1.

OBJECTIVES

Experimentally check the behavior that a fluid exhibits when it

It is found in different regimes, through the calculation of its Reynolds number, which is
the parameter that defines that behavior.
Determine the behavior of a fluid in the presence of obstacles that hinder it.
movement.

2. GENERAL THEORY

Osborne Reynolds experiment (visualization of laminar and turbulent flows)

Among Reynolds' greatest achievements are his experiments visualizing laminar flows.
and turbulent in ducts, and its analysis on the dependency parameters of the transition to
turbulent regime.

Figure 1. Diagram of the Reynolds Tank

To visualize the characteristics of laminar and turbulent flows, Reynolds employed a

dye injected into a water stream.

According to the diagram, from the interior of the Reynolds tank (which is elevated from the ground), part
a horizontal transparent conduit that, already outside the tank, is connected to a pipe
drainage outlet. Due to the difference in elevation between the free surface of the tank and the drain,

1
this pipe carries water. At the end of the pipe, there is a control valve to regulate
the flow of water discharged (that is, the speed of the current).

In that device, water is introduced into the horizontal duct through a nozzle or
funnel, with the aim of facilitating a very regular water circulation.

In the nozzle area, there is the dye injector, fed from a small
external deposit through a hose.

For the type of movement corresponding to flow through a circular section duct, it is possible to
obtain an analytical solution assuming steady flow, axial symmetry and imposing
balance between the pressure forces and the viscous forces. The solution thus obtained, which reflects
a parabolic velocity distribution with respect to the radial position is the known
Hagen-Poiseuille equation. In this movement, which is steady, the streamlines
coincide with the trajectories of fluid particles, as well as with the trace lines of the
dye particles in the Reynolds experiment, and they are nothing but straight lines parallel to the axis of the
duct.

Figure 2. Photographs of the different flow regimes observed in the Reynolds Tank

2
However, Reynolds observed that such a stable and regular movement only exists if the
the flow velocity is sufficiently small or if the diameter of the tube is sufficiently
small for a given flow rate. Under these circumstances, the dye forms a stream line.
well defined whose contour shows that there is only a small diffusion in the radial direction,
due to molecular transport. In addition, any disturbance that appears in the flow is
damped quickly. This movement is referred to as laminar.

On the contrary, if the speed is large enough, the movement of the fluid becomes
very sensitive to any disturbance, which quickly amplifies. The flow becomes
then it becomes irregular and loses its stationary character. The thickness of the dye increases rapidly, the
The contour blurs and takes on an irregular shape until downstream it turns into a cloud.
This movement is the so-called turbulent.

2.1. FLOW REGIMES

2.1.1. STEADY FLOW AND UNSTEADY FLOW

[Link].Steady flow: Also called permanent flow. This type of flow is

characterizes why the velocities at any point do not change over time or rather, their
variations are so small with respect to the average values. Likewise, at any point
In a steady flow, there are no changes in density, pressure, or temperature over time.

[Link]. Unsteady flow: Also called non-permanent flow, the properties of

a fluid and its mechanical characteristics will be different from one point to another within
his field.

2.1.2. UNIFORM FLOW AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW

[Link].Uniform flow This type of flow is uncommon and occurs when the vector
speed at all points of the drainage is identical in both magnitude and
in direction for a given moment or expressed mathematically:

Where time remains constant and s is a displacement in any direction.

[Link]. Unsteady flow: This is the opposite case of uniform flow; this type of flow is
finds near solid boundaries due to the effect of viscosity
2.1.3. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
[Link]. Incompressible flow: It is one in which the changes in density from one point to
others are despicable, while examining points within the flow field, it is
to say

3
The above does not require that the density be constant at all points. If the density is
constant, obviously the flow is incompressible, but it would be a more restrictive condition.

[Link].Compressible flow: It is one in which the changes in density from one point to
others are not negligible.
[Link] FLOW AND TURBULENT FLOW
[Link].Turbulent flow:

In this type of flow, the fluid particles move in very irregular trajectories without following
an established order, causing the transfer of momentum from a portion of
fluid to another. In this type of flow, the particles of the fluid can be present from very
small amounts to immense amounts of particles like in whirlwinds.
In turbulent flow, it can be found that greater stresses develop in turbulence.
cutters, mechanical energy losses decrease in flow velocity. The equation for
turbulent flow can be expressed in a manner analogous to Newton's law of viscosity:

where:

4
Apparent viscosity is a factor that depends on the movement of the fluid and its density.
In real situations, both viscosity and turbulence contribute to shear stress:

Factors that cause a flow to become turbulent:

The high surface roughness of the contact surface with the flow, especially near the
attack edge and at high speeds, breaking into the laminar flow area and making it
turbulent.
High turbulence in the incoming flow.
Surface heating by the fluid, if the contact surface is very hot,
it will transmit that energy to the fluid and if this transfer is large enough it will pass to
turbulent flow.

