FUNDAMENTALS OF MICRO AND

NANOFABRICATION
WEEK 7: LIVE INTERACTION SESSION

Course Instructor: Prof. Sushobhan Avasthi & Prof. Shankar Selvaraja, IISc Bangalore

Teaching Assistant (PMRF): Vikas Pandey, IIT Jodhpur

10-Sept-2024
 2

ABOUT ME
Vikas Pandey

• PhD Scholar,
• Space Technologies,
• Indian Institute of Technology Class
Jodhpur
• Tue 7:00pm
Academic Background
• [Link]
• M. Tech in VLSI (Electronics and
Communication)
• B. Tech in Electronics and
Communication Engineering
YouTube Channel

Professional Experiences • [Link]

• Research and Development Engineer
• Online Faculty
Contact
• Robotics Trainer

Area of Interest • [Link]

• HEMT • pandey.21@[Link]
• Sensors and IoT
• Machine Learning
• Microfabrication
• Additive Manufacturing
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LITHOGRAPHY

Optical Lithography 2
 4

CONTACT AND PROXIMITY PRINTING

Optical Lithography consists of three main types:
a) Contact Lithography
b) Proximity Lithography
c) Projection Lithography (covered later)
Focus of Lecture:
a) Contact Lithography: Direct contact
between the mask and the wafer.
b) Proximity Lithography: A small gap exists
between the mask and wafer.
 5

PROXIMITY PRINTING SETUP

System Components:
a) Light Source: Illuminates the mask.
b) Illuminating Optics: Provides uniform light
on the mask.
c) Gap Between Mask and Wafer: Filled with
air or inert gas (like nitrogen) to prevent
contamination.
Working Principle:
a) Light passes through the mask and
diffracts due to the gap.
b) The image is transferred as a near-field
shadow on the photoresist-coated wafer.
 6

FACTORS AFFECTING PROXIMITY PRINTING

Resolution Depends On:
a) Wavelength (λ) of the illuminating light.
b) Gap (d) between the mask and wafer.
Resolution Formula:
a) 𝑊 = 𝜆 ⋅ 𝑑
b) Smaller wavelength (λ) → better resolution.
c) Larger gap (d) → more diffraction, reducing
resolution.
Practical Limitations:
a) Diffraction: Causes spreading and ripple
effects in the light intensity profile on the
wafer.
 7

CONTACT PRINTING PROCESS

Zero Gap (Hard Contact): Mask is in direct contact
with the wafer.
Advantages:
a) Achieves higher resolution than proximity
printing.
b) Simple, low-cost setup for micro-scale
fabrication.
Disadvantages:
a) Contamination Risk: Mask and wafer contact
can transfer particles or cause scratches.
b) Non-Uniform Contact: Wafer bowing or mask
flatness can introduce unintentional gaps,
leading to defects.
 8

OVER AND UNDER-EXPOSURE

Exposure Dose: The integration of light intensity
over time.
Over-Exposure: Excess energy causes:
a) Corner Rounding: Sharp features become
rounded.
b) Loss of Resolution.
Under-Exposure: Insufficient energy leads to:
a) Larger Features: Width increases, features
become indistinct.
b) Resist Not Properly Exposed: Results in
incomplete development.
 9

CONTACT & PROXIMITY LITHOGRAPHY

a) Simple and Cost-Effective for larger
features and R&D applications.
b) Ideal for MEMS technology and devices
with relatively large feature sizes.
Challenges:
a) Critical dimension limitations due to
wavelength.
b) Mask lifetime decreases with repeated use
due to contact-induced damage.
 10

PROJECTION LITHOGRAPHY
Types of Optical Lithography:
a) Contact Lithography (Mask in contact with
wafer)
b) Proximity Lithography (Small gap between
mask and wafer)
c) Projection Lithography (Large gap, using
projection optics)
Projection Lithography System:
a) Projection Optics: Complex lens system
between mask and wafer.
b) Large Gap: The mask and wafer are
separated by a significant distance.
 11

TYPES
Stepper:
a) Entire mask is uniformly illuminated in one go.
b) Single exposure produces the full circuit on the
wafer.
Scanner:
a) Uses a moving slit to illuminate only part of
the mask at a time.
b) Both the mask and wafer move to complete
the circuit.
Reason for the Shift to Scanner:
a) Uniformity of Illumination: Easier to achieve
uniform light intensity in smaller areas,
ensuring consistent critical dimensions (CD).
 12

