Class 12 Physics – Step-by-Step
Derivations
This document contains detailed stepwise derivations of all important topics from Class 12
Physics chapters, including Electric Charges & Fields, Capacitance, Current Electricity,
Magnetism, Electromagnetic Induction, Alternating Current, Semiconductors, Atoms, Nuclei,
and Dual Nature of Matter.
Electric Charges & Fields
Electric field due to a point charge
1. Consider a point charge q at origin.
2. Electric field at a distance r is defined as E = F/q0, where q0 is test charge.
3. Coulomb's law: F = (1/4πε0) * (q*q0)/r^2.
4. Therefore, E = F/q0 = (1/4πε0) * q / r^2.
5. Direction: Radially outward for positive charge, inward for negative charge.
Electric field on axis of a ring
1. Consider ring of radius R with charge Q uniformly distributed.
2. Select point P on axis at distance x from center.
3. Elemental charge dq produces field dE; due to symmetry, horizontal components cancel.
4. Vertical components sum to E = (1/4πε0) * Q * x / (x^2 + R^2)^(3/2).
Capacitance
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
1. Two plates of area A separated by distance d.
2. Surface charge density σ = Q/A.
3. Electric field E = σ/ε0.
4. Potential difference V = E*d = Q*d/(ε0 A).
5. Capacitance C = Q/V = ε0 A / d.
6. With dielectric: C = εr ε0 A / d.
Energy stored in capacitor
1. Consider small charge dq added when potential is v = q/C.
2. Work done dW = v dq = q/C dq.
3. Integrate: W = ∫0^Q (q/C) dq = Q^2/(2C) = 1/2 C V^2.
Current Electricity
Relation between drift velocity and current density
1. Consider charge carriers of density n and charge e moving with drift velocity vd.
2. Current through cross-section A: I = nq v_d A.
3. Current density: J = I/A = n e v_d.
Microscopic form of Ohm's law
1. J = σ E, where σ is conductivity.
2. Relates drift velocity: v_d = μ E where μ = mobility.
3. Combines macroscopic V = IR with microscopic relation.
Moving Charges & Magnetism
Magnetic field due to long straight wire
1. Use Ampere's law: μ B·dl = μ 0 I_enclosed.
2. Symmetry: B constant along circle of radius r.
3. ∮B dl = B (2π r) = μ0 I ⇒ B = μ0 I / (2π r).
Torque on current loop in uniform field
1. Magnetic moment μ = I A.
2. Torque τ = μ × B.
3. Magnitude τ = μ B sinθ, direction from right-hand rule.
Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday's law of induction
1. Magnetic flux Φ = ∫B·dA.
2. Induced emf ε = -dΦ/dt.
3. Negative sign (Lenz's law) shows induced current opposes flux change.
Emf induced in rotating coil (AC generator)
1. Coil of N turns, area A rotates in uniform B at angular velocity ω.
2. Flux Φ = N B A cos(ωt).
3. Induced emf: ε = - dΦ/dt = N B A ω sin(ωt).
Alternating Current
RMS value of AC current
1. i = I0 sinωt
2. I_rms = sqrt((1/T) ∫0^T i^2 dt) = I0 / √2
Impedance in series LCR
1. Voltage across R: V_R = IR, L: V_L = IωL, C: V_C = I/(ωC)
2. Phasor sum: V = √(V_R^2 + (V_L - V_C)^2) ⇒ Z = √(R^2 + (ωL - 1/(ωC))^2)
Atoms
Radius of nth Bohr orbit
1. Centripetal force = Coulomb attraction: m v^2 / r = k e^2 / r^2
2. Quantization of angular momentum: m v r = n h / 2π
3. Solve for r_n = n^2 h^2 ε0 / (π m e^2)
Energy of electron in nth orbit
1. Kinetic energy: K = 1/2 m v^2 = k e^2 / (2 r)
2. Potential energy: U = - k e^2 / r
3. Total energy: E_n = K + U = - k e^2 / (2 r_n)
Nuclei
Binding energy
1. Mass defect Δm = (sum of nucleon masses - nucleus mass)
2. Binding energy: E_b = Δm c^2
Half-life derivation
1. Radioactive decay: dN/dt = -λ N
2. Integrate: N = N0 e^{-λ t}
3. Half-life T1/2: N0/2 = N0 e^{-λ T1/2} ⇒ T1/2 = ln2 / λ
Dual Nature of Radiation & Matter
de Broglie wavelength
1. Particle momentum p = m v
2. Wavelength λ = h / p
3. Demonstrates wave nature of matter
Einstein photoelectric equation
1. Photon energy E = h ν
2. Work function φ energy needed to eject electron
3. Maximum kinetic energy: K_max = h ν - φ
