BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

PhotosynthesisPHOTOSYNTHESIS ● The materials required in converting light energy to

chemical energy are:
○ Light Energy / Sunlight
is the process by which plants, some bacteria and some
○ Carbon dioxide
protistans use the energy from sunlight to produce glucose from
○ Water
carbon dioxide and water. This glucose can be converted into
● It is combining the carbon dioxide and water
pyruvate which releases adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by cellular
molecules or the hydrogen oxide combined by the
respiration. Oxygen is also formed.
light energy to produce the byproducts which are
conceptDefinitions the oxygen gas and the glucose molecules.

● Plants color - A plant is green because the plant

Photosynthesis
simply reflects that color that is reflected to. A plant
doesn’t absorb the color green, the only colors they
● The process that feeds the biosphere., which absorb are red and blue.
allows the plants to produce byproducts such as
Glucose (C6H6O12) and Oxygen, that is being
2 modes of nutrition:
inhaled by different organisms. Oxygen is important
as every living organism in this ecosystem needs
oxygen thus it is vital for the survival of the whole ● Autotrophic nutrition - Organisms that are capable of
biosphere. producing their own food and we call them producers.
● The produced byproducts are stored as energy that ○ Autotrophs - plant, algae and bacteria (cyanobacteria).
is produced by food. Cyanobacteria -they are the organisms are believed to be the first
● This process occurs in the leaves of the plant, bacteria that are capable of undergoing photosynthesis aka blue
which consists of chloroplasts that consists algae. These organisms that are capable of feeding themselves
chlorophyll through all the trophic nutrition.
● Photo meaning light
● it undergoes an endergonic reaction. Because if ● Heterophic nutrition - these organisms cannot produce on
photosynthesis process will not be able to proceed, their own
plants will not survive and therefore it will directly affect
the other organisms. ● Chemosynthesis - the use of chemicals to produce glucose
molecules that would serve as their food. These are often
used in the deepest part of the ocean/ sea floor, in order for
the organisms living in these environments to survive, in order
for the organisms living in these environments to survive, they
need to develop. Light energy is replaced by hydrogen sulfide
which will create sugar and sulfur compounds

Parts of the cross section of leaf

 BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

Protection ○ is the protective layer of the cells. It

produces a waxy cuticle too in some plant
species. It contains pores called the stomata.
● Cuticle
○ Waxy layer that prevents water loss by
● Stomata (p) / Stoma (s)
evaporation. If too much amount of water
○ The oxygen and water molecules exits while
will escape the leaf, it would result to wilting
carbon dioxide enters. the tiny pores which
of leaves.
are the small holes surrounded by a sausage
● Upper epidermis
sheep guard cells. so it can change shape to
○ It's a protective layer of cells that produces
close the pore. We need to close the pores to
the cuticle. They are tightly compact to one
prevent loss of too much amount of water
another. It allows maximum light absorption.
molecules (evaporation)

Photosynthesis and gas diffusion:

Chloroplasts

● Palisade mesophyll the chloroplast contains the organelles thus termed as the
○ Rod shaped cells that contain large numbers organelles of photosynthesis
of chloroplast
Structure
● Spongy mesophyll
○ contains a lesser amount of chloroplast. to
have this large air space between the cells to
allow the gas diffusion to happen.

Transport

● Veins carry food and water in a leaf and it supports the ● Outer membrane
blade. ● Inner membrane
○ Xylem roots ● Intermembrane space
■ (roots to leaves): carries water ● Stroma– liquid that contains DNA, ribosomes, and
molecules from the roots to the enzymes
leaves. It also serves for support, ● Thylakoids– provide the platform for
storage and transpiration, which is the light reactions of photosynthesis
a long distance transport of water ● Granum/grana– stacks of thylakoids
and nutrients. ● Lamellae– connecting tubes between thylakoids

○ Phloem roots Chlorophyll

■ (leaves to roots): allows the
located within the thylakoid membrane and this is the specific site
transport of the amino acids and
in which the photosynthesis process takes place.
sucrose, it is carried out.
responsible for the translocation,
Structure
which is the transport of soluble
organic substances like sugar .

