KING SAUD UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE
Department of Geology and Geophysics
 Geophysics is a multidisciplinary physical science; it
is an incorporation of Physics, Mathematics, and
UNIT ONE Geology.
 Geophysics is the science that deals with
PRINCIPLES OF GEOPHYSICS INTRODUCTION investigation of the Earth, using the principles and
(GPH 201) laws of Physics.
2018/2019 (1439/1440) Definition, scopes of application and classification  The physical properties of earth materials such as
of geophysical methods density, elasticity, magnetization, and electrical
conductivity can be retrieved from observational
measurements of the corresponding physical fields
such as gravity, seismic waves, magnetic fields,
and various kinds of electrical fields.
3

Divisions of Geophysics Classification of Geophysical Exploration

Geophysics = Geological Observations + Physical Laws Methods
 Global Geophysics
Study of earthquakes, magnetic field, physical Geophysical methods are divided into two main categories
oceanography, Earth's thermal state and meteorology according to the source of signal; Passive and Active:
 Exploration Geophysics:  Passive methods (Natural Sources):
Physical principles are applied to the search for, and Measurements of naturally occurring fields. Ex. Self
evaluation of, resources such as oil, gas, minerals, Potential (SP), Magnetotelluric (MT), Telluric, Gravity
water and building stone. and Magnetic.
 Other divisions of geophysics include:  Active Methods (Induced Sources):
oceanography, atmospheric physics, climatology, A signal is injected into the earth and then measure how
petroleum geophysics, environmental geophysics, the earth respond to the signal. Ex. DC Resistivity,
engineering geophysics and mining geophysics. Seismic Refraction and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR).
4 5 6

Fields of Application of Geophysical Methods Geophysical Methods and their applications

UNIT TWO
 Oil and gas exploration
 Mineral exploration
 Hydrogeological investigations Basics of Seismic Methods
 Engineering and environmental investigations Fundamental Considerations, seismic waves,
 Tectonic studies characteristics of seismic waves propagation

 Natural hazards assessment (Earthquakes,

landslides etc.)
 Archaeology
7 8
 Fundamental Considerations  Seismic methods are particularly well suited to Elasticity
mapping of layered sedimentary sequences
 In seismic surveying, seismic waves are created and are therefore widely used in the search
by a controlled source and propagate through the for oil and gas.
subsurface.
 The methods are also used, on a smaller scale,
 Some waves return to the surface after refraction for mapping of near-surface layers, locating
or reflection at Geological boundaries within the groundwater aquifers and in site investigation
subsurface. and determination of depth to bedrock.
 Instruments distributed along the surface detect  Seismic surveying can be carried out on land or at
the ground motion caused by these returning sea and is used extensively in offshore geological
waves and hence measure the arrival times of surveys and the exploration for offshore
the waves at different ranges from the source. resources.

10 11 12

 Elasticity is a physical property of a material that is defined as: the ability

of an elastic material to restore its original shape after the removal of the Stress and Strain Types of stress
deforming force.
 Stress is the ratio of applied force F to the area across
 When an elastic material is deformed due to an external force, it experiences
internal forces that oppose the deformation and restore it to its original state if which it acts.
the external force is removed.
 Strain is the deformation caused in the body, and is
 There are various elastic moduli, such as Young's modulus, the shear expressed as the ratio of change in length (or volume) to
modulus, and the bulk modulus, all of which are measures of the inherent original length (or volume).
stiffness of a material as a resistance to deformation under an applied load.
Various moduli apply to different kinds of deformation.

 The elasticity of a material is described by a stress-strain curve, which

shows the relation between stress and strain.

 To understand the propagation of elastic waves we need to describe the

deformation of our medium and the acting stress. The relation between stress
and strain is governed by elastic constants.
13 14 15

 Stress towards the interior  compression.

Normal Stress (Pressure): Forces act
 Stress towards the exterior  tension (extension,
equally in all directions perpendicular to faces
dilatation).
of body, e.g. pressure on a cube in water:

16 17 18
 Axial Stress:  Shear Stress: stress acts parallel to a face of a solid, e.g.
pushing along a table:
 No change in volume.
 Fluids such as water and air do not support shear
stresses.
 Associated with S wave propagation

 stress acts in one direction only.

 change in volume of solid occurs.
 associated with P wave propagation.

