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Review on electro hydrostatic actuator for flight control

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DOI: 10.1080/14399776.2016.1169743

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 International Journal of Fluid Power

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Review on electro hydrostatic actuator for flight

control

Navatha Alle, Somashekhar S. Hiremath, Singaperumal Makaram,

Karunanidhi Subramaniam & Apratim Talukdar

To cite this article: Navatha Alle, Somashekhar S. Hiremath, Singaperumal Makaram,

Karunanidhi Subramaniam & Apratim Talukdar (2016): Review on electro hydrostatic actuator
for flight control, International Journal of Fluid Power, DOI: 10.1080/14399776.2016.1169743

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 International Journal of Fluid Power, 2016
[Link]

Review on electro hydrostatic actuator for flight control

Navatha Allea, Somashekhar S. Hiremathb, Singaperumal Makaramb , Karunanidhi Subramaniama and
Apratim Talukdara
a
Research Centre Imarat, Hyderabad, India; bDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Electro Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA) is an emerging aerospace technology that aims at replacing Received 15 May 2015
centralised hydraulic system by a self-contained and localised direct drive actuator system. EHA Accepted 5 March 2016
has become an important part of modern flight control systems due to the increased efficiency, KEYWORDS
reduced leakages and lower overall weight compared to conventional hydraulic systems. Electro hydrostatic actuators;
This paper reviews literature (in English language only) published in the period 1990 to 2015 fault tolerant system;
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 04:37 15 April 2016

and available at major technical university libraries or e-journals. It examines the advantages, multidisciplinary modelling;
limitations and possible configurations of the EHA. The paper also includes control strategies, centralised hydraulic system;
reliability and fault tolerant techniques along with the thermal aspects of the EHA system. EHA flight control
is a multi-domain system consisting of electrical, mechanical, hydraulic and control system.
It is treated as a mechatronic system and review of publications related to multi-disciplinary
modelling/simulation approaches have been presented in the paper. The various issues in
design optimisation of EHA for flight application are elaborated. The review concludes by
summarising the scope for further research in the area of redundancy strategies and approaches
for integrated vehicle health management.

1. Introduction control systems on an aircraft are classified into two

categories: primary flight control system and second-
Actuation of flight surfaces in aircraft have evolved over
ary flight control system. Primary flight control system
the last century from systems using simple mechanical
in an aircraft controls all components that safely guide
linkages actuated by the pilot to complex electronic sys-
an airplane during flight, which include the ailerons,
tems that manoeuvre large loads and have some form of
the elevator and the rudder. The primary flight surfaces
redundancy. In the previous century, the elimination of
control the three main axes of the aircraft’s orientation
mechanical linkages and replacing them with electrically
which are yaw, pitch and roll. The rudder, elevator and
controlled valves had, led to the concept of Fly-By-Wire
ailerons control these respectively. Secondary flight con-
(FBW) actuation system. Over the last few decades the
trol system improves the performance characteristics of
performance demands for flight surface actuation have
an aircraft or relieves the pilot of using excessive control
increased and led to the desire of replacing the FBW actu-
force, namely the landing gear, flaps and trim systems. A
ation system with Power-By-Wire (PBW) actuation system.
validation of PBW actuation system on a primary flight
The latest form of flight surface actuation uses PBW sys-
control surface of a tactical aircraft has been done by
tems, which are modular, lower in weight and fault tolerant
replacing the standard hydraulic system with Electrically
actuators embedded in the flight surface that require only
Powered Actuation Design (EPAD) system that were
the attachment of power and control wires. The need of
installed on the left aileron of the F/A-18B system air-
PBW actuation system for the next generation all-electric
craft (Jensen et al. 2000).
aircraft concept has been explained by Botten et al. (2000).
The PBW actuation system is of three types; Electro
Croke and Herrenschmidt (1994) have attempted to bring
Mechanical Actuation, Electro Hydrostatic Actuation
out the status and capability of past, present and planned
and Integrated Actuator Package (IAP). Electro
development aimed to support the PBW initiatives. Alden
Mechanical Actuator (EMA) uses a ball screw gear and
(1991, 1993) has summarised the results of investigation on
mechanical linkage to couple an electric motor to a flight
PBW till the 90’s and brought out a broad mix of electrical
control surface. They provide a good modular design,
actuation concepts which have been evaluated.
ease of control, no leakage since fluid is not used for
PBW actuation systems have been developed to
power transmission. But they add a backlash due to the
perform the functions of flight control systems. Flight