Protection and Gas diffusion

● Lower Epidermis
 BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

Chlorophyll complex: the chlorophyll molecules embedded in the Concept & energy carriers
protein matrix of the thylakoid membrane.
Cellular Energy: ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
● Contains the nitrogen base adenine and ribose (3
A porphyrin head is composed of magnesium, which is the core,
phosphate groups).
and then the nitrogen and of course the carbon.
● Without the presence of the ATP, there will be no energy
that will allow the different processes to happen.
Hydrocarbon tail: is non polar so it allows the chlorophyll molecule
● Catabolic reaction: The conversion of ATP to ADP
to be attached to the hydrocarbon of the thylakoid membrane. a
happens when the glycosidic bond from between the
non-polar hydrocarbon tail will attach to the non polar hydrophobic
one phosphate group the other phosphate group will be
core of the thylakoid membrane.
broken down through the additional of water and what
we call that process cassette for going to add water to
Pigments breakdown 2 molecules(hydrolysis reaction)
Chlorophylls (both allow green light to be reflected and
transmitted) ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
● Chlorophyll a (methyl group) ● Left with two phosphate groups, the one remove will be
○ Initiates light-dependent reaction the source or supply of energy to the cell
○ Porphyrin head ● Anabolic reaction: return to atp to maintain sufficient
● Chlorophyll b (aldehyde group) amounts. Wherein the system will be getting one
○ Assists chlorophyll a another phosphate group from food that one phosphate
Carotenoids (accessory pigments) group is to be conveniently bonded to the other
● different patterns of light absorption phosphate group from the diphosphate and no reaction
● absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll / synthesis reaction
● Pigments commonly seen in flowers and fruits
● Yellow, orange, and brown Energy Carriers:
● - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate
Electromagnetic spectrum - NADP+ = oxidized form
- NADPH = reduced form, it picks up two high energy
electrons and hydrogen from the light reaction to form
the NADPH and NADPH will then carry energy to be
passed on to another molecule. tHROUGH CALVIN CYCLE
it can turn into NADP+

Light Phase/ Light dependent Reaction

Occur in the thylakoid membranes ; Occurs during daytime with the
● There are three main components of sunlight that reach
presence of light; Light and water are required for this process;
Earth and these are the UV radiation, the infrared and
Energy storage molecules (ATP and NADPH) are formed; Oxygen gas
visible light.
is made as a waste
● UV Light - contains high energy photons. Too much
The hydrogen oxide, the water and then the light energy. = produce
exposure can damage genetic materials, sunburn and
the AtP, the NADPH, oxygen gas
skin cancer
● Visible light - allows us to see our surroundings.visible
Photosystems:
light appears white, it appears white or white or
● clusters of pigments and proteins that participate in
transparent or whatever. If it goes through prism it will
photosynthesis
reflect roygbiv. Violet has the shortest wavelength and
● includes the following:
high frequency while red has a longer wavelength yet
300 chlorophyll a molecules
lower the frequency.
500 accessory pigments
● reaction center – includes a pair of chlorophyll a
Breakdown of Photosynthesis molecules
 BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

● antennae pigments – capture photon energy and funnel

it into the reaction center

Light energy excites the antennae pigments then they'll transfer

electrons to the special pair of chlorophyll a molecules that will
allow the transport of the electrons to the primary electron
acceptor.

Photosystem 1 Photosystem 2 Cyclic Flow

Photolysis of water No Yes

(separation of
oxygen from
water)

Reaction Center P700 P680

Formation of NO YES
oxygen
● Occurs in the thylakoid membrane
Activity Non-Cyclic and Non-Cyclic
Cyclic Electron Electron Transport ● Uses Photosystem I only
Transport ● P700 reaction center- chlorophyll a
● Uses Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Source of electron P2 (P680) & P1 Water and P2 ● Generates ATP only
reaction center Reaction Center ● NADPH is not generated
(P700) (P680) ● No water is used so oxygen is not generated
1 TO 2 = electron transport chain. It allows the transport of
electrons from photosystem 1 to photosystem 2 to the ferredoxin The addition of a phosphate group in ADP will lead to the
NADP plus ferroductase to produce the NADPH and then production of ATP during the cyclic electron flow happening in the
consequently producing the ATP. photosystem 1.
Ps2 comes first than ps1
ELECTRON -> primary receptor -> ferredoxin (fd) -> cytochrome
Non-Cyclic Electron Flow complex -> plastocyanin