IMPORTANCE OF UNIFORM ILLUMINATION

Critical Dimension (CD) Control:
a) Uniform illumination ensures consistent
line width on the wafer.
b) Variations in light intensity cause:
i. CD Gain: Wider features due to lower
illumination.
ii. CD Loss: Narrower features due to
overexposure.
Solution in Scanner:
a) A narrow slit with uniform illumination is
scanned across the mask.
b) Ensures CD uniformity across the wafer.
 13

SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Projection Lithography
System Overview:
a) Laser Source: Argon Fluoride (ArF) laser.
b) Illuminating Optics: Complex optics for
uniform beam shaping.
c) Mask Stage: Holds the mask with the design.
d) Projection Optics: Magnification and focusing
onto the wafer.
e) Wafer Stage: Holds the wafer and moves in
sync with the mask.
Challenges:
a) Alignment: Critical for multilayer circuits.
b) Magnification and Distortion: Must ensure
proper focus and scaling of features.
 14

MISALIGNMENTS
Projection Lithography
Types of Misalignments:
a) Translational (Δx, Δy): Shift in X/Y directions.
b) Rotational: Angular misalignment between mask
and wafer.
c) Magnification Error: Incorrect scaling of features.
d) Trapezoid Distortion: Projection optics introduce
asymmetry.
e) Lens Distortion: Aberrations in the lens cause
errors.
Overlay Measurement Structures:
a) Box-in-Box, Frame-in-Frame, and Bar-in-Bar
techniques measure and correct alignment errors.
b) Alignment markers are placed on each die to track
and correct misalignments.
 15

PROJECTION LITHOGRAPHY
a) Improved Uniformity: Superior CD control through slit
scanning.
b) Scalable for Smaller Features: Ideal for advanced node
lithography (e.g., <20 nm).
c) Uses complex projection optics to form images on the wafer.
d) Allows for a reduction in feature size (e.g., 4X, 5X reduction).
e) Example: A 400 nm feature on the mask can result in a 100
nm feature on the wafer.
f) It is easier to fabricate larger features on the mask, which are
then reduced on the wafer.
Challenges:
a) Complex and Expensive: Advanced optics and control
systems increase cost.
b) Alignment Accuracy: Requires precise overlay alignment for
multilayer circuits.
 16

DIFFRACTION AND LIGHT PROPAGATION

Diffraction Principles:
a) Single slit: Light passing through small
openings creates spherical wavefronts.
b) Multiple slits: Periodic structures generate
interference patterns.
Interference:
a) Created by coherent light sources, where
all photons are in phase.
b) The diffraction angle depends on
wavelength (λ), pitch (P), and order of
diffraction (n).
 17

DIFFRACTION ORDERS
Diffraction Orders:
a) The angle of diffraction is given by:
!⋅#
sin(𝛼) = where n is the diffraction order.
$
Diffraction Patterns:
a) The 0th order is direct transmission.
b) Higher orders (±1,±2) spread out, forming an
interference pattern.
c) Larger pitch results in smaller diffraction angles,
while smaller pitch increases the angle.
Interference and Image Formation:
a) Interference between diffraction orders leads to
constructive and destructive interference.
b) This interference creates the intensity variation
that forms the image on the wafer.
 18

PROJECTION LENS SYSTEM

Projection Lens Role:
a) Captures diffracted light and focuses it onto the
wafer.
b) The numerical aperture (NA) of the lens dictates
how many diffraction orders can be captured.
Numerical Aperture (NA):
a) Defined as:
NA=𝑛 ⋅ sin(𝜃)
i. n: Refractive index (can be air, water, oil).
ii. θ: Angle of light capture.
Effect of NA:
a) Higher NA captures more diffraction orders,
leading to higher resolution.
b) Larger lens means capturing more orders and finer
details in the aerial image.
 19