19 20 21

Hooke’s Law Hooke’s Law

Stress is proportional to strain:
 At low to moderate strains:
Hooke’s Law applies and a solid
Stress-Strain relation body is said to behave elastically,
i.e. will return to original form when
stress is removed.
 At high strains: the elastic limit is
Hooke’s Law exceeded and a body deforms in a
plastic or ductile manner: it is unable
to return to its original shape, being
permanently strained, or damaged.
 At very high strains: a solid will
fracture, e.g. in earthquake faulting.
23 24

Hooke’s Law Elastic Constants Elastic Constants

 Elastic constants describes the strain of a  Elastic constants are different for different kinds of
material due to an applied stress. stress (twisting, compressing, stretching) and for
Stress = Elastic Modulus * strain different materials.
 Elastic Modulus is the constant of  Based on the relationships between elastic moduli
proportionality of Stress vs Strain.
and Lamé coefficients (λ and μ), the elasticity can be
 The higher the value of the modulus, the
Constant of proportionality is the modulus. It is stronger the material, the smaller the strain quantified by various elastic moduli:
the ratio of stress to strain.
produced by a given stress.

25 26 27
 Elastic Constants Young’s Modulus (E) Bulk modulus: K
 Bulk Modulus (K): Measure of the capacity of the
 Young’s Modulus (E): the ratio of extensional material to be compressed. It can be carried out for
stress to the resulting extensional strain for a solid, liquid, and gas.
 Young’s modulus (stretch modulus): E cylinder being pulled apart at both ends.
 Bulk modulus (incompressibility): K
 Longitudinal strain is proportional to longitudinal
 Shear Modulus (rigidity): μ stress.
 Axial Modulus (Ψ)
 Poisson’s Ratio:

28 29 30

Shear Modulus (μ) Axial Modulus (ψ) Poisson’s Ratio (σ)

 Shear Modulus (μ): Measures the amount of angular
Axial Modulus (ψ): The response to longitudinal stress,
deformation due to the application of a shear stress on  When a material is compressed in one direction, it
similar to Young‘s Modulus, except that strain is uniaxial –
one side of the object. tends to expand in the other two directions
no transverse strain associated with the application of the
longitudinal stress. perpendicular to the direction of compression.
 μ =0 for liquid and gas (no rigidity)

μ = (ΔF/A) / tan θ

31 32 33

Poisson’s Ratio: Elastic Constants

 This Modulus is defined as the ratio of transverse contraction
strain to longitudinal extension strain in the direction of
stretching force .

Seismic waves

34 35
 Seismic waves Seismic waves Seismic waves
 Seismic waves are parcels of elastic strain  There are two groups of seismic waves, body
energy that propagate outwards from a waves and surface waves.
seismic source such as an earthquake or an
explosion. Body waves can propagate through the internal
volume of an elastic solid and may be of two
 Seismic waves travel away from any seismic
source at speeds determined by the elastic types:
moduli (Young’s modulus E; Bulk modulus K; Shear modulus μ. and Compressional waves (the longitudinal, primary or
Axial modulus Ψ) and the densities of the media P-waves of earthquake seismology)
through which they pass. Shear waves (the transverse, secondary or S-
waves of earthquake seismology).
37 38 39

Body waves, P and S Surface waves

 One application of shear wave is in engineering
site investigation where the separate
measurement of Vp and Vs for near-surface
layers allows direct calculation of Poisson’s ratio
and estimation of the elastic moduli, which
provide valuable information on the in situ
geotechnical properties of the ground. These
may be of great practical importance, such as
the value of rippability.

40 41 42

Surface waves Seismic waves

 Surface waves can propagate along the
boundary of the solid.
 Two types of surface waves: Rayleigh waves Velocity of waves
and Love wave
 Rayleigh waves propagate along a free
surface, or along the boundary between two
dissimilar solid media.

43 44
 Velocity of Body waves Velocity of Body waves
 Vp : Velocity of the compressional wave
Vs: Velocity of the shear wave
 For the same material, Vp > Vs.
 The more rigid the material, the higher Vp and Vs.
 Shear waves cannot travel through fluids (Vs =0).

Note that:

46 47 Poisson’s ratio ( ) = Vp/Vs 48

49 50 51

Waves and Ray

Waves and Ray
 A seismic pulse propagates outwards
from a seismic source at a velocity
determined by the physical properties of
the surrounding rocks.

Wave front and Ray path  If the pulse travels through a

homogeneous rock it will travel at the
same velocity in all directions away from
the source so that at any subsequent
time the wavefront, defined as the locus
of all points which the pulse has reached
at a particular time, will be a sphere.
 The propagation velocity of a seismic
wave is the velocity with which the
seismic energy travels through a
medium. 53 54
 Wave front and Ray path Huygens's Principle Ray paths in layered media
 Huygens's Principle is a method of analysis
applied to problems of wave propagation.  At an interface between two rock layers there is a
 It says that “every point on a wave-front could be change of propagation velocity resulting from the
difference in physical properties of the two
considered a source of a secondary spherical layers.
 At such an interface, the energy within an
wavelets which spread out in the forward incident seismic pulse is partitioned into
direction”. transmitted and reflected pulses.
The relative amplitudes of the transmitted and
reflected pulses depends on: the velocities and
densities of the two layers, and the angle of
incidence on the interface.