CONTACT Somashekhar S. Hiremath somashekhar@[Link]

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 2 N. Alle et al.

use of ball screw and failure of which leads to jamming of tolerance capability of the EHA system. The thermal
the actuator because of solid contaminants. In contrast aspects of the EHA system has been discussed in Section
to EMA, EHA uses hydraulic fluid for the power trans- 9 and various approaches for design optimisation have
mission to the flight surface. It is totally self-contained been elaborated in Section 10. Some of the published
within the actuator assembly. Hydrostatic actuation sys- applications of the EHA have been briefly described in
tem has a closed cycle architecture in which the return Section 11. The paper concludes in Section 12 with a
flow from the actuator goes directly back to the inlet summary of the current state-of-the-art on EHA system
of the pump. This closed cycle architecture allows it to and a discussion on the areas for further research work.
be developed into a PBW actuation system. IAP is an
alternative implementation of the EHA design principle 2. Electro hydrostatic actuator
which differs in the type of motor and pump used. In
contrast to EHA, IAP uses a unidirectional fixed speed EHA is a PBW technology that replaces a traditional
electric motor to drive a variable displacement pump centralised hydraulic actuation system, by modular sub-
that controls fluid flow to the actuator. With the pump systems. Instead of using a centralised hydraulic circuit
rotating at constant speed, a separate control mecha- and power lines through the aircraft, modular hydraulic
nism varies the swash plate angle within the pump, and actuators with electric signal wires are used. The EHA
is therefore able to continuously vary the fluid flow to is a self-contained hydraulic system consisting of a
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the actuator. When the swash plate passes through the Brushless DC (BLDC) motor, bi-directional pump, accu-
over-centre position, fluid flow is reversed, thus chang- mulator, control elements, hydraulic actuator and con-
ing actuator direction. Navarro (1997) has described an troller built on a central manifold. The block diagram of
EHA configuration testing methodology to demonstrate a typical EHA is shown in Figure 1. The controller sends
the applicability of PBW technology on a primary flight the electric control signal to the servo motor accord-
control system. The three types of actuation systems – ing to the input instruction and the servo motor takes
centralised hydraulic system, EHA and EMA have been this electrical signal and gives the corresponding rota-
described and the advantages in choosing EHA are elab- tional direction and speed to the pump, which in turn
orated by Vladimirov and Forde (2006). sends the hydraulic flow to the piston end and makes a
This paper gives a review of the works published by pressure difference on both sides of the piston. The pis-
various researchers in the field of EHA system. Section ton, which is driven by this pressure difference, makes
2 elaborates about the working of EHA system. Section the piston rod to move out. The sensor on the piston
3 includes advantages and disadvantages of EHA system rod sends the information of displacement back to the
over the conventional hydraulic system. Section 4 deals controller. As the piston moves, it has to sustain elastic
with the several configurations of EHA and highlights force, friction force, damping force and load force. The
on the recent developments of pump-motor packages of control elements include the Non Return Valves (NRV),
EHA system. Section 5 discusses the various components Pressure Relief Valves (PRV) and the bypass valve. The
of EHA and the developments in their fields. Section 6 NRVs are used as anti-cavitation valves and the PRVs
explores the various control strategies available for EHA are used to limit the system pressure. In case of any fail-
system. Section 7 discusses the need and the approach ure, the bypass valve will be activated, which cuts off the
for multidisciplinary modelling and simulation of the pump-actuator circuit and the flow from one chamber
EHA system. Section 8 deals with the reliability and fault to other takes place through the bypass valve orifice till

Figure 1. Block diagram of EHA system.