[Link]. Laminar flow:

It is characterized by the fact that the movement of the fluid particles occurs following
quite regular trajectories, separated and perfectly defined, giving the impression that they
it will try to sheets or layers more or less parallel to each other. Newton's law of viscosity is
the one that governs laminar flow:

2.1.5. IRROTATIONAL FLOW AND ROTATIONAL FLOW

[Link].Rotational flow: It is one in which the rotational field v acquires in some of its
points with values different from zero, at any moment.
[Link].Irrational flow: Unlike rotational flow, this type of flow
characterizes why within a flow field the vector curl v is equal to zero for
any point and moment. The irrotational flow excludes the presence of
vortex singularities, which are caused by the effects of viscosity of the
fluid in motion.

2.1.6. UNI-BI-TRIDIMENSIONAL FLOWS

[Link].Unidimensional flow: It is a flow in which the velocity vector depends only on

a spatial variable, meaning that changes in speed are disregarded
transverse to the main direction of the flow. Such flows occur in long pipes.
and straight lines or between parallel plates.

[Link].Bidimensional flow: It is a flow in which the velocity vector only depends on two
spatial variables. In this type of flow, it is assumed that all particles flow
about parallel planes along trajectories that are identical when compared
the planes relative to each other, without any change in the direction perpendicular to the planes.

5
 3D flow: The velocity vector depends on three spatial coordinates.
the most general case in which the components of velocity in three directions that
perpendiculars to each other are a function of the spatial coordinates x, y, z, and of the
time t.

2.1.7. VISCOSITY FLOW AND NON-VISCOUS FLOW

[Link]. Viscous flow Real fluids always experience certain effects when moving.
due to frictional forces or viscous forces that act between the layers of
fluid.

[Link]. Non-viscous flow: In a non-viscous flow, it is assumed that the fluid viscosity is equal to
zero. It is evidently assuming that such flows cannot exist.
Re (Reynolds)>>1

2.2. STREAMLINES

A streamline is an imaginary curve that is tangent to the velocity at every point.

fluid. In steady state, the streamlines are fixed and also indicate the
trajectories followed by the fluid elements.

[Link] FLOW

The potential flow theory aims to describe the kinematic behavior of fluids.
based on the mathematical concept of potential function
Outside the boundary layer, there is an inviscid flow and the wake with a high Reynolds number.
around bodies. For an aerodynamic surface, the boundary layer is quite thin and the
inviscid flow is a good approximation of the actual flow; used for
predict the pressure distribution on the surface, which provides a good estimate of the
support, being very important in the study of external flows. If a field is considered
of speed given by the gradient of a scalar function φ:

6



Where it is called potential velocity function and such velocity field is named
potential flow (irrotational flow) and has the property that the vorticity ω,
the curl of the velocity vector is zero.


A fluid particle that has no vorticity cannot be obtained without the action of viscosity.
normal pressure forces and the body forces acting through the center of mass do not
They can impart rotation to a fluid particle.

[Link] OF A FLUID

2.4.1. TRACE LINE

It is the line where all the fluid particles that passed through a point at a certain instant are located.
determined. Its utility lies in the fact that if we disregard diffusion, this would be the visible line that
it would occur if at a point we slowly injected a dye into the fluid.
This line only matches the streamlines and the pathlines, when they do not vary with.
time, as happens in stationary movements.

[Link] LINE: is a set of fluid particles that at a given moment

they form a line.

[Link] LINE: A path is the actual route taken by a particle.

fluid

[Link] NUMBER

Reynolds discovered that the existence of one type of flow or another depends on the value taken by a
grouping of relevant flow variables, a parameter that is referred to in its
honor as Reynolds number. Where V is the average flow velocity (flow rate/cross-sectional area
of the duct), D the diameter and ν the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, the number is defined as
Reynolds, designated as Re, like:

In all flows, there is a value of this parameter for which the flow transition occurs.
from laminar to turbulent flow, commonly referred to as the critical Reynolds number.
Generally, for flow in pipes, the following critical values of the number are established.
Reynolds:

7
 If Re < 2000, the flow is laminar.
Between 2000 < Re < 4000 there is a transition zone from laminar flow to turbulent flow.
If Re > 4000 the flow is turbulent.

2.6. ANGLE OF ATTACK

The angle of attack is defined as the angle formed between the geometric chord of an airfoil and the
incident air direction. It is a parameter that decisively influences capacity of
generate lift for a wing or to generate thrust from the blades of a propeller.