Non Cyclic Electron Cyclic Electron

Flow Flow

Electron Source water none

Oxygen release Yes, from water no

Terminal electron NADP+ NO, no terminal

● Occurs in the thylakoid membrane
acceptor electron acceptor
● Uses PS II and PS I
because electrons
● P680 rxn center (PSII) - chlorophyll a
again cycle only
● P700 rxn center (PS I) - chlorophyll a
through the
● Uses Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
system.
● Generates O2, ATP & NADPH
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2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

Form in which ATP & NADPH ATP Cellular Respiration

energy is
temporarily Digestive system: as we ingest the food or the process of digestives
captured system takes place is important
- This is how the different nutrients from the foods that we eat are
Photosystens P700 PS1 & P680 P700 PS1
absorbed by our body
required PS2
- food as a source of glucose, thus needing a reactant in order to
break down the glucose into energy that will be used by the cells

Dark phase / Light Independent Reaction Respiratory System: allows us to breathe in the oxygen (wherein it
ATP and NADPH from light reaction are used as energy; will go through diff parts of the respiratory system) and breathe out
Atmospheric CO2 is used to make sugars like glucose the carbon dioxide
And fructose; Six-carbon sugar is made during the Calvin Cycle.
Circulatory System: in the air sacks which we call the alveoli,
Calvin cycle terminal of the oxygen, wherein RBC will collect and distribute this
● Melvin Calvin amount of oxygen all throughout the diff parts of the body.
● Carbon Fixation (light independent )
● Occurs in the stroma the cells will receive the oxygen, then will be used as REACTANT to
● To produce glucose: it takes 6 turns and uses 18 ATP and break down the glucose thus creating energy. Wherein our body
12 NADPH will stock these energies so that when we are exposed to intense
activities, so much energy, our mitochondria can supply us with
enough amount of of energy that we need

Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP

● Exergonic : breakdown of organic molecules
(opposite of endogenic (Photosynthesis, sunlight),
glucose produces the atp)
● Fermentation is a partial degradation of sugars that
occurs without O2, that converts sugar to ethyl alcohol
or ethanol or alcohol
There are some wines that taste like vinegar because instead of
1. Carbon Fixation sugar turning into alcohol they were converted to acetic acid. Due to
summarize the three phases of the Calvin cycle. It the presence of acetobacter, they are the bacteria that allow the
indicates the roles of the NADPH and ATP that are being conversion of the sugars (oxidize) into acetic acid. these can be find
produced from the light reactions. carbon fixation which anywhere and everywhere
is the addition of the carbon through the use of the
Rubisco enzyme to the starting compound which which ● aerobic respiration: consumes organic molecules and
is the ribulose bisphosphate (contains five carbons) requires O2 and yields ATP
2. Reduction ● anaerobic respiration: similar to aerobic respiration but
atp (from earlier light energy) turns into intermediate
consumes compounds other than O2. absolute no
compound
presence of Oxygen (eg. wine fermentation)
3. RUBP Regeneration
Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and anaerobic
respiration but is often used to refer to aerobic respiration
CELLULAR RESPIRATION Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are all consumed as
fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular respiration with the sugar
It is how our cells harvest the chemical energy, the chemical energy glucose
from the foods that we are ingesting.
- production of energy takes place in the cells C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + HEAT)
 BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

● atp ->adp (reduce 1 phosphate)

Catabolic pathway : the term we are referring to when we are
pertaining to the breakdown of the larger molecules into smaller hydrolysis - the process to break the glycosidic bond between the
molecules. where we refer to metabolism (catabolism and two compounds because we are adding water in order for us to, in
anabolism.) order for us to hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis, the bond
between the last two phosphate group here will be broken and
Catabolism breaks down large molecules into smaller ones, from that glycosidic bond there will be the release of the energy,
releasing energy. from there will be the release of the energy that will be used for the
Anabolism uses this energy and the smaller molecules from androgenic reaction
catabolism to build larger molecules like proteins and
carbohydrates. Both processes together constitute metabolism, Mitochondria structure
which also generates heat.
was named powerhouse of the cell because the it produces lots
amount of atp on our cells during cellular respiration process

● smooth outer membrane that covers the folds within the

mitochondria.
● folded inner membrane
● cristae: folded inner membrane here and the species
between or inside the the folds
● matrix: spaced inside the cristae

