10, if 10, Concepts of Physics catbon nucleus () carbon nueleus is an unstable particle () itis not energetically favourable (@) Coulomb repulsion does not allow the nuclei to come very close. For nuclei with A> 100, (a) the binding energy of the nucleus decreases on an average as 4 increases () the binding energy per nucleon decreases on an average as A increases (© if the nucleus breaks into two roughly equal parte, energy is released (@ if two nuclei fuse to form a bigger nucleus, energy is released. EXERCISES ‘Masa of proton m,=1-007278 u, Mase of JH stom 1-007825 u, Mass of neutron m,= 1008605 u, Mass of 0-0005486 u~ 511 keVe“, 1u=951 MeVe“. ‘Assume that the mass of a nucleus is approximately given by Af=Am, where A is the mass number, Estimate the density of matter in kgm ” inside a nucleus. What is the specific gravity of nuclear matter? Aneutron star has a density equal to that of the nuclear matter. Assuming the star to be spherical, find the radius of a neutron star whose mass is 40x10” kg (ovice the mass of the sun) Calculate the mass of an o-particle. Its binding energy is 252 Mev. How much energy is released in the following reaction: ‘Litp > ata, (160 w and that of ‘He = Find the binding energy per nucleon of mass is 196:96 (@) Caleulate the energy released if ca-patile. (b) Caleulate the energy to be supplied to if two protons and two neutrong_are to be emitted one by one. The atomic masses of ““U, Th and ‘He are 288-0508 u, 234-04803 u and 4-00200 u respectively Find the energy liberated in the reaction "Ra > ™Pb+"C. ‘The stomic masses needed are as follows. Ra 7 ¥e 229018 208081 u 14008 Show that the minimum enersy needed to separate a proton from a nucleus with Z protons and NV neutrons Atomic mass of oy tit MyM, Je . of an atom with Z protons and N neutrons in the nucleus and M,=mass of a hydrogen stom, This energy is known as proton-exparation energ\ Calculate the minimum energy neaded to separate a neutzon from a nucleus with Z protons and NV neutrons in terms of the masses M. . M.y , and the mass of the neutron. "D beta-decays to “S, Find the sum of the enezay of the antineutrino and the Kinetic energy of the Brparticle. Neglect the recoil of the daughter nucleus. Atomie mass 1074 u and that of UL. 12, 13, ua. 15. 16, rt 18, 19. A free neutron beta-decays to a proton with @ halite Gf 14 minutes, (@) What is the decay constant ?() Find the energy berated in the process. Complete the following decay schemes (@ GPa > as @) 20 f+ (©) gAl > GMe+ In the decay “Cu + “Ni+e*+v, the maximum kinetie nergy cariad by the positron is found to be 0°50 MeV. (e) What is the energy ofthe neutsine which was emitted together with « positron of Kinetic enerey 0150 MeV? (b) What is the momentum of this neutrino in kam 8 *? Use the formula applicable to a photon. Potasaium-40 can decay in thive modes. Tecan decay by 8 -emission, B “emission or electron capture. (a) Write ‘the equations showing the end products. (b) Find the Qrvsites in each of the three oases. Atomic masses of An, HK and Ca are 39-9624 u, 39-9640 u and 399626 u respectively. Lithium (Z=8) has two stable jotopes Li and "Li, When ppeutrons sre bombarded on lithium sample, electrons fand qeparticles axe ejected. Write down the nuclear processes tking place The masses of “C and "B are respectively 11-0114 u and 11-0099 u, Find the maximgm energy a positon can have in the B decay of “C ta “B, ‘Ta emits an alpha particle to seduce to Re, Calelate the Kinetic enevgy of the elpbe particle emitted in the following dee mh > Ra" ba * 5 Ra + y(217 keV), Atomic mass of Th is 228-028726 u, that of “Ra is 224°020196 u and that of ;He is 4°00260 u, Caloutate the maximum inetio enerey of the beta particle emitted im the following decay scheme: +1449 MeV). ‘The atomic mass of °N is 12°019613 1 The decay constant of “Zig (eleetron capture to Au) is 18x10‘ s ‘, (a) What is the halflife ? (b) What is the averagelife? (@) How much time will it take to convert 25% of this isotope of meveury into gold?22, 23, 26. 21. 28, 29, 30, 31 32. ‘The Nucleus The halflife of “Au is 27 days (a) Find the activity of 2 sample containing 100 pg of “Au. (&) What will be the activity after 7 days? Take the atomic weight of au to be 198 = mol“ Radiosctive "I has a halflife of 80 days. A sample containing “I has activity 20uCi at ¢=0. (a) What is its activity at '= 40 days ?