Fig. 1: illustrative graph of the angle of attack of an airfoil. The black arrow indicates the
wind direction and the angle α is the angle of attack

Typically, increasing the angle of attack increases lift up to a certain point.

the one that decreases sharply, a phenomenon known as entry into
loss. The dependence of lift on the angle of attack can be measured through a
lift coefficient whose variation with the angle of attack α is illustrated in figure 2. The
The theoretical dependence for a flat plate is given by C(α) = 2πα.

Fig. 2: example of a typical graph oflift coefficient( against angle of attack

(α).

Due to the direct interaction between the angle of attack and lift, its control
it is the primary control of an airplane or fixed-wing aerodyne. Indeed, the increase in lift
It generates an increase in aerodynamic resistance, which opposes aerodynamic traction. It is

8
it results in a decrease in aerodynamic speed. This leads us to the conclusion that
that the primary regulation of speed in an airplane is carried out by modifying the
angle of attack.

It is important to highlight that there are certain hyper-lifting devices that can increase the
angle of attack at the stall entry, that is, to reduce the stall entry speed

With moderate angles of attack, the airflow follows the contour of the wing surface and the
the transition point to turbulence remains close to the trailing edge (1); but as
the angle of attack increases (2), the airflow has more difficulty following the
wing contour due to the intense change in direction and the transition point is shifting
toward the leading edge (3); when the angle of attack is greater than the critical angle, the air is
unable to follow the contour of the wing, the transition point is so far ahead that there is hardly any
laminar layer and almost all is turbulent (4). At that moment the differential pressure has decreased
and the resistance has increased, to the point that there is not enough support to
to support the weight of the airplane and the wing goes into stall. The stall is a phenomenon
exclusively aerodynamic produced by an excessive angle of attack.

9
3. TEAM KNOWLEDGE

3.1. DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT

The team consists of a flute (steel tube) to which several are welded.
small diameter pipes, this flute is connected to a downward drainage hose
the same one that is connected to a container (this device allows the circulation of the ink to
through a nozzle or funnel, in order to facilitate a very regular flow) where it
puts ink (potassium permanganate). There is a tank where this flute is placed, which is
connected to a pipe that carries water due to slope. At the end of the pipe, there is a valve of
regulation to control the flow of discharged water (that is, the speed of the current).

In that inlet tank, it is connected to the outlet through a lower pipe.

which is controlled by valves. There is also a crystal that when placed on the table
support connects the flow from the first tank to the second (allows for the control of existence of a
laminar flow), to regulate this flow there are lower valves that act as drains
of the flow circulating through the table, while the upper valves allow the entry of a
new flow, that transforms the one circulating around the table into turbulent.

A diffuser located in the inlet tank and an adjustable weir plate located in the tank.
Download helps produce a uniform water flow.

In the discharge tank there is a drainage device that keeps the tanks at a level of
reference without exceeding its capacity.

10
 3.2. TEAM SCHEME

4
5

3
6

1
7

4. MODERN EQUIPMENT

Armfield laminar flow bench

The Armfield laminar flow bank has been designed to simulate an ideal fluid flow, and
to provide a clear visualization of the flow patterns created using water as the fluid of

11
work. This allows for a complete investigation of the principles of potential flow, and
allows the modeling of appropriate physical systems.

Price of the equipment: $1635.85

The support of the work section and the tanks at each end are molded in plastic.
reinforced with fiberglass (GRP).

Work section made of laminated glass (dimensions of the upper sheet 606mm x
892mm.

The lower glass sheet incorporates 8 pre-connected drains/sources in configuration

cruciform

A system of pipes, valves, and collectors allows for any configuration of drains.
and sources.

12
Includes dye injection system and adjustable edge crest dam for making adjustments
fast and accurate flow in the bank.

Include 3g of blue dye powder to make 1 liter of dye solution and a complete manual.
instructions with illustrations.

The laminar flow bank is an improved version of the classic Hele-Shaw apparatus with the
addition of drains and fountains. It consists of two laminated glass sheets with a small
separation between them, arranged horizontally on a fiberglass molded base. The
base, which is supported by a metal floor frame, incorporates an inlet tank and a
discharge tank. Three adjustable legs allow for quick leveling of the flow bench.

Eight miniature basins, which can be used as sinks or fountains, are arranged.
around the central line of the lower glass sheet in cruciform configuration. There is
also a doublet (a drain and a fountain located very close to each other) in the center
of the pattern. A system of pipes, valves, and collectors allows the use of any combination
of drains and fountains.