 International Journal of Fluid Power 3

the actuator attains a balanced (equilibrium) condition system is easier to handle and replace in case of a fault as
and stops. The accumulator can be used as a hydraulic only electrical and signal cables need to be reconnected.
secondary source which enables the reinjection of the This improves the maintainability of the flight control
fluid corresponding to the pump leakage in the hydraulic systems.
circuit and also used when there is an insufficient inline EHA consumes less power than conventional hydrau-
pressure in the flow line to avoid cavitation. Bossche lic actuation systems. Unlike the centralised system
(2006) has discussed the performance achieved for an where the hydraulic pump runs continuously, the EHA
Airbus A380 flight control EHA and highlighted some draws electrical power from the common electrical
lessons learnt. The A380 is the first commercial plane power source only when the actuator is in working con-
that offers to the operators and passengers the perfor- dition. When the motor stops operating, the internal
mance and weight benefits associated to the reduced pressure holds the actuator stationary (Habibi 2000). The
number of centralised hydraulic systems, together with EHA systems do not have the loss due to throttling and
the added margin of safety provided by more reliable hence have higher efficiency.
and dissimilar flight control actuation system. For many
years there has been an understanding that EHA is sim- 3.2. Limitations
ple replacement to centralised power pack system. Till
recently, understanding the additional advantages by In spite of its several advantages, the EHA system suf-
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optimising the system configuration have been a chal- fers from some major drawback. When the conventional
lenge. The requirement is of course, to advance from central hydraulic power supply is replaced by EHA, the
simple system to energy optimised systems. The effects frequency width and stiffness is decreased. To overcome
of flight control in both dynamic and energy consump- the drawback, Rongjie et al. (2009) proposed a novel
tion by substituting the conventional hydraulic actuator structure of EHA associated with a power regulator. The
with EHA has been discussed by Hu et al. (2014). response is decided by the characteristics of motor or
pump which may not satisfy the requirement of system
response. EHA is more susceptible to cross-coupling
3. Advantages and limitations of EHA
effects in a multivariable system (Habibi 2000).
The EHA is a superior system when compared to the con-
ventional, centralised hydraulic system. Nevertheless, it 4. Different configurations of EHA
has some drawbacks too. The advantages and limitations
of EHA in comparison with the conventional hydraulic There are several working configurations of the EHA sys-
system are detailed below. tem that are available. Some of the EHA can be with fixed
displacement Pump and Variable Motor speed or with
Variable displacement Pump and Fixed Motor speed or
3.1. Advantages
with Variable displacement pump and Variable Motor
The conventional hydraulic system uses a centralised speed. Fu et al. (2011) in their work on control strategies
power pack in flight and uses a large amount of pipe for EHA have highlighted the relative merits of the dif-
lines and joints, which leads to severe leakage and pres- ferent configurations. The three different configurations
sure drop problems. The EHA on the other hand, draws and the research work addressed using these configura-
electrical power from an on-board source and converts tions are elaborated in the following sub sections.
the low power electrical input command into motion.
It improves the reliability of the system by eliminating
the central hydraulic power supply and replacing the 4.1. Fixed pump and variable motor
hydraulic pipe lines by electric power cables thereby sim- Figure 2 shows a fixed pump and variable motor
plifying the aircraft layout. EHA’s also have lower weight (FPVM) configuration of EHA. It consists of a fixed
compared to the bulky conventional hydraulic systems displacement pump and a variable speed motor. The
since they reduce the cumbersome internal routing of bi-directional pump rotates at variable speeds driven
piping which further leads to a minimised fluid contam- by an electrical motor. FPVM-EHA has found appli-
ination and lesser leakage concerns. cations in many aircrafts but there are still some prob-
EHA offer a high degree of combat survivability of lems like the frequency band width and stiffness that
aircraft flight control systems because of all the compo- need proper solutions. Rongjie et al. (2009) presented
nents necessary to operate the actuator are collocated a FPVM-EHA associated with a power regulator that
with the actuator (Kang et al. 1995). improved the system performances through optimi-
Centralised hydraulic systems are also not very eco- sation of the supplied power. The FPVM configura-
nomical to operate because of their higher maintenance tion of EHA is considered to have a simpler structure
costs and amount of time required to replace faulty and higher efficiency than EHA-VPFM. Bellad (2014)
items. This results in longer downtime for the aircraft. developed a modular FPVM-EHA and a fuzzy PD
A single compact self-contained hydraulic servo actuator controller for position tracking of the actuator.
 4 N. Alle et al.

pressure inside. The bypass valve cuts off the hydraulic

circuit to make the actuator work in damping bypass
mode when failure of system occurs. The relief valves can
limit the maximum pressure of the hydraulic system. In
EHA-VPVM mode, the displacement and rotating speed
of pump can be adjusted simultaneously, therefore, it can
combine the advantages of the other two types of EHA.