(b) What is its decay constant at (= #0 days? The doce #4 is 49% 10" 3+ (@) What ig the average life of “"U? (b) What is the halflife of Brs"> (@) By what factor does the activity of a sample decrease in 910" yeazs? Accertain sample of a radioactive material decays at the rate of 500 per second at a certain time. The count rate {falls to 200 per second after 50 minutes. (a) What is the decay constant of the sample ? (b) What is ite halflife ? ‘The count rate from a radioactive sample falls from 440 x 10° per second to 1:0 10° per second in 20 houra What will be the count rate 100 hours after the beginning ? ‘The halflife of "Ra is 1002 y. Caleulate the activity of 0-1 g of RaCl, in which all the radium is in the form of "Ra, Taken atomic weight of Ra to be “and that of Cl to be 85°3 gmol * The halflife of a radioisotope is 10h. Find the total umber of disintegrations in the tenth hour measured from a time when the activity was 1 Ci The selling rate of @ radioactive isotope is decided activity. What will be the second-hand rate of a one month od 48 days) source if it was originelly purchased for 800 rupees ? "Co decays to “Fe by -emission. The resulting “Fe is in its excited state and comes to the ground state by emitting yrays. The halflife of f “decay is 270 days and that of the pemission is 10 " s, A sample of "Co gives 5:0x 10" gamma rays per second. How much time will elapse before the emission rate of gamma rays drops to 25% 10" per second? Carbon (Z=6) with mass number 11 decays t0 boron Z= 9). (@ Te it a P-decay or a decay? (0) The halflife ofthe decay scheme is 203 minutes, How much time will elapse before a mixture of 90% carbon-11 and 10% boron-11 (by the mumbber of etoms) converts itselt into mixture of 10% emsbon-11 and 00% boron-11 ? 4X10” tritium stome are contsinad in a vessel. The halflife of deeay of tritium nuclei is 12 y. Find (@) the activity of the sample, (b) the number of decays in the nnext 10 hours (6) the number af decays in the next 615 y A point source emitting slpha particles is placed st a Gistance of 1 m from a counter which records any alpha particle falling on ite Lem? window. If the source contains 60 x 10” active nuclei and the counter records f rate of 50000 countsleecond, find the decay constant. ‘Assume that the souree emits alpha particles uniformly in all dizections and the alpha paxticles fell nearly normally on the window 1 decays to Pb with a halflife of 447% 10° y, This happens in a number of steps. Can you justify a single 33, 34, 35. 36, 38, 39. 40. a as Iba life for thie chain of processes ? A sample of rock ia found to contain 200 mg of "U and 0'600 mg of “Pb Assuming that all the lead has come Som uranium, find the Life of the rock When charcoal is prepared from a living tree, it shows 1 disintegvation vate of 15° disintesvations of “C per gram per minute, 4 sample from an ancient piece of charcoal shows "C activity to be 12° disintegrations per fram per minute, How old ie thie sample ? Halt life of SC is 9780 y. Netural water contains a small amount of titium GH). This isotope bete-decay’s with @ halflife of 12 years. A mountaineer while climbing towards a dificult peak finds debris of some earlier unsuccessful attempt. Among other things he finds sealed bottle of whisky. On zetarn hhe analyses the whisky and finds thet it contains only 1° per cont of the [H sadiosctivity as compared to 8 recently purchased hortle marked 8 years old’. Estimate the time of that unsuccessful attempt. The count sate of nuclear radiation coming ftom a radioactive sample containing '"T varies with time at fellows ‘Time ¢ (minute) ° 5075 100 Count ate RO" 3 16 80 88 20 (@) Plot inh, /R) against t. &) From the slope of the best straight line through the points, find the decay constant & (¢) Caleulate the halflife ¢ The half-life of “K is 19010" y. A sample of 100 ¢ of pure KCI gives 160 counts 2, Calculate the relative abundance of °K (fraction of *K present) in natural potassium, 25 . Tig decays to “au through electron capture with a decay constant of 0207 per day. (a) What other paxticle or particles are emitted in the decay ? (b) Assume that ‘the eleotron is captured from the K shell. Use Moseley’s law Ww=a(Z—2) with a= 495x107 2? and find the wavelength of the Ky X-ray emitted following the electzon capture, ‘A radioactive isotope is being produced at a constant vate dividt=R in an experiment. The isotope has a halflife t,.. Show that after a time t >> f,;, the number of active nuclei will become constant. Find the value of this constant. Consider the situation of the previous problem. Suppose the production of the radiosctive isotope starts at Find the number of active nuclei at time f In an agricultural experiment, @ solution containing 1 ‘mole of a radioactive material (t,,= 143 days) was injected into the roots of a plant. The plant was allowed 70 hours to settle down and then activity was measured in its fruit, Ifthe activity measured was 1 KCi, what per cent of activity is transmitted from the root to the fruit in steady state? A vessel of volume 125m" contains tritium (H. ty: = 128 y) at 900 kPa and 300 K. Calculate the activity of the gas.on Concepts of Physics 42, “ZBi can disintegrate either by emitting an o-particle or by emitting» B”particle. (a) Write the two equations showing the products ofthe decays. (b) The probabilities of disintegration by a and f-decays are in the ratio 7/13 The overall halite of "Bi i one hour. If 1 g of pure *°B3 is taken at 12,00 noon, what will be the composition of this sample at 1 p.m, the same day’? 