55 56 57

Ray paths in layered media Ray paths in layered media: Snell Law Ray paths in layered media: Critical angle
 Seismic energy is partitioned  Raypaths are refracted
when waves encounter
materials of different according to Snell’s Law:
acoustic impedance (ρ*V).

 For example when a P wave Sinθ1/V1 = Sinθ2/V2

traveling in one material
strikes the boundary of
another material at an or
oblique angle, the energy
separates into four phases:
Reflected P wave, Reflected S
wave, Refracted P wave and Sinθ1/Sinθ2 = V1/V2
Refracted S wave.

58 59 60

Direct, Critically Refracted, and The Direct Ray

Reflected waves
UNIT THREE

SEISMIC REFRACTION
 The travel time of a direct ray is given by:
Td =X/V1
which defines a straight line of slope = l/V1 passing through the
Direct, reflected and refracted ray paths from a near time–distance origin.
surface source to a surface detector in the case of a simple  The velocity V1 of the wave that goes directly from the source to
two-layer model. a receiver is therefore:
62 V1 = X/Td 63
 When a ray strikes an interface at an incidence angle θ1, there will
be three situations of refracted waves:
 If the velocity decreases across the interface, the ray is
refracted away from the interface.
 If the velocity remains the same, the ray is not bent.
 Refraction from a layer of velocity (V1) to one of velocity (V2).  If the velocity increases across the interface, the ray is bent
Note that Ray paths refract across an interface where velocity toward the interface.
64
changes. 65 66

 In case of V2>V1, if the angle of incidence (θ1)

increases, the angle of refraction (θ2) increases.
 A special situation known as critical refraction, occurs
when the angle of refraction (θ2) reaches 90 degrees.
 The angle of incidence (θ1) that produce a critical
refraction is called the critical angle (θc). In this case,
the Snell’s law shows:

67 68 69

70 71 72
 73 74 75

UNIT FOUR

SEISMIC REFLECTION

76 78

Example of seismic section

Seismic reflection
 In seismic reflection surveys, seismic
energy pulses are reflected from
subsurface interfaces and recorded at
near-normal incidence at the surface.

 The travel times are measured and can be

converted into estimates of depths to the
interfaces.

79 80 81
 x2
T 2  to2 
v2
 This is an equation of
hyperbola, with t0:
T-axis intercept time
 A compressional wave is reflected back at an angle
(θ2) equal to the incident angle (θ1). Note the V-  t0: is the travel time
shaped raypaths from source to receivers. vertically down to the
interface and back up
 Reflection occurs when the acoustic impedance of to the source:
the lower layer (ρ2V2) differs from that of the upper t0 = 2h/V1
layer (ρ1V1). 82 83 84

Example of seismic section

 For long distance from the source, as the offset X Seismic reflection
becomes very large, t0 becomes insignificant, and
therefore,  For critical distance
2 2 (Xc), the reflected and
x x refracted wave have
T 2  to2   2
v 2
v the same arrival time.

Tf = X/V1 = Td
 The straight line for
the refracted wave is
 In this case, the travel time curve (Tf) for reflections tangent to the
recorded at large distances is therefore hyperbola of the
approximately the same as for the direct wave. The reflection.
reflected wave is asymptotic to the direct wave.
85 86 87

Seismic Reflection
Fundamental considerations
 Reflection coefficient.

 Transmission coefficient

 Acoustic impedance.

 Zoeppritz equations.

 Negative polarity reflection

88
 Two-Way Time (TWT) 89 90
 Seismic Reflection

R is the reflection coefficient

T is the transmission coefficient. 91 92 93

DC RESISTIVITY METHOD Applications of Resistivity Surveying

 DC- resistivity method is used in mapping  Groundwater exploration

subsurface horizontal and vertical
UNIT FIVE discontinuities.

ELECTRICAL METHOD
 It utilizes direct currents or low frequency
(DC- RESISTIVITY) alternating currents to investigate the electrical
properties (resistivity) of the subsurface.