Glycolysis
(breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate/ pyruvic acid)
○ means splitting of sugar
○ occurs in the cytoplasm; cytosol
○ partially oxidizes glucose: {6c} into two
pyruvate molecules & {3C} molecules
○ occurs whether or not oxygen is present
(anaerobic)
○ requires input of 2 ATP
○ produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP ((net= 2 atp)
■ 10 enzymatic steps
There are 3 stages of Cellular Respiration
■ 2 phases
- Glycolysis
- Krebs cycle
● Energy investment phase
- Electron Transport chain

Chemical structure of ATP

borrowing two atp molecules to power the process: searching for

includes 3 phosphate and then one ribose and then the adenine. an additional phosphate to be added to the glucose at the onset of
The three phosphates are linked by the glycosidic bonds and within glycolysis, two atp molecules are used to activate glucose by adding
these glycosidic bonds are the energy phosphate, eventually glucose separates into two carbon molecules
 BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

● Energy investment phase

Krebs Cycle/ citcric acid cycle

After the splitting of glucose, another inorganic phosphate is added ● occurs in the mitochondria; matrix
into each three cartoon molecule ● Hans Adolf Krebs the person who discovered
(GAPDH) the Krebs cycle
Synthesizing two ATP molecules through the process called ● Fritz Albert Lipmann: Discovered CoA
substrate- level ATP synthesis or substrate-level phosphorylation ● Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)
(6,7) ● Cyclical series of oxidationreactions that give
After the first substrate-level off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle
phosphorylation, water is ● Turns twice per glucose molecule
removed from the three-
carbon molecules
Another substrate-level phosphorylation occurs, wherein two
pyruvate molecules are finally produced by synthesizing two more
atp

Transition Reaction (pyruvate - acetyl CoA)

It is the junction between the glycolysis and Krebs cycle, and it oxidizes organic fuel well derived from the pygravic acids that are
specifically happens in the matrix of the mitochondria So the being produced in the glycolysis. 1 ATP 3NADH 1 FADH2 per turn
pyruvate molecule breaks down into a 2 carbon acetyl group. in each of the glucose molecules they are 3 turns

one carbon in the pyruvic acid will be removed because it will be

Citrate synthase Acetyl CoA - 2 carbon
released some carbon for in the carbon dioxide then a release from
Oxaloacetate - 4 carbon
the pyruvic acid it will simply diffuse
Citrate - 6 carbon molecule
Electrons are also transferred to NAD+ to form NADH
Aconitase Citrate- 6 carbon molecule
Coenzyme A is attached to the acetyl group to form Acetyl
isocitrate- 6 carbon
coenzyme A before it goes into the citric acid cycle

Isocitrate Dehydrogenase isocitrate- 6 carbon

Two NADH molecules will carry electrons to the ETC
A-ketoglutarate - 5 carbon
The CO2 molecules that are produced in the transition reaction
freely diffuse out of the cell
A-ketoglutarate A-ketoglutarate - 5 carbon
 BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

Chemiosomosis
Dehydrogenase Succinyl coa - 4 carbon
● the production of ATP using the energy of
H+ gradients across membranes to phosphorylate ADP
Succinyl CoA Synthase Succinyl coa - 4 carbon
Electron transport Train
Succinate - 4 carbon
● Occurs in the mitochondria; cristae
● series of cariers that transport electrons from obe
Succinate Dehydrogenase Succinate - 4 carbon
protein to another
Fumarate - 4 carbon
● Requires oxygen, the final electron acceptor (aerobic)
○ For every FADH2 molecule – 2 ATPs are
Fumarase Fumarate - 4 carbon
produced
Malate - 4 carbon
○ For every NADH molecule – 3 ATPs are
produced
Malate Dehydrogenase Malate - 4 carbon
Oxaloacetate - 4 carbon

Each turn of the Krebs Cycle produces

3NADH, 1FADH2, and 2CO2
• Therefore, For each Glucose molecule, the
Krebs Cycle produces 6NADH, 2FADH2, 4CO2, and 2ATP