A row of control valves mounted above the flow bench allows for adjusting the flow to
through each individual source.

Another row of control valves adjusts the flow through each individual sink. Among the
glass sheets, at the entrance edge, there is a row of hypodermic needles connected to a
collector. To visualize the flow of water between the glass sheets, dye is injected through the
needles, which are spaced uniformly. The position of each flow line is indicated
clearly from the dye, which flows from a reservoir equipped with a flow control valve.
On the bottom side of the lower glass sheet, a black grid is printed on a background.
white to help visualize the flow lines.

The patterns created by the potential flow can be recorded by tracing them on the sheet of
upper glass, or through photography if required.

Valves are incorporated at the base of these tanks to facilitate drainage. The flow of water
it is controlled by a flow control valve at the inlet. A bypass valve allows
relieve any excess pressure from the mains water supply.

The upper glass sheet can be lifted from the front and held in this position.
to place models in the work section. A set of models is provided for studies.
of basic flow.

These models are made of plastic sheet and are held in the required position by
lower the top glass sheet. Alternative models can be made in any material
convenient for investigating the associated flow patterns.

13
A two-dimensional laminar flow is created between the two glass sheets due to the combination of
the low fluid velocity and the reduced space between the two sheets. The resulting flow is free
of turbulence and provides a good approximation of the behavior of an ideal fluid. Since
that the flow is controlled by potential, the flow bank can be used to model any
physical system that complies with Laplace's Law. For example, a heat flow can be simulated.
constant bidimensional through conductors of different sections. In this case, the flux of
water represents the flow of heat, and the pressure potential of the fluid represents the difference of
fluid temperature in the system.

Similarly, sinks and sources can be used in combination with the flow of
water between the glass leaves to simulate a variety of flow situations. For example,
The flow patterns in the proximity of wells that extract water can be represented.
underground resources (aquifers), using one or more of the intake points as sinks. It can
represent the effect of groundwater recharge using one or more of the withdrawals
as sources.

5. DATA FRAME

Capillaries
20 paintings

d 30 frames
Water temperature = 11°C
Density of water ρ =
Viscosity of water μ =
Filling volume for measurement V =
Pipe diameter D = 0.1 cm
D1=0.0001m
Reference distance d=0.75m (30 in.)
Frames of 2.5x2.5 cm
16 Capillaries, 3 cm separation between capillary

14
Profiles:
Circular profile:

Airplane wing profile:

Profile of a car:

15
Profiles for widenings:

6. THEORY APPLIED TO THE LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

Fluid flow rate

It is filled in a container with volume markings, the time it takes is measured

fill up to a reference, with which the flow will be calculated:

caudal
V: volume
time

Fluid velocity
Based on the flow rate of the fluid and the cross-section of the uniform tube, the velocity of the
fluid is given by:

Fluid velocity
caudal
D: diameter of the pipe
The Reynolds number
To determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent, the number is calculated using equation (1)
Reynolds

16
7. EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION

Determination of the fluid arrival time.

Determination of flow rate

Assuming a volume of 1

Determination of the velocity of the fluid

( )

Determination of the Reynolds number and type of flow.

17
340.28 < 2000; therefore the flow is laminar.

The possible trajectory of the streamlines for each profile will be shown next.

Streamlines in the circular profile:

18
Streamlines in the airplane wing profile:
With an angle of attack of 0°

With an angle of attack of 18˚

19
With an angle of attack of 20˚

Streamlines in the profile of a car:

20
Streamlines for a smooth widening:

Streamlines in a sudden widening:

21
Streamlines profile of an airplane

22
 8. RESULTS TABLE

THEORETICAL DATA

Speed Number of
No. tprom Flow Type of
t1 [s] t2 [s] t3 [s] t4 [s] t5 [s] average Reynolds
test [s] theoretical theoretical flow
theoretical [cm/s]theoretical
1 5.90 5.32 5.70 5.86 6.12 5.78 0.173 22.040 219.999 Laminar
2 1.90 1.89 1.88 1.91 1.87 1.89 0.529 67.401 672,800 Laminar
3 3.73 3.74 3.74 3.73 3.74 3.74 0.268 34.107 340.453 Laminar
4 2.81 2.70 2.80 2.79 2.78 2.78 0.360 45.889 458.066 Laminar
5 4.30 4.24 4.33 4.50 4.20 4.31 0.232 29.529 294.759 Laminar
6 0.96 0.92 0.94 0.91 0.97 0.94 1.064 135.520 1352.758 Laminar
7 8.50 8.65 8.80 8.90 9.20 8.81 0.114 14.460 144.335 Laminar
8 4.30 4.20 4.18 3.89 3.87 4.09 0.245 31.162 311.055 Laminar
8 6:30 6.23 6.18 6.13 6.09 6.19 0.162 20.593 205.560 Laminar

EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Caud Type of
No. Speed Number of
tpr the flow
of t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 I am experiencedReynolds average
Error %
pru [s] [s] [s] [s] [s] experiment experiment experience
mint
eba ental[cm/s] l mental
l
7.1 7.2 7.4 7.3 7.3
1 7.29 0.137 17.470 174.382 Laminar 20.74
4 3 4 5 0 without profile
3.7 2.1 1.4 1.0 1.0
2 1.88 0.531 67.616 674.943 Laminar 0.32
7 1 5 8 1 circular profile
4.4 4.5 4.6 4.4 3.5 head profile
3 4.32 0.232 29.515 294.623 Laminar 13.46
3 1 3 4 7 by plane
4.1 4.4 5.6 3.2 5.1 profile
4 4.55 0.220 27.973 279.225 Laminar 39.04
6 9 9 5 8 automobile
6.7 4.4 4.2 2.2 2.7
5 4.09 0.244 31.131 310.751 Laminar 5.43
8 8 2 4 4 soft profile
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.8
6 0.69 1.453 185.158 1848.245 Laminar 36.63
8 8 0 2 6 rough profile
8.6 9.2 10. 10. 9.5
7 9.60 0.104 13.272 132.485 Laminar 8.21
2 7 12 48 0 airplane wing 0
4.2 4.3 3.9 2.8 2.4 airplane wing
8 3.58 0.279 35.564 354.995 Laminar 14.13
9 4 4 5 9 18
6.2 5.9 5.9 5.6 5.0 airplane wing
9 5.75 0.174 22.155 221.146 Laminar 7.58
1 4 1 0 9 20

23
The actual trajectories of the streamlines for each profile will be shown below.

Streamlines in the circular profile:

Streamlines in the airplane wing profile:

With an angle of attack of 0˚

24
With an angle of attack of 18˚

With an angle of attack of 20˚

25
Streamlines in the profile of a car:

Streamlines for a smooth widening:

26
Streamlines in a sudden expansion:

Streamlines in a specific profile.

27
9. GRAPHS
Theoretical

Graph: Reynolds number vs.

fluid velocity
5000.000
4000.000
3000.000
Laminar
2000.000
Critical Zone
1,000,000
Turbulent
0.000
0.000 100.000 200.000 300.000 400.000 500.000
Speed [cm/s]

10. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The two-dimensional flow table uses a Hel-Shaw cell in which a flow is introduced.
viscous and laminar to simulate a potential flow which lacks rotationality.
For laminar flows, the particles move in a certain order and along a trajectory.
ordered, for turbulent flows it is quite the opposite as the particles become disordered and
they have different and random trajectories.
The characteristic of a flow (whether it is laminar, in the critical zone, or turbulent) is a function of
The factors that define the Reynolds number do not depend on other factors.
The Reynolds number is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid under analysis.
It is for this reason that for the analysis of highly viscous fluids, such as oils, one
I would need a high fluid velocity to reach a turbulent state.
Two-dimensional flows can be easily represented on a plane because
the velocity of the streamlines has no normal component to the drawing plane, and the
Current in all planes parallel to the drawing is identical.

1.1. RECOMMENDATIONS

More information or bibliographies about the practice should be provided so that

make its realization a little easier.
It is recommended to use a metal mesh in the sink to eliminate turbulence.

28
 It is advisable to thoroughly clean the glass lid and the frames with detergent and paper.
newspaper to avoid the formation of bubbles when lowering it onto the area
of tests.

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics
editions, Pages 11-25.
YUNUS, A. Cengel; CIMBALA, H. John; "FLUID MECHANICS
FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS; First Edition; McGraw Hill Editions; Mexico
D.F.; 2006; Pages 35-48.
MOTT, Robert; “APPLIED FLUID MECHANICS”; IV Edition; Prentice Hall
Hispanoamericana S.A.; Pages 50-68.
THE MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
editions; Mexico City; 1978; Pages 40-49.
STREETER, L. Víctor; “FLUID MECHANICS”; 4th Edition; McGraw Hill
editions; Mexico City; 1975; Pages 37-51.

12. INTERNET LINKS

[Link]
The provided text is a URL and does not contain translatable content.
The provided text is a URL and does not contain translatable content.
streamlined_bodies_and_wing_profiles.pdf
[Link]
[Link]
luxury/[Link]
Unable to access external links.
[Link]
[Link]
Invalid URL provided. Please provide text for translation.

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30