 A resistivity contrast between the target and the

background geology must exist.
95 96

Applications of Resistivity Surveying Applications of Resistivity Surveying Current Flow and Ohm's Law

 Mineral exploration and detection of cavities  Waste site exploration  In 1827, Georg Ohm defined an empirical
relationship between the current flowing through a
wire and the voltage potential required to drive that
current:
V = IR

 Ohm found that the current, I, was proportional to the

voltage. The constant of proportionality is called the
resistance of the material (R) and has the units of
voltage (volts) over current (amperes), or Ohm ().
97 98 99
 Resistivity VS Resistance Resistivity VS Resistance Resistivity of Earth’s Materials
 Resistivity values in ohm-m of different rock types and materials:
 Resistance depends on the type of material from which  Resistivity, ρ is a property
the wire is made and the geometry of the wire that describes a material's
(dimensions). Fore example, increasing the length of the ability to transmit electrical R=ρL/A
wire will increase the measured resistance, while current independent of the
decreasing the diameter of the wire will increase the material's geometrical factors.
measured resistance.  Resistivity is the reciprocal of
the conductivity (1/ρ) of the
material. The unit of
Resistivity is ohm-m.
 The unit of conductivity is
Siemens per meter (S/m).
100 101 102

Resistivity of Earth’s Materials Resistivity of Earth’s Materials Archie’s Law

 Important remarks about the resistivity of  Archie’s Law is an Empirical relationship used to
 Resistivity related to rock type:
rocks: determine the bulk resistivity of a saturated porous
 Igneous rocks  highest resistivities
 Rocks are usually porous and pores are filled with rock.
 Sedimentary rocks the most conductive
fluids, mainly water. As a result, rocks are electrolytic
due to their high fluid content
conductors; electrical current is carried out through a where:
 Metamorphic rocks intermediate but
rock mainly by the passage of ions in pore waters. ρ0 = bulk rock resistivity
overlapping resistivities
 There is considerable overlap in resistivity values of ρw = pore-water resistivity
 Resistivity related to rock age:
different rock types. a = empirical constant (0.6 < a < 1)
 Young volcanic rock (Quaternary) ≈10−200
 Identification of a rock type is not possible solely on m = cementation factor (1.3 poor, unconsolidated) < m <
Ωm
the basis of resistivity data. 2.2 (good, cemented or crystalline)
 Old volcanic rock (Precambrian) ≈100−2000
 Resistivity of rocks depends on: porosity, saturation, φ = fractional porosity (Volume of liquid/Volume of rock)
Ωm
103
content of clay and resistivity of pore water (Archie's
104 105
formula)

Current Flow in a Homogeneous Earth Potential Decay Away from the Point Electrode Two Current Electrodes

 Current flow for a single surface electrode:  The voltage drop between any two points on the surface is
 Current flows radially away from the electrode so given by the potential gradient: dV/dr.
that the current distribution is uniform over dV/dr is negative because the potential decreases in the
hemispherical shells centered at the source. direction of current flow.
 Lines of equal voltage (equipotential) intersect the  The potential VM at the internal electrode M is the sum of
the potential contributions VA and VB from the current
lines of equal current at right angles.
source at A and the sink at B.
 The potentials at electrode M and N are:
VM=VA+VB and VN=VA+VB
VM = ρI / 2π (1/AM) + ρ(-I) / 2π (1/MB)
 The potential Vr measured at a distance r is VN= ρI / 2π (AN) + ρ(-I) / 2π (1/NB)

given by: ΔV = VM –VN = ρI / 2π ( 1/AM – 1 / MB – 1 / AN + 1 / NB)

106
Vr = I ρ / 2π r 107 108
 Potential for the General Case True and Apparent Resistivity Electrode configurations

ΔV = VM –VN = ρI / 2π ( 1/AM – 1 / MB – 1 / AN + 1 / NB)  ρ is considered true resistivity of the subsurface if it

is homogeneous.
Therefore,  If the ground is uniform, the resistivity should be
ρ = (2πΔV/I) ( 1/AM – 1 / MB – 1 / AN + 1 / NB)-1 constant and independent of both electrode spacing and
surface location.
We may write also:  If subsurface inhomogeneities exist, the resistivity will
ρ = K ΔV / I MN
vary with the relative positions of electrodes. In this case,
the calculated value (ρ) is called apparent resistivity:
With: ρa = K ΔVMN / I
K = 2π ( 1/AM – 1 / MB – 1 / AN + 1 / NB)-1
 In general, all field data are apparent resistivity. They
K is the Geometric factor are interpreted to obtain the true resistivity of the
subsurface layers.
109 110 111

Field Procedures Field Procedures: HEP Field Procedures: HEP

 There are two main filed procedures for the HEP Mapping mode:
deployment of electrode configurations:
 Horizontal Electrical profiling (HEP)
 The object of HEP is to detect lateral variations in
the resistivity of the subsurface.
 In this case, the current and potential electrodes are
maintained at a fixed separation and progressively
moved along a profile.
 It is employed in mineral prospecting to locate faults
or bodies of anomalous conductivity.
 It is used in geotechnical surveys to determine Example: Observed apparent resistivity profile across a
variations in bedrock depth and the presence of resistive landfill using the Wenner configuration.
113 114
steep discontinuities 112

