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Unit -II
The Mughal Empire

Tajmahal

Learning Objectives

™™To trace the foundation and establishment of Mughal Empire in India.

™™To acquaint ourselves with the career and achievements of six great
Mughal kings.

™™To understand the administrative and religious policies of the Mughal

rulers.

™™To gain knowledge about the cultural contributions of Mughals.

1526-1530 1530-1540 1556-1605 1605-1627 1627-1658 1658-1707

& 1555-1556

BABUR HUMAYUN AKBAR JAHANGIR SHAH JAHAN AURANGZEB

Introduction Babur (1526–1530)

A new empire began in India with the arrival Ancestry and His Early Career
of the Mughal king Babur. Except for the brief
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur,
reign of Sher Shah of Sur dynasty, the Mughal rule
popularly known as Babur, was the founder of
lasted from A.D.(CE) 1526 to 1707. These were
the Mughal Empire in India. The term ‘Mughal’
the years when the fame of the Great Mughals
can be traced to Babur’s ancestors. Babur was the
of India spread all over Asia and Europe. After
great grandson of Timur (on his father’s side).
six Great Mughal Emperors, the empire began to
On his mother’s side, his grandfather was Yunus
disintegrate.
Khan of Tashkent, who was known as the Great
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Khan of the Mongols and the thirteenth in the in the famous Battle of Panipat in 1526 and
direct line of descent of Chengiz Khan. Babur occupied Delhi and Agra. Following Babur’s
was born on 14 February 1483. He was named victory in this battle, Mughal dynasty came to
Zahir-ud-din (Defender of Faith) Muhammad. be established in India with Agra as its capital.
He inherited Farghana, a small kingdom in
Babur’s Military Conquests
Central Asia, when he was 12 years old. But
he was soon driven out from there by Uzbeks. Babur defeated Rana Sanga and his allies
After 10 years of adversity, Babur established at Khanwa in 1527. He won the war against the
himself as the ruler of Kabul. chief of Chanderi in 1528 and prevailed over
the Afghan chiefs of Bengal and Bihar in 1529.
Babur died in 1530 before he could consolidate
his victories. Babur was a scholar in Turkish and
Persian languages. He recorded his impressions
about Hindustan, its animals, plants and trees,
flowers and fruits in his autobiography Tuzuk-
i-Baburi.

Babur

Foundation of the Mughal Empire

In Kabul, Babur set his sights eastward,
reminded by the memory of Timur’s Indian
invasion. In 1505, the very year after he took
Kabul, Babur led his first expedition towards Rana Sanga
India. Yet he was preoccupied with the Central Following the tradition set by Chengiz
Asian affairs. He did not have any ambition Khan, who nominated the most deserving
beyond Punjab till 1524. Then a greater among his sons as his heir, Babur chose his
opportunity came knocking. Dilawar Khan, who favourite and eldest son, Humayun, as his heir.
was Daulat Khan Lodi’s son, and Alam Khan,
who was the uncle of Sultan of Delhi, arrived in Humayun (1530–1540 and 1555–1556)
Kabul to seek Babur’s help in removing Ibrahim Humayun, on his accession to the throne,
Lodi from power. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi divided his inheritance as per his father’s will
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and accordingly his brothers, Kamran, Hindal

and Askari, got a province each. Yet each of
the brothers aspired for the throne of Delhi.
Humayun also had other rivals and notable
among them was the Afghan Sher Shah Sur, the
ruler of Bihar and Bengal. Sher Shah defeated
Humayun at Chausa (1539) and again at Kanauj
(1540). Humayun, defeated and overthrown,
had to flee to Iran. With the help of the Persian
ruler Shah Tahmasp of the Safavid dynasty,
Humayun succeeded in recapturing Delhi in
1555. But he died in 1556 when he fell down the
stairs of his library in Delhi.

Sher Shah

Akbar (1556–1605)
Accession to Throne
After the death of Humayun in 1556, his
14-year-old son Akbar was crowned the King.
Humayun’s trusted general Bairam Khan
became the regent and ruled on behalf of Akbar,
Humayun Tomb
as the latter was a minor.

Sher Shah (1540–1545)

Sher Shah was the son of the Afghan noble
Hasan Suri, ruler of Sasaram in Bihar. After
overthrowing Humayun, Sher Shah started
the rule of Sur dynasty at Agra. During his
brief reign, he built an empire stretching from
Bengal to the Indus, excluding Kashmir. He also
introduced an efficient land revenue system.
He built many roads, and standardised coins,
weights and measures.

Akbar

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Hemu, a general of Sur dynasty, soon captured Agra and Delhi in 1556. In the
same year, Bairam Khan defeated and killed Hemu in the battle at Panipat (Second
Battle of Panipat, 1556). As Bairam Khan was murdered in Gujarat, allegedly at the
instance of Akbar who could not tolerate his dominance in day-to-day governance
of the kingdom, Akbar assumed full control of the government. Akbar brought
most of India under his control through conquests and alliances.