NADH and FADH 2 are the important coenzymes or what we call

the electron carriers
NADH AND FADH (flavin adenine dinucleotide) will accept high
energy electrons, once accepted, they will accept the number of
hydrogen ions ● ATP SYNTHASE:
FAD+ will accept 2 hydrogen ions (thus being FADH2) ○ a protein in the inner membrane in the
NAD+ and FAD+ are the oxidized form mitochondria
NAD+ and FAD+ will accept 2 high energy electrons and one ○ uses energy of the ion gradient to power ATP
hydrogen ion. synthesis
will be used specifically to the ETC because it will carry the high ○ for every H+ ion that flows through ATP
energy electrons that will fuel the ETC to allow the protein synthase, one ATP can be formed from ADP
complexes to be highly energized and pump protons from the ● Electrochemical Gradient (chemiosmosis)
matrix of the mitochondria to the intermembrane space. ○ 3 protons from NADH
○ 2 protons from FADH
Oxidative Phosphorylation ○ 1 PROTON = 1 ATP
○
● powered by redox reactions
a redox reaction occurs, when electrons move down the chain from
there the oxygen which is the final electron acceptor will receive the
electrons that have spent energy from the last of the carriers.
oxygen there is very important because without the presence of the
oxygen, there will be no formation of the water molecules.

● Formation of ATP from the transfer of electrons from

NADH
● or FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron carriers
● The absence of oxygen will not allow this process to
proceed
● Comprises two parts: electron transport train and
Chemiosmosis
 BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

GENETICS

Branch of biology that deals with heredity and variation of

organisms
Heredity - genetics from parents
Variation - genetic diversity

General information
Chromosomes
● Carries the heredity information
● Arrangement of nucleotides in DNA
● DNA -> RNA -> Proteins
● New combination of genes occur in sexual reproduction,
fertilization from 2 parents
● Homologous Chromosomes - combination of parents
chromosome, 1 each, may be the same length gene
position etc. but the genes may contain different alleles;
occurs in pairs
Gregor John Mendel
● Austrian monarch
Fermentation ● Born in czech republic in 1822
● Studied theology, ordained priest order of St. Augustine
● occurs when the oxygen is not present, which is why it is
● Wbnt to the university of Vienna and studied botany and
called anaerobic ; only 2 atp
scientific method
● called lactic acid fermentation muscle cells (tires the
● In 1866 he published an experiment in plant
muscle)
hybridization (Verssuche uber pflanzenhybriden -
● alcoholic fermentation.in yeast produces the ethanol
german) wherein he used peas to for Pisum sativum (7
from the sugar
characteristics of peas) - concept of genes, genes occupy
● It is because there is a carbon dioxide that is being
in Paris, one gene of each pair is present in the gametes
released during the process and therefore we will be
● His work was largely ignored for 34 years until 3
deducting 1 carbon from the three carbon compound
independent botanist discovered his work in the 1900’s
pyruvic acid; nets only 2 ATP

General Terms
● Gene: Unit of heredity, a section of dna sequence
encoding a single protein
● Genome: the entire set of genes in a organism
● Alleles: two genes that occupy the same position
● Locus: a fixed location on a strand of DNA
● Genotype: genetic makeup
● Phenotype: physical appearance
● Homozygous: having identical genes
● Heterozygous: having two different genes
● Dominant: gene that masks or suppresses the other
allele
● Recessive: masked by the dominant alleles
● Punnett Square - predicts the genotypes and
phenotypes of the offspring
 BIOLOGY 12:0201(03)

2ND SEMESTER | SY. 2024 - 2025 | PROF.

● Monohybrid cross: a genetic cross involving a single pair

of genes (one trait); parents differ by a single trait.
● • Matings that involve parents that differ in two genes
(two independent traits)

Mendel's principle
1. Law of Dominance: One allele masked another. One
allele was dominant over the other in the F1
generation..
2. Law of Segregation: When gametes are formed, the pairs
of hereditary factors (genes) become separated, so that
each sex cell (egg/sperm) receives only one kind of gene
3. Law of Independent Assortment :Genes do not
influence each other with regards to the sorting of
alleles into gametes every possible combination of
alleles for every gene is equally likely to occur
Mendelian Genetics

monohybrid

Dihybrid

Non- Mendelian Genetics

Genetic interactions that do not follow complete dominance, are
expressed together, or influence each other’s expression.

Incomplete dominance
The phenotype of the heterozygote is intermediate between two
homozygotes

Codominance
Two nonidentical alleles of a pair express two different phenotype
in the heterozygote

Multiple Allelsim
the state of having more than two alternative contrasting
characters controlled by multiple alleles at a single genetic locus
Kaya nyo ng solve yan ng magisa, madali lang nmn