Chapter-7 GROUND-WATER CONDITION AND SUPPLY

7.1. Groundwater

When rain falls to the ground, the water does not stop moving. Some of it flows along the surface to
streams or lakes, some of it is used by plants, some evaporates and returns to the atmosphere, and
some sinks into the ground. Imagine pouring a glass of water onto a pile of sand. Where does the
water go? The water moves into the spaces between the particles of sand. Groundwater is water that
is found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. Groundwater is stored in--and
moves slowly through--layers of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers. Aquifers typically consist of
gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured rock, like limestone. These materials are permeable because
they have large connected spaces that allow water to flow through. The speed at which groundwater
flows depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected.

Groundwater can be found almost everywhere. The water table may be deep or shallow; and may
rise or fall depending on many factors. Heavy rains or melting snow may cause the water table to
rise, or heavy pumping of groundwater supplies may cause the water table to fall.

Water in aquifers is brought to the surface naturally through a spring or can be discharged into lakes
and streams. Groundwater can also be extracted through a well drilled into the aquifer. A well is a
pipe in the ground that fills with groundwater. This water can be brought to the surface by a pump.
Shallow wells may go dry if the water table falls below the bottom of the well. Some wells, called
artesian wells, do not need a pump because of natural pressures that force the water up and out of
the well.
Groundwater supplies are replenished, or recharged, by rain and snow melt. In some areas of the
world, people face serious water shortages because groundwater is used faster than it is naturally
replenished. In other areas groundwater is polluted by human activities.
In areas where material above the aquifer is permeable, pollutants can readily sink into groundwater
supplies. Groundwater can be polluted by landfills, septic tanks, leaky underground gas tanks, and
Chapter-7 GROUND-WATER CONDITION AND SUPPLY

from overuse of fertilizers and pesticides. If groundwater becomes polluted, it will no longer be safe
to drink.

7.2. Origin of Groundwater and Occurrence of Groundwater

Origin of Groundwater
The origin of groundwater is primarily one of the following:
. Groundwater derived from rainfall and infiltration within the normal hydrological cycle. This kind
of water is called meteoric water. The name implies recent contact with the atmosphere.
. Groundwater encountered at great depths in sedimentary rocks as a result of water having been
trapped in marine sediments at the time of their deposition. This type of groundwater is referred to
as connate waters. These waters are normally saline. It is accepted that connate water is derived
mainly or entirely from entrapped sea water as original sea water has moved from its original place.
Some trapped water may be brackish.
. Fossil water if fresh may be originated from the fact of climate change phenomenon, i.e., some
areas used to have wet weather and the aquifers of that area were recharged and then the weather of
that area becomes dry.

Occurrence of Groundwater

When precipitation falls (Figure 1) it may: (i) be evaporated from the earth's surface or from the
leaves of plants (evapotranspiration) whose roots have taken up the moisture from the soil; (ii) flow
along or near the surface of the earth in watercourses of ever-increasing size until it reaches the
ocean; (iii) infiltrate down through the pores or crevices of the earth's mantle either at the point
where it falls or at some distant point to which surface flow has carried it. Water which evaporates
from the earth's surface or bodies of water is ready to start the cycle over again as precipitation.

When water is added to dry or unsaturated soil it is held in the voids between particles by capillary
forces. Once the voids are saturated, however, the water is free to descend under the effect of
gravity. As long as there is sufficient water to maintain saturation, the water will descend until it is
stopped by some impervious layer, such as rock or highly impervious clay. The water can then flow
laterally through the voids or rock crevices above the barrier. If there are significant differences in
surface elevation, the water may flow out along the impervious layer at some lower point called a
spring. If a hole is made vertically down into the saturated layer, water will flow into the hole. If the
saturated layer has sufficient interconnected voids, water will flow through it relatively rapidly. When
the saturated layer yields water in economic quantities, it is called an aquifer and the hole made into
it could be developed into a well. The lack of resistance to flow through porous material is called
permeability. In general, fine grained material such as clay or silt is low in permeability; sand is of
medium permeability, and gravel is most permeable. Fractured rock varies in permeability depending
on the degree and pattern of fracture. The quantity of water which can be stored in an aquifer is
equal to the total volume of voids between the solid particles. The fraction of the total volume of an
aquifer made up of voids is called porosity. If the voids are interconnected, aquifers of high
porosity also tend to have high permeability.
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Figure: Hydrologic cycle

Sometimes groundwater is trapped under an impervious layer. An aquifer thus located is called a
confined aquifer. If the inflow area to a confined aquifer is higher than the confining layer where a
well penetrates it, the water will be under pressure and will rise in the well to some level above the
confining layer. Such a well is referred to as artesian. If the water rises to the top of the well a
"flowing well" results.

Obviously some locations offer better chances for successful wells than others. Clues which can be
helpful in selecting well locations are (i) locations and depth to water of existing wells; (ii)
existence of springs and/or streams; (iii) relative locations of infiltration areas and rock
outcroppings which might constitute an impervious layer; and (iv) existence of known
phreatophytes (plants requiring abundant water, whose roots frequently extend to the water
table). In some areas of uniform geology, such as certain alluvial deposits in valleys, wells can be
constructed anywhere with equal success.