RESOLUTION AND DIFFRACTION LIMITS

Resolution Formula:
R=𝜆/𝑁𝐴
a) The minimum pitch that can be resolved depends
on the wavelength of light and the system's NA.
Practical Limits:
a) Optical Diffraction Limit: Theoretically, resolution
is limited by the optics.
b) Process Limit: Real-world factors (photoresist,
baking, development) introduce a process factor
(k), refining the resolution to:
𝑅 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝜆/𝑁𝐴
Capturing More Orders:
a) Adding higher diffraction orders reduces feature
size and improves image sharpness.
 20

IMAGE FORMATION ON PHOTORESIST

Image Formation Overview:
a) Intensity patterns formed on the wafer are transferred
onto the photoresist.
b) Image contrast leads to solubility changes in the
photoresist, which enables pattern transfer.
Ideal Image:
a) Ideally, the intensity pattern should be a step-like
function.
b) In reality, it is more sinusoidal or oscillatory.
Modulation Transfer Function (MTF):
a) MTF quantifies image contrast:
!!"# "!!$%
𝑀𝑇𝐹 =
!!"# #!!$%
a) MTF of 1: Perfect image reproduction.
b) MTF of 0: No contrast; image is beyond resolution
limits.
 21

IMAGE TRANSFER ONTO PHOTORESIST

Perfect Imaging Scenario:
a) Ideal Case: High image contrast with perfect
photoresist contrast results in a sharp pattern.
b) Both intensity profile and photoresist have step-like
behavior, leading to perfect reproduction.
Practical Case 1:
a) Non-ideal image contrast but high contrast
photoresist.
b) Photoresist thresholding can still reproduce a sharp
pattern despite a less-than-perfect intensity profile.
Practical Case 2:
a) Non-ideal image contrast and sloped resist contrast
(real-world case).
b) The pattern is transferred with sidewall slopes, leading
to slightly less sharp features.
c) Development and baking steps can help improve the
sidewall profile.
 22
DEPTH OF FOCUS (DOF) AND WAFER FLATNESS
Depth of Focus (DOF):
a) Defines the range of focus within which image quality
is acceptable.
b) Similar to focusing in photography: slight deviations
from focus don't immediately degrade image quality.
Wafer Flatness:
a) Real wafers have flatness variations, leading to
defocus issues.
b) The DOF allows for some tolerance in wafer flatness
without affecting image quality.
Defocus and Optical Path Length Difference (OPD):
a) OPD arises due to different angles of diffracted orders.
b) Large numerical aperture (NA) increases OPD, leading
to defocus effects.
 23
OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE AND PHASE REVERSAL
Effect of OPD:
a) OPD = λ: No phase difference; no impact
on image.
b) OPD = λ/2: Phase difference of π, causing
image reversal.
c) OPD = λ/4: Phase difference of π/2, leading
to frequency doubling (undesirable due to
poor contrast).
Implications:
a) Misalignment or defocus can result in
image reversal or doubling, affecting the
accuracy of the pattern.
 24

PRACTICAL RESOLUTION
Coherence of Light:
a) Partially coherent light is used in practice rather
than perfectly coherent light.
b) Partial coherence refers to the spread of photon
phases due to a light source's finite size.
Effect on Resolution:
a) Partially coherent light allows capturing more
diffraction orders, improving resolution.
b) The resolution limit improves with partial
coherence:
#
i. 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
%& '()
ii. σ: Partial coherence factor.
c) Partially coherent light enhances practical
resolution compared to fully coherent sources.
 25

SURFACE REFLECTION IN LITHOGRAPHY

Reflection at Interfaces:
a) When light hits the photoresist, some is
reflected at the air/photoresist interface and
at the photoresist/substrate interface.
b) These reflections create undesirable patterns
such as standing waves, which affect the
image quality on the photoresist.
Problem:
a) Interference between incident and reflected
light can lead to non-uniform exposure in the
photoresist, causing issues like standing
waves and pattern roughness.
 26

STANDING WAVES AND SURFACE REFL.

