MATH 22 Reference Sheet for Chapter 5 Quiz Summer 2024
Chapter Summaries
Chapter 5 Sequences, Mathematical Induction, and Recursion
Sequence
A sequence is a function whose domain is either all the integers between two given integers or all the
integers greater than or equal to a given integer.
Series
If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers and 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛, the symbol ∑𝑛𝑘=𝑚 𝑎𝑘 , read the summation from 𝒌 equals 𝒎 to 𝒏 of
𝒂-sub-𝒌, is the sum of all the terms 𝑎𝑚 , 𝑎𝑚+1 , 𝑎𝑚+2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 . We say that 𝑎𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚+1 + 𝑎𝑚+2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
is the expanded form of the sum, and we write
𝑛
∑ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚+1 + 𝑎𝑚+2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑘=𝑚
We call 𝑘 the index of the summation, 𝑚 the lower limit of the summation, and 𝑛 the upper limit of the
summation.
Product
If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are integers and 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛, the symbol ∏𝑛𝑘=𝑚 𝑎𝑘 , read the product from 𝒌 equals 𝒎 to 𝒏 of 𝒂-
sub-𝒌, is the product of all the terms 𝑎𝑚 , 𝑎𝑚+1 , 𝑎𝑚+2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑛
∏ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑚+1 ∙ 𝑎𝑚+2 ∙ … ∙ 𝑎𝑛 .
𝑘=𝑚
Theorem 5.1.1 Properties of Summations and Functions
If 𝑎𝑚 , 𝑎𝑚+1 , 𝑎𝑚+2 , … and 𝑏𝑚 , 𝑏𝑚+1 , 𝑏𝑚+2 , … are sequences of real numbers and 𝑐 is any real number,
then the following equations hold for any integer 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚:
1. ∑𝑛𝑘=𝑚 𝑎𝑘 + ∑𝑛𝑘=𝑚 𝑏𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑘=𝑚(𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏𝑘 ) Sum of summations equals summation of sums.
2. 𝑐 ∙ ∑𝑛𝑘=𝑚 𝑎𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑘=𝑚 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎𝑘 Generalized distributive law.
3. (∏𝑛𝑘=𝑚 𝑎𝑘 ) ∙ (∏𝑛𝑘=𝑚 𝑏𝑘 ) = ∏𝑛𝑘=𝑚(𝑎𝑘 ∙ 𝑏𝑘 ) Multiply the products or multiply the terms.
Factorial
For each positive integer 𝑛, the quantity 𝑛 factorial denoted 𝑛!, is defined to be the product of all the
integers from 1 to 𝑛. Zero factorial is defined to be 1.
1 𝑛=0
𝑛! = {
𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 − 1) ∙ … ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 𝑛 > 0
©CAW Discrete Mathematics Page 1 of 4
MATH 22 Reference Sheet for Chapter 5 Quiz Summer 2024
𝒏 Choose 𝒓
𝑛
Let 𝑛 and 𝑟 be integers with 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛. The symbol ( ) is read as “𝑛 choose 𝑟” and represents the
𝑟
number of subsets of size 𝑟 that can be chosen from a set with 𝑛 elements.
Formula for 𝒏 choose 𝒓
𝑛 𝑛!
For all integers 𝑛 and 𝑟 with 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛, ( ) = 𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!.
𝑟
Some examples of explicit formulas for summations, products and combinations.
Geometric Series Sum of First 𝒏 Integers
𝑛 𝑛
𝑟 𝑛+1 − 1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
∑ 𝑟𝑖 = ∑𝑖 =
𝑟−1 2
𝑖=0 𝑖=1
Combination 𝑪(𝒏, 𝒓) Product of First 𝒏 Integers
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛!
( )= ∏ 𝑖 = 𝑛!
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
𝑖=1
Method of Proof by Mathematical Induction (Weak)
Consider a statement of the form, ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑛 ≥ 𝑎, 𝑃(𝑛) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒. To prove such a statement, perform the
following steps:
1. (Basis Step) Show that 𝑃(𝑎) is true.
2. (Inductive Step) Show that ∀𝑘 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑘 ≥ 𝑎, 𝑃(𝑘) → 𝑃(𝑘 + 1)
a. (Inductive Hypothesis) Suppose that 𝑃(𝑘) is true where 𝑘 is any particular, but
arbitrarily chosen integer with 𝑘 ≥ 𝑎.
b. Deduce that 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) must necessarily also be true.