43. A sample contains « mixture of Ag and “Ag isotopes cach having an activity of 0x 10" disintegrations per second. ““Ag is known to have larger half-life than “Ag. ‘The activity A is measured as a function of time and the following data are obtained. Time (@) Actity (A) Time ©) ‘Actipity (10 dint 10 ai rations s rations we 200 “FUSRs 0 91680 300 15800) oo rss 400 vist so 26s 00 ova 100 5415 (a) Plot InA/A,) versus time. (b) See that for large values of time, the plot is nearly linear. Deduce the half-life of “Ag from this portion of the plot. (c) Use the half-life of "Ag to calculate the activity corresponding to “Ag in the first 50 s. (d) Plot InvA/A,) versus time for ‘Ag for the first 50 s. (e) Find the half 44. A human body exeretes (removes by waste discharge, sweating, ete.) certain materials by a law similar to radioactivity. If technitium is injected in some form in ‘a human body, the bedy exeretes half the amount in 24 hours. A patient is given an injection containing "Te. This isotope is radioactive with a half-life of 6 hours. The activity from the body just after the injection is 6 uCi. How much time will elapse before the activity falls to 8 wCi? 45. A charged capacitor of capacitance C is discharged through fa resistance R.A radioactive sample decays with an ayeragelife t. Find the value of R for which the ratio of the electrostatic field energy stored in the capacitor to the activity of the radioactive sample remains constant in time. 46. Radioactive isotopes are produced in a nuclear physics ‘experiment at a constant rate dNid¢ = R. An inductor of inductance 100 mH, a resistor of resistance 100 9 and a battery are connected to form a series circuit. The circuit is switched on at the instant the production of radioactive isotope starts. It is found that iJN remains constant in time where 1 is the eurrent in the eizeuit at time ¢ and N is the number of active nuclei at time & Find the half-life of the isotope 47. Caleulate the energy released by 1 g of natural uranium ‘assuming 200 MeV is released in each fission event and that the fissionable isotope “"U has an abundance of 07% by weight in natural uranium. 48. A uranium reactor develops thermal enery at a rate of 300 MW. Calculate the amount of ““U being consumed every scvond, Average energy released per fission is 200 MeV, A town has a population of 1 million, The average electric power needed per person is 300 W. A reactor is to _be designed to supply power to this town. The efficiency with which thermal power is converted into electric power is aimed at 25%. (a) Assuming 200 MeV of thermal energy to come from each fission event on an average, find the number of events that should take place every day. (b) Assuming the fission to take place largely through *U, at what rate will the amount of decrease? Express your answer in kg per day. (©) Assuming that uranium enriched to 3% in "=U will be used, how much uranium is needed per month (30 days) ? Calculate the @-values of the following fusion reactions: (a) H+ + +H ) HGH FHe+n (eo) HH — (He+n. ‘Atomic masses are m({H)=2014102 u, —_ m(jH)= 3.016049 u, m¢He) =8-016029 u, miffle)= 4002608 u 51. Consider the fusion in helium plasma. Find the ‘temperature at which the average thermal energy 15 AT equals the Coulomb potential energy at 2 fim. 52. Caleulate the Qvalue of the fusion reaction “He + He ="Be. Is such a fusion energetically favourable? Atomic mass of “Be is 8:0053 1 and that of “He is 40026 u 58. Calculate the energy that ean be obtained from 1 kg of ‘water through the fusion reaetion *HiH 3 “Hep. Assume that 15%10°*% of natural water is heavy water D,0 (by number of molecules) and all the deuterium is used for fusion. ANSWERS OBJECTIVE I OBJECTIVE II Le 2. (@), @) 3.0) L@ 20 8@ 4@ 5a 60 7@ 8b) 9@ 10) I~ 12 (@ +o = @) Bia Oe 13.(c) 14) 16.6) 16.06) 17a) 18. (e) .@ a@ 8. (@ 19. (@) 10. (b), (0)EXERCISES 1. 8x10" kgm“, 8x10" 2.15 km 3. £00160, 4.1794Mev 4 MeV 1. (a) £209 MeV (b) 2408 MeV 7. 8165 Mev stma—MzsJe 10. 