Kashmir MUGHAL EMPIRE

Kabul
UNDER AKBAR
Lahore N
Kandahar
W E
Multan
Panipat
S
Delhi
Agra Lucknow
Ajmer
Bihar
Allahabad Patna
Malwa
Bengal
Gujarat Gondwana
Khandesh
Diu Berar Odisha
Ahmednagar

Golkonda BAY
ARABIAN Bidar OF
SEA BENGAL
Bijapur

Goa
Nellore
An
da m
L a ks h a d w e e p i s l a

an

Calicut
an d nic o b a r
(I N DI A )

(I N DI A )

Madurai
Polygars
i sl
nd

an
s

ds

Not to Scale
I N D I A N O C E A N

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Conquests of Women Rulers

Akbar conquered Malwa and parts of
Central India. His defeat of Rani Durgavati, a
ruler in the Central Province, is not appreciated,
since the brave Rani did him no harm. Yet urged
by his ambition to build an empire, Akbar had
no consideration for the good nature of the
ruler. Similarly, another woman ruler Akbar
had to confront in South India was the famous
Rani Chand Bibi, regent of Ahmednagar. The
fight this woman put up impressed the Mughal
army so much that they gave her favourable
terms of peace. Rana Pratap

Commercial Access to Arabia,

Southeast Asia and China
Akbar’s conquest of Gujarat helped him to
establish control over Gujarat’s overseas trade
with the Arabs and the Europeans. Akbar’s
military campaigns in East Bihar and Odisha
and victory over Bengal facilitated access to
Southeast Asia and China.

Military Campaigns in the North-West

(1585–1605)
Among other conquests of Akbar, the
important were the campaigns he launched
Rani Durgavati in the North–West of India. Akbar added
Battle of Haldighati Kandahar, Kashmir and Kabul to the Mughal
Akbar defeated Rana Uday Singh of Mewar Empire. His battles in the Deccan led to the
and captured the fort of Chittoor in 1568 and annexation of Berar, Khandesh and parts
then Ranthambore in 1569. In 1576, he won of Ahmednagar. Under Akbar, the Mughal
over Uday Singh’s son Rana Pratap at the Battle Empire extended from Kashmir in the north to
of Haldighati. Though defeated, Rana Pratap Godavari in the south, and from Kandahar in
escaped on his horse, Chetak, and continued his the west to Bengal in the east.
fight, leading a life in the jungle. The memory Akbar died in 1605 and his mortal remains
of this gallant Rajput is treasured in Rajputana, were buried at Sikandra near Agra.
and many a legend has grown around him.

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Akbar’s Religious Policy Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir (Conqueror

of the World). Jahangir was more interested in
Akbar, realising that the gains of affection
would be more enduring than the gains of the
sword, made all out efforts to win the goodwill
of the Hindu nobles and the Hindu masses. He
abolished the jizya (poll tax) on non-Muslims
and the tax on Hindu pilgrims. He also married
a girl of a noble Rajput family. Later, he married
off his son to a Rajput girl as well. He appointed
Rajput nobles to important and top positions in
his Empire. Raja Man Singh of Jaipur was sent
as governor of Kabul once.

Akbar treated all the religious groups fairly

with generosity of spirit. The Sufi saint Salim
Chishti and the Sikh Guru Ramdas received
Akbar’s utmost respect and regard. Guru
Jahangir
Ramdas was gifted a plot of land in Amritsar,
where the Sikh shrine Harmandir Sahib was art and painting and gardens and flowers, than
later built. In Ibadat Khana, a hall in the new in running the government. So Jahangir’s wife,
Fatehpur Sikri city, constructed by Akbar, Mehr-un-nisa, known as Nur Jahan, was the
scholars of all religions met for a discourse. real power behind the throne. Jahangir carried
on to some extent his father’s traditions. The
Contributions to culture toleration of religions of Akbar’s time continued
Akbar was a great patron of learning. His in Jahangir’s time.
personal library had more than four thousand
manuscripts. He patronised scholars of all
beliefs and all shades of opinions. He extended
his benevolence to authors such as Abul Fazl,
Abul Faizi and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan,
the great storyteller Birbal, competent officials
like Raja Todar Mal, Raja Bhagwan Das and
Raja Man Singh. The great composer and
musician Tansen and artist Daswant adorned
Akbar’s court as well.