Field Procedures: Sounding (VES) Field Procedures: Sounding (VES) Field Procedures: Sounding (VES)
 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES):
 VES is used to deduce the variation of resistivity
with depth below a given point on the ground
surface and to correlate it with the available
geological information in order to infer the depths
and resistivities of the layers present.
 Current and potential electrodes are maintained at
the same relative spacing and the whole spread is
progressively expanded about a fixed central point.
As the distance between the current electrodes
increases, so the depth to which the current
penetrates is increased. 116
Development of a sounding curve
115 117
 Field Procedures: Sounding (VES) Types of VES Resistivity Curves
UNIT SIX

GRAVITY METHOD

VES: case of three layers VES: Types of resistivity sounding curves

118 119

INTRODUCTION
Applications of gravity surveying
 Gravity method consists of measuring, studying and
 Hydrocarbon exploration
analyzing variations, in space and time, of the gravity
field of the Earth. This method is considered one of  Geological structures
the fundamental disciplines of geophysics.  Faults location
 Ore bodies exploration
 The objective of exploration work is to associate the  Cavities detection
gravity variations with differences in the distribution  Archaeology
of densities and hence rock types.

121 122 123

The Gravitational Force:

m1
F F Gravitational Acceleration (‫)التسارع الجاذبي‬ Gravitational Acceleration (‫)التسارع الجاذبي‬
m2
r  Newton's second law states that force is
 Newton's law of gravitation states that the mutual  When making measurements of the Earth's
proportional to acceleration. The constant of
attractive force between two point masses, m1 and m2, gravity, we usually don't measure the
proportionality is the mass of the object:
is proportional to one over the square of the distance gravitational force, F. Rather, we measure the
gravitational acceleration, g. F = m2 g
between them. The constant of proportionality is
usually specified as G, the gravitational constant.  Combining Newton's second law with his law of
mutual attraction (F = G m1 m2 /r 2), the
 Thus, the force of one body acting on another is given  The gravitational acceleration is the time rate gravitational acceleration on the mass m2 can be
by Newton’s Gravitational Law : of change of a body's speed under the shown to be:
F = G m1 m2 /r 2 influence of the gravitational force. That is, if
F is the force of attraction, you drop a rock off a cliff, it not only falls, but g = G m1 / r 2
G is the gravitational constant. G = 6.6725985*10-11 N m2 / kg2 (SI) its speed increases as it falls.
r is the distance between the two masses, m1 and m2.
124 125 126
 EARTH’S GRAVITY FIELD
 For Earth’s Gravity Field,  The above equation illustrates two fundamental
properties of gravity:

g= GM/ R2 Acceleration due to gravity (g) does not depend

on the mass (m) attracted to the Earth.

The farther of Earth’s center of mass (the greater

M: Mass of the Earth the R), the smaller the gravitational acceleration.
R: distance from the observation point to Earth’s center.

127 128 129

UNITS of MEASURING GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION

Latitude Dependent Changes in Gravity
 Two features affect the Earth gravity value: the shape
 Gravitational acceleration (gravity) is commonly and rotation of the Earth.
expressed in units of milliGals (mGal).  As an approximation, the shape of the Earth is elliptical,
with the widest portion of the ellipse at the equator.
1 Gal =1cm/s2 = 0.01m/s2  The elliptical shape of the Earth causes the
gravitational acceleration to vary with latitude because Variation of gravity due to elliptic shape of the
the distance between the gravimeter and the earth's Earth.
1mGal = 10-3 Gal = 10- 3 cm/s2 = 10-5 m/s2 g=GM/R²
center varies with latitude.
RB < R A
 Thus, we expect the gravitational acceleration to be Therefore:
smaller at the equator than at the poles, because the gB > g A
surface of the earth is farther from the earth's center at
130
the equator than it is at the poles. 131 132

 Rotation - In addition to shape, the fact that the Earth Latitude Dependent Changes in Gravity
is rotating also causes a change in the gravitational THE REFERENCE GRAVITY FORMULA
acceleration with latitude.
 By assuming the Earth is elliptical with the
 We know that if a body rotates, it experiences an appropriate dimensions, is rotating at the
outward directed force known as a centrifugal force. appropriate rate, and contains no lateral variations
The size of this force is proportional to the distance in geologic structure, we can derive a mathematical
from the axis of rotation and the rate at which the
rotation is occurring. formulation for the Earth's gravitational acceleration
that depends only on the latitude of the observation.
 The size of the centrifugal force is relatively large at the
equator and goes to zero at the poles. This force always
acts away from the axis of rotation. Therefore, this Gravity (g) is the resultant of Gravitational acceleration
force acts to reduce the gravitational acceleration . and Centrifugal acceleration.
133 134 135
  The average value of gravity for a given latitude is HOW DO WE MEASURE GRAVITY
Pôle, φ = 90° approximated by the 1967 Reference Gravity Formula,
Rpole = 6356 Km adopted by the International Association of Geodesy:
 Two ways are used to measure gravity:
gth = 983 217.72 mGal
gth = geq (1 + 0,005278895 sin²(φ) + 0,000023462sin4(φ)) Absolute measurements of gravity (g)