1-50. Mev 11. (a) 825% 10 *s * (b) 782 keV 12 @ Zn e+¥ @el+y 13. (@) 500 keV (b) 2°67 x 10-* kgm s* 14. @) SK 4 Soate +¥, SK farte* ey, Bete" 3 farty (@) 19084 MeV, 04070 MeV, 1490 MeV 18 {itn ili, Litn Mi tne +e 49, {Be + {He + 16. 955° kev esos Mev 18 11884 19, (@) 64 min (b) 92 min (@) 1600 = 20, (a) 0244 Ci (&) 0-040 Ci 21. (@) 14 Ci @) 14x10‘ 5 22. 649x10"y (b) 45x 10") 4 28, $05x10~*s &) 38 min 24 80% 10" per second 25, 28x 10" disintegrations « 26. 69110" 27. 187 mupees ‘The Nucleus 28, 29. 30. a1, 92. 33. 34. 36. 36. m7, as. 39. 40. a, 2. 43. 44 45. 46, an. 4s, 49, 50. a1, 52, 53. 270 days (@ B* @) 64 min (a) 714610 * disintegration @) 287x10" @ 17x10" 105x108 192% 10°y 1500 y about 88 years ago () 0028 min * approx. (@ 25 min approx. 12% (2) neutrine (b) 20 pm Rts oeos R Ba-e™) 126 10-" % 124 ci @ BB > “UM+a, EBi > © 080g Bi, 017557, 0995 ¢Po the halflife of “Ag= 2445 and of “Ag=1445 ‘BBi > “EPote +v 48 hows ave 693x107 e7x10's 37mg (a) 3:24 10 (b) 1.264 kg per day (@) 1263 ke (@ £05 MeV (b) $29. MeV (@ 17 228x10°K 931 keV, no 3200 Mi ‘MevCHAPTER 46 THE NUCLEUS At the centre of an atom exists the nucleus which contains protons and neutrons. The electrons surround this nucleus to form the atom. As discussed earlier, this structure of atom was revealed by the experiments, of Rutherford in which a beam of alpha particles was made to strike a thin gold foil. Most of the alpha particles crossed the foil without being appreciably deviated, but there were some alpha particles which suffered large deviation from their original lines of motion, The data suggested that positive charges in an atom are concentrated in a small volume which we call, nucleus and this nucleus is responsible for the large deviation of alpha particles. Later on, the existence of protons and neutrons in the nucleus was established. In this chapter, we shall discuss the physics of the nucleus. 46.1 PROPERTIES OF A NUCLEUS Nuclear Constituents A nucleus is made of protons and neutrons. A proton has a positive charge of magnitude equal to that of an electron and has a mass of about 1540 times the mass of an electron. A neutron has a mass slightly greater than that of a proton, The masses of a proton and a neutron are ‘my = 18726281 x 10 and_m, = 16749286 x 19 It is customary in nuclear physics and high energy physies to represent mass in energy units according to the conversion formula E = mc*. (Matter can be viewed as a condensed form of energy. Theory of relativity reveals that a mass m is equivalent to an energy E where E=me*) For example, the mass of an electron ism, =9'1093807 x 10 * kg and the equivalent energy is mye? =51099 keV. Thus, the mass of an electron is 51099 keV ¢ Similarly, the mass of a proton is 92827231 MeV and the mass of a neutron is 939-6563 MeV *. The energy corresponding to the mass of a particle when it is at rest is called its rest mass energy. Another unit which is widely used in describing ‘mass in nuclear physics as well as in atomic physics is unified atomic mass unit denoted by the symbol u. It is 1/12 of the mass of a neutral carbon atom in its lowest energy state which contains six protons, si neutrons and six electrons. We have Lu = 16605402 x 10°” kg = 931-478 MeV &™. Protons and neutrons are fermions and obey the Pauli exclusion principle like electrons. No two protons or two neutrons ean have the same quantum state But one proton and one neutron ean exist in the same quantum state, Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons. ‘The number of protons in a nucleus is denoted by Z, the number of neutrons by N and the total number of nucleons by A. Thus, A=Z+N. The total number of nucleons A is also called the mass number of the nucleus, The number of protons Z is called the atomic ibn. ncloui Seeyribolizally expressed a 2K 48 which X is the chemical symbol of the element, Thus, fe represents helium nucleus which contains 2 protons and a total of 4 nucleons, So it contains 2 neutrons. Similarly, °;;U represents a uranium nucleus which contains 92 protons and 146 neutrons. ‘The distribution of electrons around the nucleus is determined by the number of protons Z and hence the chemical properties of an element are also determined by Z. The nuclei having the same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called isotopes. Nuclei with the same neutron number N’but different atomic number Z are called isotones and the nuclei with the same mass number A are called isobars. AIL nuclei with a given Z and N are collectively called a rnuctide. Thus, all the ::Fe nuclei taken together is one nuclide and all the {$$ nuclei taken together is another nuclide.