Jahangir (1605–1627)
Akbar was succeeded by Prince Salim, his
son through a Rajput wife, who was also named
Nur Jahan
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But Jahangir ordered the execution of He led a campaign against Ahmednagar and
Sikh leader Guru Arjun (or Arjan) for helping annexed it in 1632. Bijapur and Golconda were
his rebellious son Khusrau, who contested for also conquered later. Some Maratha warriors,
the throne. This resulted in a prolonged fight notably Shahji Bhonsle (Shivaji’s father),
between the Sikhs and the Mughals. As a result entered the services of the Deccan kingdoms
of this confrontation, the Mughals had to lose and trained bands of Maratha soldiers to fight
control over the trade routes to Afghanistan, against the Mughals. So there was a sustained
Persia and Central Asia. The loss of Kandahar resistance in the Deccan to the Mughals from
exposed India to invasions from the North-West. the Marathas too. Shah Jahan was intolerant
Ahmednagar, though conquered by Jahangir, towards other religions than Islam. In his reign
remained a source of trouble throughout his came the climax of Mughal splendour, which is
reign. detailed in the next part of this lesson.

Jahangir granted trading rights to the Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657 and a war of
Portuguese and later to the English. Thomas succession broke out among his four sons.
Roe, a representative of King James I of England, Aurangzeb emerged successful after killing his
visited Jahangir’s court and this agreement three brothers, Dara, Shuja and Murad. Shah
paved the way for the British establishing their Jahan passed the last eight years of his life as a
first factory in Surat. prisoner in the Shah Burj of the Agra Fort.

Shah Jahan (1627–1658) Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

Aurangzeb, the last of the Great Mughals,
started off his reign by imprisoning his old father.
He assumed the title Alamgir (the Conqueror
of the World). He reigned for 48 years. He was
no lover of art like his grandfather Jahangir and
architecture like his father Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan

Prince Khurram, after a struggle for power,

succeeded Jahangir as Shah Jahan (King of
the World). Shah Jahan ruled for thirty years.
Aurangzeb
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He tolerated no religion excepting Islam. He re-imposed the jizya tax on Hindus and excluded
them from office as far as possible. Between 1658 and 1681, Aurangzeb remained in the North and
suppressed the revolt of Bundelas, Jats, Satnamis and Sikhs. Aurangzeb’s expansion in the North-East
resulted in a war with the Ahoms of Kamarupa (Assam). The kingdom came under repeated attacks of
the Mughals, but it could not be subdued totally.

Kabul
AURANGZEB’S EMPIRE
Peshawar Kashmir
N

W E
Panipat
Delhi S
Agra
Rajputs
Ajmer
Malwa Patna
Allahabad
Gujarat
Bengal
Asirgarh
Diu Ahmednagar
Mumbai Gondwana
Purandhar
BAY
ARABIAN Bijapur
OF
SEA BENGAL
Goa
Vellore
Senji
nda A
ma
L a ks h a d w e e p i s l a

Calicut Thanjavur
n an d ni c o b a r
(I N DI A )

(I N DI A )

Cochin Polygars
i sl
ds n

an
ds

Not to Scale
I N D I A N O C E A N

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Relationship with Rajputs and charge of the army. The Mir Saman looked after
Marathas the royal household. The Qazi was the Chief
Judge. Sadr-us-Sudr was minister for enforcing
Aurangzeb’s hostility towards Rajputs led
Islamic law (Sharia).
to prolonged wars with them. To make matters
worse, his rebellious son, Prince Akbar, joined Provincial Administration
the forces of Rajputs and created troubles to him.
The empire was divided into several Subhas
Prince Akbar entered into a pact with Shivaji’s
(provinces). Each Subha was under the control
son Shambuji in the Deccan. So Aurangzeb had
of an officer called Subedar. The Subhas were
to march to the Deccan in 1689.
further divided into districts called Sarkars. The
In the Deccan, Aurangzeb brought Bijapur Sarkars were subdivided into Parganas. A group
and Golconda into submission. Shivaji had of villages (Gramas) formed a Pargana.
carved out a kingdom, proclaiming himself the
Local Administration
Emperor of Maratha State (1674). Aurangzeb
could not stop the rise of Shivaji in the south- The towns and cities were administered by
west. But he vanquished Shivaji’s son and Kotwals. Kotwals maintained law and order. The
successor Shambuji, who was captured and administration of villages was left in the hands
executed by him. Aurangzeb remained in the of local village panchayats (informal institution
Deccan until his death in 1707, at the age of of justice in villages). The Panchayatdars (jury)
nearly 90. dispensed justice.