Φ:Latitude of the observation point (degrees) Relative measurements of gravity (g)

φ
geq: theoretical gravity at the equator (978,031.85 mGal).
Equateur, φ = 0°: Ellipsoid reference: Req = 6378 Km; Rpole= 6356 Km
Req = 6378 Km
gth = 978 031.85 mGal  This equation takes into account the fact that the Earth
Ellipsoid reference: is elliptic and rotating about an axis through the poles.
f = (Re –Rp)/Re =
1/298.247
136 137 138

Gravimeters using mass and spring Lacoste-Romberg Gravity meter

Worden Gravity meter
 Instruments of this type are produced by several
manufacturers; LaCoste and Lomberg, Texas
Instruments (Worden Gravity Meter), and Scintrex.
Modern gravimeters are capable of measuring
changes in the Earth's gravitational acceleration with
a precision of 0.001 mgal.
 This precision can be obtained only under optimal
conditions when the recommended field procedures
are carefully followed.

139 140 141

Electronic Gravity Meter CORRECTION OF TEMPORAL VARIATONS

CG-5 AUTOGRAV, SCINTREX CORRECTIONS of GRAVITY DATA  There are changes in the observed gravity that are time
dependent. In other words, these factors cause
 Correction of temporal variations (time dependent) variations in gravity that would be observed even if we
 correction of spatial variations (location dependent) didn't move our gravimeter.
 Two factors cause temporal variations:
 Instrument Drift
Changes in the observed gravity caused by changes
in the response of the gravimeter over time.
 Tidal Effects (Tides)
Changes in the observed gravity caused by the
gravitational attraction of the sun and moon.
142 143 144
 CORRECTION OF SPATIAL VARIATIONS Variation in Gravitational Acceleration Due to
Changes in Elevation FREE AIR CORRECTION
 Free-Air Correction (FAC) is used to account for
Would the two instruments variations in the observed gravitational acceleration
record the same gravitational that are related to elevation variations.
acceleration?  In applying this correction, we mathematically
 Observed Gravity (gs) at a specific location on Earth’s convert our observed gravity values to ones that look
surface is a function of three main components: like they were all recorded at the same elevation.
 The latitude of the observation point, accounted The instrument placed on top  To apply an elevation correction to our observed
for by the theoretical gravity formula. of the step ladder would gravity, we need to know the elevation of every
 The elevation of station (∆R), which changes the record a smaller gravitational gravity station. If this is known, we can correct all of
radius (R). acceleration than the one the observed gravity readings to a common
 The mass distribution (M) in the subsurface, placed on the ground. elevation, usually chosen to be sea level.
relative to the observation point. 145 146 147

 Consider the equation for the gravitational acceleration

(g) as a function of R:  Stations at elevations high above sea level have FREE AIR ANOMALY
lower gravity readings than those near sea level.
 The Free Air Gravity Anomaly is the observed gravity
g = GM/R2 corrected for the latitude and elevation of station.
dg/dR = -2(GM/R3) = -2(g)/R  To compare gravity observations for stations with
different elevations, a Free Air Correction (FAC) must
be added back to the observed values: ∆gfa = gobs - gth + FAC
Assuming average value of g=980625mGal and R=6367Km,
FAC = h x (0.3086 mGal/m)
∆gfa : Free Air gravity Anomaly.
Where h is elevation of the station above sea level.
dg/dR = -0.3086 mGal/m gobs : Gravitational acceleration observed at the station
gth : Theoretical gravitational acceleration

