
If changes to the system’s environment (e.g. an OS upgrade)
have unexpected effects;
If there are business changes that require a very rapid response
(e.g. the release of a competing product).
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The emergency repair process
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Agile methods and evolution
Agile methods are based on incremental development so
the transition from development to evolution is a
seamless one.
Evolution is simply a continuation of the development process
based on frequent system releases.
Automated regression testing is particularly valuable
when changes are made to a system.
Changes may be expressed as additional user stories.
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Handover problems
Where the development team have used an agile
approach but the evolution team is unfamiliar with agile
methods and prefer a plan-based approach.
The evolution team may expect detailed documentation to
support evolution and this is not produced in agile processes.
Where a plan-based approach has been used for
development but the evolution team prefer to use agile
methods.
The evolution team may have to start from scratch developing
automated tests and the code in the system may not have been
refactored and simplified as is expected in agile development.
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Program evolution dynamics
Program evolution dynamics is the study of the
processes of system change.
After several major empirical studies, Lehman and
Belady proposed that there were a number of ‘laws’
which applied to all systems as they evolved.
There are sensible observations rather than laws. They
are applicable to large systems developed by large
organisations.
It is not clear if these are applicable to other types of software
system.
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Lehman’s laws
Law Description
Continuing change A program that is used in a real-world environment must necessarily
change, or else become progressively less useful in that
environment.
Increasing As an evolving program changes, its structure tends to become more
complexity complex. Extra resources must be devoted to preserving and
simplifying the structure.
Large program Program evolution is a self-regulating process. System attributes
evolution such as size, time between releases, and the number of reported
errors is approximately invariant for each system release.
Organizational Over a program’s lifetime, its rate of development is approximately
stability constant and independent of the resources devoted to system
development.
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Lehman’s laws
Law Description
Conservation of familiarity Over the lifetime of a system, the incremental change in each
release is approximately constant.
Continuing growth The functionality offered by systems has to continually
increase to maintain user satisfaction.
Declining quality The quality of systems will decline unless they are modified to
reflect changes in their operational environment.
Feedback system Evolution processes incorporate multiagent, multiloop
feedback systems and you have to treat them as feedback
systems to achieve significant product improvement.
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Applicability of Lehman’s laws
Lehman’s laws seem to be generally applicable to large,
tailored systems developed by large organisations.
Confirmed in early 2000’s by work by Lehman on the FEAST
project.
It is not clear how they should be modified for
Shrink-wrapped software products;
Systems that incorporate a significant number of COTS
components;
Small organisations;
Medium sized systems.
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Key points
Software development and evolution can be thought of
as an integrated, iterative process that can be
represented using a spiral model.
For custom systems, the costs of software maintenance
usually exceed the software development costs.
The process of software evolution is driven by requests
for changes and includes change impact analysis,
release planning and change implementation.
Lehman’s laws, such as the notion that change is
continuous, describe a number of insights derived from
long-term studies of system evolution.
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Chapter 9 – Software Evolution
Lecture 2
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Software maintenance
Modifying a program after it has been put into use.
The term is mostly used for changing custom software.
Generic software products are said to evolve to create
new versions.
Maintenance does not normally involve major changes to
the system’s architecture.
Changes are implemented by modifying existing
components and adding new components to the system.
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Types of maintenance
Maintenance to repair software faults
Changing a system to correct deficiencies in the way meets its
requirements.
Maintenance to adapt software to a different operating
environment
Changing a system so that it operates in a different environment
(computer, OS, etc.) from its initial implementation.
Maintenance to add to or modify the system’s
functionality
Modifying the system to satisfy new requirements.
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Figure 9.8 Maintenance effort distribution
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Maintenance costs
Usually greater than development costs (2* to
100* depending on the application).
Affected by both technical and non-technical
factors.
Increases as software is maintained.
Maintenance corrupts the software structure so
makes further maintenance more difficult.
Ageing software can have high support costs
(e.g. old languages, compilers etc.).
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Figure 9.9 Development and maintenance costs
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Maintenance cost factors
Team stability
Maintenance costs are reduced if the same staff are involved
with them for some time.
Contractual responsibility
The developers of a system may have no contractual
responsibility for maintenance so there is no incentive to design
for future change.
Staff skills
Maintenance staff are often inexperienced and have limited
domain knowledge.
Program age and structure
As programs age, their structure is degraded and they become
harder to understand and change.
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System re-engineering
Re-structuring or re-writing part or all of a
legacy system without changing its
functionality.
Applicable where some but not all sub-systems
of a larger system require frequent
maintenance.
Re-engineering involves adding effort to make
them easier to maintain. The system may be re-
structured and re-documented.
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Advantages of reengineering
Reduced risk
There is a high risk in new software development. There may be
development problems, staffing problems and specification
problems.
Reduced cost
The cost of re-engineering is often significantly less than the
costs of developing new software.
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The reengineering process
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Reengineering process activities
Source code translation
Convert code to a new language.
Reverse engineering
Analyse the program to understand it;
Program structure improvement
Restructure automatically for understandability;
Program modularisation
Reorganise the program structure;
Data reengineering
Clean-up and restructure system data.
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Figure 9.12 Reengineering approaches
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Reengineering cost factors
The quality of the software to be reengineered.
The tool support available for reengineering.
The extent of the data conversion which is required.
The availability of expert staff for reengineering.
This can be a problem with old systems based on technology
that is no longer widely used.
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Refactoring and reengineering
Re-engineering takes place after a system has been
maintained for some time and maintenance costs are
increasing. You use automated tools to process and re-
engineer a legacy system to create a new system that is
more maintainable.
Refactoring is a continuous process of improvement
throughout the development and evolution process. It is
intended to avoid the structure and code degradation
that increases the costs and difficulties of maintaining a
system.
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‘Bad smells’ in program code
Duplicate code
The same or very similar code may be included at different
places in a program. This can be removed and implemented as a
single method or function that is called as required.
Long methods
If a method is too long, it should be redesigned as a number of
shorter methods.
Switch (case) statements
These often involve duplication, where the switch depends on
the type of a value. The switch statements may be scattered
around a program. In object-oriented languages, you can often
use polymorphism to achieve the same thing.
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‘Bad smells’ in program code
Data clumping
Data clumps occur when the same group of data items (fields in
classes, parameters in methods) re-occur in several places in a
program. These can often be replaced with an object that
encapsulates all of the data.
Speculative generality
This occurs when developers include generality in a program in
case it is required in the future. This can often simply be
removed.
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Legacy system management
Organisations that rely on legacy systems must choose
a strategy for evolving these systems
Scrap the system completely and modify business processes so
that it is no longer required;
Continue maintaining the system;
Transform the system by re-engineering to improve its
maintainability;
Replace the system with a new system.
The strategy chosen should depend on the system
quality and its business value.
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Figure 9.13 An example of a legacy system
assessment
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Legacy system categories
Low quality, low business value
These systems should be scrapped.
Low-quality, high-business value
These make an important business contribution but are
expensive to maintain. Should be re-engineered or replaced if a
suitable system is available.
High-quality, low-business value
Replace with COTS, scrap completely or maintain.
High-quality, high business value
Continue in operation using normal system maintenance.
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Key points
There are 3 types of software maintenance, namely bug
fixing, modifying software to work in a new environment,
and implementing new or changed requirements.
Software re-engineering is concerned with re-structuring
and re-documenting software to make it easier to
understand and change.
Refactoring, making program changes that preserve
functionality, is a form of preventative maintenance.
The business value of a legacy system and the quality of
the application should be assessed to help decide if a
system should be replaced, transformed or maintained.
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