Standing Waves Formation:
a) Reflected light from interfaces creates
interference patterns (standing waves).
b) Variation in light intensity through the
photoresist causes non-uniform exposure.
Undesirable Effects:
a) Creates wavy sidewalls and roughness in the
photoresist pattern, which can be transferred
to the underlying material during etching.
Objective:
a) Achieve uniform exposure to ensure smooth
sidewalls and proper pattern formation.
 27

ANTI-REFLECTIVE COATINGS (ARC)

a) ARC is applied to reduce reflections and standing
waves by introducing a π-phase shift between the
incident and reflected beams.
b) Types of ARC:
i. Top Anti-Reflective Coating (TARC) – applied
on top of the photoresist.
ii. Bottom Anti-Reflective Coating (BARC) –
applied beneath the photoresist.
Phase Shifting:
a) ARC introduces a phase difference between the
reflected beams, causing destructive interference
that reduces reflection.
Result:
a) ARC ensures uniform exposure and smooth
sidewalls during lithography.
 28

RIGHT ARC PARAMETERS

Choosing ARC Refractive Index:
a) The refractive index of ARC should satisfy
$
the condition: 𝑛!"# = 𝑛%&'(')*+,+( ⋅
𝑛+-.+()/(*
b) Thickness of ARC should be λ/4n, where
nnn is the refractive index of the ARC.
ARC Effectiveness:
a) Proper selection of ARC thickness and
refractive index minimizes reflections and
helps achieve smooth and uniform
patterns.
 29
SWING CURVES AND CRITICAL DIMENSION (CD) UNIFORMITY
Swing Curve:
a) The swing curve shows the relationship between
photoresist thickness and critical dimension (CD).
b) Without ARC, changes in photoresist thickness
lead to significant variations in CD due to standing
waves.
Impact of ARC on CD:
a) ARC helps stabilize CD by reducing standing
waves and reflection effects.
b) Optimal BARC thickness (e.g., 80 nm) minimizes
CD variation and improves process uniformity.
Practical Considerations:
a) Ensure ARC thickness and refractive index are
optimized for the specific lithography process to
maintain CD uniformity and enhance yield.
 30

PROBLEM 1
In optical lithography, the resolution of the
proximity printing depends on:
a) Gap between the mask and the wafer
b) Wavelength of the light used
c) Both
d) None of the above
 31

PROBLEM 1
In optical lithography, the resolution of the
proximity printing depends on:
a) Gap between the mask and the wafer
b) Wavelength of the light used
c) Both
d) None of the above

The resolution of proximity printing depends on the gap between

the mask and the wafer and the wavelength of the light used, as
both factors affect the diffraction and the resultant image
resolution.
 32

PROBLEM 2
Depth of focus will increase:
a) if λ (wavelength) increases and NA
(Numerical Aperture) decreases
b) if λ decreases and NA increases
 33

PROBLEM 2
Depth of focus will increase:
a) if λ (wavelength) increases and NA
(Numerical Aperture) decreases
b) if λ decreases and NA increases

The depth of focus increases with larger wavelengths (λ) and

smaller numerical apertures (NA). Increasing the wavelength and
reducing NA decreases the diffraction, providing a larger focus
tolerance.
 34

PROBLEM 3
In continuation to the previous question, the
resolution limit holds for which boundary
condition (in terms of spacing g):
0!
a) 1
<𝑔<𝜆
0!
b) 𝜆 < 𝑔 < 1
0!
c) 𝜆 < 𝑔 > 1
0!
d) 𝜆 > 𝑔 < 1
 35

PROBLEM 3
In continuation to the previous question, the
resolution limit holds for which boundary
condition (in terms of spacing g):
0!
a) 1
<𝑔<𝜆
This condition ensures that the gap
0!
b) 𝜆 < 𝑔 < 1
(g) between the mask and wafer
falls within the limits of the
0! resolution capabilities defined by
c) 𝜆 < 𝑔 > 1 the wavelength and mask width.
0!
d) 𝜆 > 𝑔 < 1
 36

PROBLEM 4
Which projection system provides high
throughput and why?
a) Stepper, because we are illuminating the
whole mask in one go
b) Scanner, because we are illuminating the
whole mask in one go
c) Stepper, because we are illuminating the
mask via a slit
d) Scanner, because we are illuminating the
mask via a slit
 37

PROBLEM 4
Which projection system provides high
throughput and why?
a) Stepper, because we are illuminating the
whole mask in one go
b) Scanner,
The stepper because we are the
system illuminates illuminating
entire mask inthe
a
whole mask
single step, in one
resulting go throughput compared
in faster
to the scanner, which uses a slit to illuminate the
c) Stepper, because we are illuminating
mask sequentially.
the
mask via a slit
d) Scanner, because we are illuminating the
mask via a slit
 38