In the absence of any clues or data, a test boring can be carried out by one of the methods described
under small diameter wells. Such a boring can be carried out relatively quickly and cheaply and can
save considerable time, money and frustration in the long run.

The area where water fills the aquifer is called the saturated zone (or saturation zone). The top of
this zone is called the water table. The water table may be located only a foot below the ground’s
surface or it can sit hundreds of feet down.

Cross-section of a hillslope depicting the vadose zone, capillary fringe, water table, and phreatic or saturated
zone
Chapter-7 GROUND-WATER CONDITION AND SUPPLY

7.3. Aquifers, Aquicludes and Aquitards

Aquifers

• An aquifer is a formation that allows water to be accessible at a usable rate. Aquifers are
permeable layers such as sand, gravel, and fractured rock.
• Confined aquifers have non-permeable layers, above and below the aquifer zone, referred
to as aquitards or aquicludes. These layers restrict water movement. Clay soils, shales, and
non-fractured, weakly porous igneous and metamorphic rocks are examples of aquitards.
• Sometimes a lens of non-permeable material will be found within more permeable
material. Water percolating through the unsaturated zone will be intercepted by this layer
and will accumulate on top of the lens. This water is a perched aquifer.
• An unconfined aquifer has no confining layers that retard vertical water movement.
• Artesian aquifers are confined under hydraulic pressure, resulting in free-flowing water,
either from a spring or from a well.
Aquitard
An aquitard is rock material that is low in porosity/permeability. Fluid flow is not good and the
unit may often be termed a "cap rock", not allowing underlying water to flow upward. An 'aquitard'
is a geological formation of layers comprised either of clay, with tiny connected pores, or on non-
porous rock that restrict water flow from one aquifer to another.
Aquiclude
An aquiclude is a unit of rock or layer of rock, which is impermeable to fluids. It acts as a barrier
to fluid flow. There probably are no true aquicludes. A porous formation that absorbs water slowly
but will not transmit it fast enough to furnish an appreciable supply for a well or spring. A rock,
such as London clay, which does not allow the passage of water through it; an impermeable rock.
Such a rock will act as a boundary to an aquifer.

7.4. Porosity and permeability

Porosity and permeability are two of the primary factors that control the movement and storage of
fluids in rocks and sediments. They are intrinsic characteristics of these geologic materials. The
exploitation of natural resources, such as groundwater and petroleum, is partly dependent on the
properties of porosity and permeability.

Porosity is the ratio of the volume of openings (voids) to the total volume of material. Porosity
represents the storage capacity of the geologic material. The primary porosity of a sediment or rock
consists of the spaces between the grains that make up that material. The more tightly packed the
grains are, the lower the porosity. Using a box of marbles as an example, the internal dimensions of
the box would represent the volume of the sample. The space surrounding each of the spherical
marbles represents the void space. The porosity of the box of marbles would be determined by
dividing the total void space by the total volume of the sample and expressed as a percentage.

The primary porosity of unconsolidated sediments is determined by the shape of the grains and the
range of grain sizes present. In poorly sorted sediments, those with a larger range of grain sizes, the
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finer grains tend to fill the spaces between the larger grains, resulting in lower porosity. Primary
porosity can range from less than one percent in crystalline rocks like granite to over 55% in some
soils. The porosity of some rock is increased through fractures or solution of the material itself. This
is known as secondary porosity.

Permeability is a measure of the ease with which fluids will flow though a porous rock, sediment,
or soil. Just as with porosity, the packing, shape, and sorting of granular materials control their
permeability. Although a rock may be highly porous, if the voids are not interconnected, then fluids
within the closed, isolated pores cannot move. The degree to which pores within the material are
interconnected is known as effective porosity. Rocks such as pumice and shale can have high
porosity, yet can be nearly impermeable due to the poorly interconnected voids. In contrast, well-
sorted sandstone closely replicates the example of a box of marbles cited above. The rounded sand
grains provide ample, unrestricted void spaces that are free from smaller grains and are very well
linked. Consequently, sandstones of this type have both high porosity and high permeability.

The range of values for permeability in geologic materials is extremely large. The most conductive
materials have permeability values that are millions of times greater than the least permeable.
Permeability is often directional in nature. The characteristics of the interstices of certain materials
may cause the permeability to be significantly greater in one direction. Secondary porosity features,
like fractures, frequently have significant impact on the permeability of the material. In addition to
the characteristics of the host material, the viscosity and pressure of the fluid also affect the rate at
which the fluid will flow.

7.5. Ground water pollution

Groundwater pollution is a type of pollution which occurs when groundwater becomes

There are several different types of groundwater, ranging from water which flows freely through the
ground and interacts with surface water to closed aquifers, which are theoretically very hard to
contaminate. Groundwater becomes polluted when materials seep through the soil and reach the
water, which can happen when rainfall washes contaminants into the ground, when polluted surface
water connects with groundwater, and when buried tanks or waste disposal sites start to leach.

Any number of contaminants can end up groundwater, including sewage, prescription medications,
agricultural chemicals, microorganisms, road salt, landfill seepage, petroleum products, chemicals,
and hazardous waste such as nuclear waste. These contaminants make the water unsafe to drink,
because they can cause severe health problems. The water may also be unsafe for use in agriculture
or manufacturing, and it can cause issues for local wildlife and flora exposed to the contaminated
water.