dg/dR = average value for the change in gravity with

increasing elevation.
148 149 150

BOUGUER CORRECTION

 In addition to the gravity readings differing at two

stations because of elevation differences, the
readings will also contain a difference because there
is more mass below the reading taken at a higher
elevation than there is of one taken at a lower  To correct the effect of extra mass, we assume that the
elevation. excess mass underneath the observation point at
 Mountainous areas would have extra mass compared higher elevation can be approximated by a slab of
to areas near sea level, tending to increase the uniform density and thickness.
gravity.
151 152 153
 COMPLETE BOUGUER ANOMALY
 The attraction of such slab is: BOUGUER GRAVITY ANOMALY
BC = 2  The Simple Bouguer gravity anomaly (∆gB) results ∆gBC = gobs - gth + FAC - BC + TC
: Bouguer correction from subtracting the effect of the infinite slab (BC)
: Density of the slab from the Air Free Anomaly (∆gfa).
G: Universal Gravitational constant ∆gBC = gobs - gth + 0.3086h - 0.0419 ρh + TC
h: thickness of the slab (station elevation). ∆gB = ∆gfa – BC
ρ: mean density of the extra mass above
BC = 0.0419 ∆gB = gobs - gth + FAC – BC
sea level (reference)
BC is in mGal; in g/cm3; in meters.
h: elevation
TC is to account for topographic relief in
the vicinity of the gravity station. TC>0
154 155 156

Density of Earth Materials

COMPLETE BOUGUER CORRECTION

 The Bouguer Anomaly reflects changes in mass Example of Observed Bouguer Anomaly map. It
distribution below the surface. reflects changes in mass distribution below the
 Mass excess results in positive anomaly; Mass surface.
deficiency result in negative anomaly. 157 158 159

Gravity Anomaly Over a Buried Sphere Basic Definitions

 Magnetic survey: Measurements of the magnetic field
UNIT SEVEN
or its components at a series of different locations
MAGNETIC METHOD over an area of interest and locating anomalies in
the Earth’s magnetic field.
 The objective is locating concentrations of magnetic
materials or determining depth to basement.
 Most rocks are nonmagnetic, however, certain rock
types contain sufficient magnetic minerals to produce
significant magnetic anomalies.
 Magnetic methods can be performed on land, at
160
sea and in the air. 162
 Applications of Magnetic Survey Magnetic Force Magnetic force
 Charles Augustin de Coulomb, in 1785, showed that the force of  The expression of magnetic force (Fm) is identical to the
 Archaeological ruins attraction or repulsion between electrically charged bodies and gravitational force expression (Fg). There are two
between magnetic poles also obey an inverse square law like important differences:
Basic igneous dykes that derived for gravity by Newton.

 The mathematical expression for the magnetic force  Unlike the gravitational constant, G, the magnetic
experienced between two magnetic monopoles is given by: permeability, µ, is a property of the material in which the
 Metalliferous mineral deposits
two monopoles, p1 and p2, are located. If they are in a
 Geological boundaries including faults vacuum, µ is called the magnetic permeability of free space.
 Unlike m1 and m2, p1 and p2 can be either positive or
 Large-scale geological structures negative in sign. If p1 and p2 have the same sign, the force
Where: µ is a constant of proportionality known as the magnetic
permeability, between the two monopoles is repulsive. If p1 and p2 have
p1 and p2 are the strengths of the two magnetic monopoles, and r is opposite signs, the force between the two monopoles is
163 the distance between the two poles. 164
attractive. 165

MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH UNITS EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

 The magnetic field strength, H, is defined  Given the units associated with force, N, and magnetic  The Earth magnetic field
as: the force per unit pole strength exerted monopoles, Amp-m, the unit of the magnetic field originates largely (98%) from
within and around the Earth's
by a magnetic monopole, p1. strength is Newtons per Ampere-meter, N/(Amp - m).
core. It’s thought to be caused
N/(Amp - m) is referred to Tesla (T).
by motions of liquid metal in the
A nanotesla (nT) is referred to  gamma core.
1nT = 10-9 T = 1 gamma.  The earth's magnetic field can
 The average strength of the Earth's magnetic field is be explained as a dipole at
 The magnetic field strength H is analog to about 50,000 nT. the earth's center, inclined
about 10.9° from Earth’s
the gravitational acceleration, g.
rotational axis dipole.
166 167 168

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD Strength and Direction of Magnetic Field
171

 The earth’s magnetic field is similar to that produced

 Relative to the Earth’s gravity field, the magnetic by a simple bar magnet placed in the center of the  The orientation of compass needle indicates the
field changes rapidly in both magnitude and earth. direction of Earth’s magnetic field.
direction.  The magnetic lines get into the earth from the north  The magnetic field strength at:
 The magnetic field is Horizontal near the equator pole, and get out of it from the south pole. Thus the
and vertical near the poles. The strength at the positive end of the bar magnet points to the south,  geomagnetic pole = 60,000 nT
poles is about twice as that at the equator. and vice versa.  equator = 30,000 nT
 Riyadh = 42,000 nT
 Magnetic field strength varies with latitude.