3. (Conclusion) ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑛 ≥ 𝑎, 𝑃(𝑛) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, as shown by proof by mathematical induction.
Method of Proof by Strong Mathematical Induction
Consider a statement of the form, ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑛 ≥ 𝑎, 𝑃(𝑛) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒. To prove such a statement, perform the
following steps:
1. (Basis Step) Show that 𝑃(𝑎), 𝑃(𝑎 + 1), 𝑃(𝑎 + 2), … , 𝑃(𝑏), 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 are true.
2. (Inductive Step) Show that ∀𝑘 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑘 ≥ 𝑏, 𝑃(𝑘) → 𝑃(𝑘 + 1)
a. (Inductive Hypothesis) Suppose that 𝑃(𝑖) is true for all integers 𝑖, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘.
b. Deduce that 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) must necessarily also be true.
3. (Conclusion) ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑍, 𝑛 ≥ 𝑎, 𝑃(𝑛) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, as shown by proof by strong mathematical induction.
Well-Ordering Principle for the Integers
Let 𝑆 be a set of integers containing one or more integers all of which are greater than some fixed
integer. Then 𝑆 has a least element.
Equivalence of Principles
The three principles, Proof by Weak Mathematical Induction, Proof by Strong Mathematical Induction,
and the Well-Ordering Principle for the Integers, are equivalent, meaning the assumption of one of them
allows for the proof of the other two.
©CAW Discrete Mathematics Page 2 of 4
MATH 22 Reference Sheet for Chapter 5 Quiz Summer 2024
Recurrence Relation
A recurrence relation for a sequence 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … is a formula that relates each term 𝑎𝑘 to certain of its
predecessors 𝑎𝑘−1 , 𝑎𝑘−2 , … , 𝑎𝑘−𝑖 , where 𝑖 is an integer with 𝑘 − 𝑖 ≥ 0. If 𝑖 is a fixed integer, the initial
conditions for such a recurrence relation specify the values of 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑖−1 . If 𝑖 depends on 𝑘, the
initial conditions specify the values of 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑚 , where 𝑚 is an integer with 𝑚 ≥ 0.
Towers of Hanoi
Recursive definition of the number of moves to complete a game of Towers of Hanoi starting with 𝑛 ≥ 1
disks.
1 𝑛=1
𝑚𝑛 = {
2𝑚𝑛−1 + 1 𝑛 > 1
Fibonacci Numbers
Recursive definition of increase in rabbits in a field
1 𝑛=0
𝐹𝑛 = { 1 𝑛=1
𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 𝑛>1
Recursive Definition of Sum
Given numbers 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a positive integer, the summation from 𝒊 = 𝟏 to 𝒏 of the 𝑎𝑖 ,
denoted ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 is defined as follows:
𝑛 𝑎1 𝑛=1
𝑛−1
∑ 𝑎𝑖 = {
𝑖=1 (∑ 𝑎𝑖 ) + 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 > 1
𝑖=1
Recursive Definition of Product
Given numbers 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , where 𝑛 is a positive integer, the product from 𝒊 = 𝟏 to 𝒏 of the 𝑎𝑖 ,
denoted ∏𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 is defined as follows:
𝑛 𝑎1 𝑛=1
𝑛−1
∏ 𝑎𝑖 = {
𝑖=1 (∏ 𝑎𝑖 ) ∙ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 > 1
𝑖=1
Method of Iteration
Given a sequence 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … defined by a recurrence relation and initial conditions,
1. Start from initial conditions and calculate successive terms of the sequence.
2. Look for a pattern related to the index values.
3. Guess an explicit formula.
4. Check the explicit formula against several index values.
5. Using the principle of mathematical induction, prove that the explicit formula and the
recurrence definition provide the same answers for all index values.
©CAW Discrete Mathematics Page 3 of 4
MATH 22 Reference Sheet for Chapter 5 Quiz Summer 2024
Arithmetic Sequence
A sequence 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … is called an arithmetic sequence if, and only if, there is a constant 𝑑 such that
∀𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 + , 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑑.
It follows that
∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 ≥0 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑑𝑛.
Geometric Sequence
A sequence 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … is called a geometric sequence if, and only if, there is a constant 𝑟 such that
∀𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 + , 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑟𝑎𝑘−1 .
It follows that
∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 ≥0 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎0 𝑟 𝑛 .
©CAW Discrete Mathematics Page 4 of 4