By the end of Aurangzeb’s rule, the British Army

had firmly established their trade centres at
The Mughal army comprised infantry,
Madras (Chennai), Calcutta (Kolkata) and
cavalry, war elephants and artillery. The
Bombay (Mumbai). The French had their main
Emperor maintained a large number of trained
trade centre in Pondicherry (Puducherry).
and well-armed bodyguards and palace guards.
The Mughal Administration Mansabdari System
Central Administration Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system.
The Mughals provided a stable According to this system, the nobles, civil and
administration in larger parts of India. The military officials were combined to form one
Emperor was the supreme head of the Mughal single service. Everyone in the service was
administrative system. He was the law maker, given a mansab, meaning a position or rank.
the chief executive, the commander-in-chief A Mansabdar was a holder of such a rank.
of the army and the final dispenser of justice. Mansabdar rank was dependent on Zat and
He was assisted by a council of ministers. The Sawar. The former indicated one’s status. Sawar
most important officials were the Wakil (Prime was the number of horses and horsemen he had
Minister) and Wazir or diwan (in charge of the to maintain. His salary was fixed on the basis of
revenue and expenditure). Mir Bhakshi was in- the number of soldiers each Mansabdar received
ranging from 10 to 10,000. The Mansabdars
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were paid high salary by the Emperor. Before and order with the help of Mughal officials and
receiving the salary, a Mansabdar had to present soldiers. The local chieftains and little kings
his horsemen for inspection. Their horses were were also called zamindars. But at the end
branded to prevent theft. The Emperor could of the sixteenth century, the zamindars were
use the troops maintained by a Mansabdar conferred hereditary rights over their zamin.
whenever he wished. The rank of Mansabdar The zamindar was empowered to maintain
was not hereditary during Akbar’s time. After troops for the purpose of collecting revenue.
him, it became hereditary. The emperor granted lands to scholars, holy
men and religious institutions. These lands
Land Revenue Administration
called suyurghal were tax-free.
Land revenue administration was toned
Religious Policy
up during the reign of Akbar. Raja Todar Mal,
Revenue Minister of Akbar, adopted and refined The Mughal emperors were the followers
the system introduced by Sher Shah. Todar of Islam. Akbar was very liberal in his religious
Mal’s zabt system was put in place in the north policy. In Akbar’s court, the Portuguese
and north-western provinces. According to missionaries were great favourites. Akbar tried
this system, after a survey, lands were classified to include the good principles in all religions
according to the nature and fertility of the soil. and formulated them into one single faith
The share of the state was fixed at one-third of called Din-I-Ilahi (divine faith). Jahangir and
the average produce for 10 years. During the Shah Jahan also followed the policy of Akbar.
reign of Shah Jahan, the zabt or zabti system was Aurangzeb rejected the liberal views of his
extended to the Deccan provinces. predecessors. As we pointed out earlier, he
re-imposed the jizya and pilgrim tax on the
The Mughal emperors enforced the old
Hindus. His intolerance towards other religions
iqta system, renaming it jagir. It is a land tenure
made him unpopular among the people.
system developed during the period of Delhi
Sultanate. Under the system, the collection of the Art and Architecture
revenue of an area and the power of governing
Babur introduced the
it were bestowed upon a military or civil official
Persian style of architecture
now named Jagirdar. Every Mansabdar was a
to India by building many
Jagirdar if he was not paid in cash. The Jagirdar
structures at Agra, Biana,
collected the revenue through his own officials.
Dholpur, Gwalior and Kiul
The Amal Guzar or the revenue collector of the
(Aligarh), but only a few of them exist today.
district was assisted by subordinate officers like
Humayun’s palace in Delhi, Din-i-Panah, was
the Potdar, the Qanungo, the Patwari and the
probably destroyed by Sher Shah Sur who
Muqaddams.
built the Purana Qila in its place. The most
Those appointed to collect the revenue prominent monument of Sher Shah’s reign was
from the landholders were called zamindars. his mausoleum built at Sasaram in Bihar.
Zamindars collected taxes and maintained law

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Diwan-i-Khas
Purana Qila

The Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Am, Panch

Mahal (pyramidal structure in five stories),
Rang Mahal, Salim Chishti’s Tomb and Buland
Darwaza were built during Akbar’s time.
Jahangir completed Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara
and the beautiful building containing the tomb
of Itmad-ud-daula, father of Nur Jahan, at Agra. Diwan-i-Am

During Aurangzeb’s reign, architecture

did not receive much patronage. The Bibi Ka
Maqbara in Aurangabad, a mausoleum built by
his son Prince Azam Shah as a loving tribute to
his mother in the late seventeenth century, is,
however, worth mentioning.

Red Fort

Buland Darwaza
Shah Jahan’s time witnessed the climax of
Mughal splendour. The famous peacock throne,
covered with expensive jewels, was made for the
Emperor to sit on. Then rose the world famous Red Fort, also called Lal Qila, in Delhi
Taj Mahal, by the side of the Jumna river at was the residence of the Mughal
Agra. Besides Taj, he built the Moti Masjid, the emperors. Constructed in 1639 by
pearl mosque at Agra, the great Jama Masjid of Emperor Shah Jahan as the palace of his
Delhi and the Diwan-i-Khas and Diwan-i-Am fortified capital Shajahanabad. The Red
in his palace in Delhi. Fort is named for its massive enclosing
walls of red sandstone.

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