PROBLEM 5
To tackle overlay misalignment, what kind of
measurement structures are used:
a) Box-in-Box
b) Frame-in-Frame
c) Bar-in-Bar
d) None of the above
 39

PROBLEM 5
To tackle overlay misalignment, what kind of
measurement structures are used:
a) Box-in-Box
b) Frame-in-Frame
c) Bar-in-Bar
d) None of the above
Overlay misalignment is measured using structures such as
Box-in-Box, Frame-in-Frame, and Bar-in-Bar, which
accurately measure misalignment in different layers during
the lithography process.
 40

PROBLEM 6
What is the condition for constructive
interference for a source of given wavelength (λ)
and pitch (P):
a) sin α = nλ/P
b) sin α = ((n+1)λ)/P
c) sin α = nλ/2P
d) sin α = ((n+1)λ)/2P
 41

PROBLEM 6
What is the condition for constructive
interference for a source of given wavelength (λ)
and pitch (P): Constructive interference occurs
a) sin α = nλ/P when the path difference is an
b) sin α = ((n+1)λ)/P integer multiple of the
wavelength. The angle of
c) sin α = nλ/2P diffraction (α) satisfies the
d) sin α = ((n+1)λ)/2P condition sin 𝛼 = & , where n is
$%

the order of diffraction.

 42

PROBLEM 7
Calculate the Numerical Aperture (NA) of the
projection lens for dry systems, given that θp
equals 60 degrees.
a) √3/2
b) 1/2
c) 1
d) 1/√3
 43

PROBLEM 7
Calculate the Numerical Aperture (NA) of the
projection lens for dry systems, given that θp
equals 60 degrees.
a) √3/2 Numerical Aperture (NA) is
b) 1/2 calculated using the formula
NA=sin 𝜃' .
c) 1
For 𝜃' = 60∘ , sin 60∘ = 3/2 .
d) 1/√3
 44

PROBLEM 8
The practical resolution limit of projection
lithography (including the photoresists, baking,
development processes, etc.) is:
a) Preso = 2k(NA)/λ
b) Preso = 2k(λ)/NA
c) Preso = 2k(λ+1)/NA
d) Preso = 2k(λ+1)/(NA+1)
 45

PROBLEM 8
The practical resolution limit of projection
lithography (including the photoresists, baking,
development processes, etc.) is:
a) Preso = 2k(NA)/λ The practical resolution
of projection
b) Preso = 2k(λ)/NA lithography depends on
c) Preso = 2k(λ+1)/NA the wavelength (λ),
numerical aperture
d) Preso = 2k(λ+1)/(NA+1) (NA), and a process
factor (k), which
includes effects from
resist processing,
development, and
baking.
 46

PROBLEM 9
For a 50% fill factor and 1:1 line/space grating,
what will be the range for modulation transfer
function (MTF):
a) 0≥MTF≤1
b) 0≥MTF≥1
c) MTF≥1
d) MTF=2
 47

PROBLEM 9
For a 50% fill factor and 1:1 line/space grating,
what will be the range for modulation transfer
function (MTF):
The modulation transfer function
a) 0≥MTF≤1 (MTF) measures the contrast
b) 0≥MTF≥1 between an image's maximum and
minimum intensity. For a 50% fill
c) MTF≥1 factor and 1:1 line/space grating,
d) MTF=2 the MTF ranges from 0 (no
contrast) to 1 (perfect contrast).
 48

PROBLEM 10
In an ideal condition, perfect image transfer is
possible if the resist contrast curve is a:
a) quadratic function
b) impulse function
c) step function
d) hyperbolic function
 49

PROBLEM 10
In an ideal condition, perfect image transfer is
possible if the resist contrast curve is a:
a) quadratic function
A perfect resist contrast
b) impulse function curve is a step function,
c) step function indicating a sharp
threshold between
d) hyperbolic function exposed and unexposed
regions, resulting in clear
and well-defined patterns
on the resist.
 50

FEEL FREE TO ASK QUESTIONS.

Next topic: Optical Lithography 3 & E-Beam Lithography

 51

Vikas Pandey
Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur
[Link]
[Link]
pandey.21@[Link]