169 170
 Strength and Direction of Magnetic Field Magnetic Inclination Magnetic Declination

 The geomagnetic field can be described in terms  Magnetic inclination (i):  Magnetic declination (δ):
of: The angle between the magnetic The horizontal angle between the local magnetic
 Inclination, I
line and the horizontal. line and the geographic north.
 i=0 at the equator, and i=90 at
 Declination, δ the poles.
 Total force vector, F  tan(i)=2tan(Φ); where Φ is the
geographic latitude

172 173 174

Map of total intensity of Earth’s magnetic map based Map showing constant inclination of total Map showing constant declination. Contour
on IGRF 1990, contour: 2,500nT magnetic fiels, contour: 10° (based on IGRF 1990) interval: 10°
176 177

176 177 178

MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS

Type of magnetization
MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS Induced magnetization
178 179 180

 Magnetization of rock occurs in two ways:  Fobserved = Freference + Flocal

 It can be induced by Earth’s present magnetic field:  Flocal = Finduced + Fremanent  If a body is placed within an external magnetic
Induced magnetization field (H), the body acquires a magnetization (I),
 Induced part, Finduced : proportional to the ambient
magnetic field (present Earth’s magnetic field) and with intensity proportional to the overall
 It could have formed some time in the past: depends on the susceptibility. magnetic susceptibility (k) of the body.
 Remanant part, Fremanent : remains unchanged if there is
Remnant magnetization. no field present and is independent of ambient
magnetic field. It has formed some time in the past.
 The magnitude is very variable, on the scale of 1000nT.
179 180 181
 MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS
Intensity of induced magnetization Magnetic Susceptibility Type of Magnetic Behavior
181 182 183

The strength of the magnetic field induced by the magnetic


material due to the inducing field is called the intensity of The intensity of magnetization,  The type of magnetism exhibited by a body
magnetization, I. I, is related to the strength of depends on the mineral’s magnetic
The magnitude and direction of magnetization induced within a the inducing magnetic field, H,

material depends on the magnitude and direction of the susceptibility.
external (ambient) field (H) and the ability of the material to through a constant of
be magnetized. proportionality, K, known as the
magnetic susceptibility.  Diamagnetic material,
I=kH The magnetic susceptibility (k,  Paramagnetic material,
a dimensionless quantity) is a  Ferromagnetic material.
I: Intensity of the magnetization of the material (Induced magnetization). measure of the degree to
K: magnetic susceptibility of the material which a substance may be
H: magnitude of the ambient field (Earth’s field).
magnetized.
182 183 184

MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS MAGNETIZATION OF ROCKS

Diamagnetic material, k ˜ -10 -4 Paramagnetic material, k ˜ +10 -4 Ferromagnetic material, k ˜ +10 -1
184 185 186

In some metallic minerals rich in iron,

cobalt, manganese and nickel, atomic
The Diamagnetic mineral, The magnetic susceptibility of magnetic moments align strongly with
such as halite (rock salt) has paramagnetic minerals is external field. Susceptibility on the
order of 10-1 indicate that the
negative and low magnetic positive.
magnetization in the same direction as,
susceptibility. The body and about 1/10 the magnitude of the
acquires a weak magnetization The magnetization in external field. In this case we have a
and opposite to the external paramagnetic is weak but in strong magnetization.
Field. the same direction as the
Under some circumstances, induced
external field.
magnetization may remain in
ferromagnetic materials, even after the
external field is removed (remnant
magnetization).
185 186 187

Magnetic Measurement Instruments TOTAL FIELD MEASUREMENTS Magnetic Anomaly

188 189

 Using Proton procession

 Three types of magnetometers are magnetometer, we measure
frequently used in magnetic surveying. only the magnitude of the total
These are: magnetic field as a function of
position.
 Proton magnetometer
 Cesium vapor magnetometer
 Surveys conducted using the
 Fluxgate magnetometer proton precession
magnetometer do not have the
ability to determine the
direction of the total field as a As Ft is almost parallel to Fe, the observed magnetic anomaly is
function of location. approximated as follow:
Observed Anomaly ∆F= Ft – Fe
187 189
∆F = the component of Fa parallel to F e 190
MAGNETIC SURVEYING & ANOMALIES MAGNETIC SURVEYING & ANOMALIES MAGNETIC SURVEYING & ANOMALIES

190
191 192

MAGNETIC SURVEYING & ANOMALIES REFERENCES

• Keayrey P. and Brooks M., 2002. An introduction to
geophysical exploration. Blacwell Science.
• Lillie, R.J., Whole Earth Geophysics.
• Lowrie, W., 1997. Fundamental Geophysics. Cambridge.
• Reynolds, J.M., 2011. An Introduction to Applied an
Environmental Geophysics. Wiley.
• [Link]; Exploration Geophysics, Gravity Notes.
• [Link] ; Exploration Geophysics, Magnetic Notes.

193 194