5. Subsystems of EHA
Hydraulic pump, motor and actuator are the main sub
systems of EHA. The motor controls the speed and direc-
tion of rotation of the hydraulic pump and hence con-
trols the forward and backward motion of the actuator.

5.1. Hydraulic pump

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Hydraulic pump in the EHA is used to convert the

mechanical energy received from the electric motor
into hydrostatic pressure and flow. Different types of
pumps are used in different configurations of EHA like
the external gear pumps, internal gear pumps, axial pis-
ton pumps and vane pumps. Gear pumps are essentially
Figure 2. Fixed pump variable motor (FPVM) EHA (Kang, Jiao et of the fixed displacement type, axial piston pumps and
al. 2008). vane pumps can be either of the fixed displacement type
or of the variable displacement type. McCullough (2011)
4.2. Variable pump and fixed motor discussed two main forms of hydrostatic actuation sys-
tems – one which uses a variable-displacement piston
Figure 3 shows a Variable pump and fixed motor pump and another that uses a fixed-displacement exter-
(VPFM) configuration of EHA. Here the motor speed nal gear pump.
is fixed and the pump displacement is varied by a servo Gear pumps are suitable for high temperature appli-
motor. The swash plate angle of the axial piston pump cations because of their simple structure, low cost, and
is changed using the servo motor. The EHA-VPFM has higher reliability (Xu et al. 2010). They have redesigned
faster dynamic response than EHA-FPVM, but the effi- a gear pump to suit high temperature environment
ciency is comparatively low. of about 403 K. The gear and its house were made of
the same material and all seals and the bearings in the
pump were improved to withstand at high tempera-
4.3. Variable pump and variable motor
tures. High speed rotation of the gear pump makes it
Figure 4 shows a Variable pump and variable motor particularly suitable for EHA (Gendrin and Dessaint
(VPVM) configuration of EHA. It consists of a bi-­ 2012). The meshing topology provides the lubrication
directional variable displacement pump and two servo but also leads to backlash effect. According to Ivantysyn
motors that adjust the rotational speed of pump and and Ivantysynova (2003), the internal gear pumps can
the displacement of pump respectively. In this system, achieve distinctly lower non-uniformity grade of the
an electrically driven variable displacement servo axial flow rate. Manring and Kasaragadda (2003) concluded
piston pump is used as the bi-directional variable pump. that it is advantageous to design an external gear pump
The displacement of the pump can be adjusted by chang- with a large number of teeth on the driving gear and a
ing the angle of swash plate through one servo motor. fewer number of teeth on the driven gear as it tends to
The rotational speed of pump is adjusted by the other reduce both the physical pump size without reducing
servo motor. As discussed by Zhang et al. (2010) the the volumetric displacement of the pump and the ampli-
structure of EHA-VPVM consists of a hydraulic system tude of the flow pulsation, while increasing the natural
with re-feeding circuit, bypass valve, relief valves and harmonic frequencies of the machine. These points can
symmetrical actuator. The re-feeding circuit includes be used while designing an external gear pump for an
accumulator and check valves, is used to compensate EHA in flight control actuation system where size and
for the leakage of hydraulic system, and supply oil when volumetric displacement are of utmost importance.
high flow rate is required in a short time. A low pressure Variable vane pumps use a series of extending and
gas charged accumulator re-feeds the two hydraulic lines retracting vanes whose position is dependent on the
through check valves in order to maintain a minimum rotary orientation of the central lobe to which they
 International Journal of Fluid Power 5
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Figure 3. Variable pump fixed motor (VPFM) EHA.

Figure 4. Variable pump variable motor (VPVM) EHA (Zhang et al. 2010).

are attached to. To vary the volumetric displacement, the electric motor. Variable displacement in axial pis-
the lobe is shifted in its chamber back and forth to ton pumps is achieved through swash plate arrangement
alter the volume of fluid that the vanes can displace. driven electrically by a secondary high response elec-
Although simple and compact, variable vane pumps are tric motor. Anderson (1991) has listed down the advan-
not employed in hydrostatic circuits for flight surface tages of using variable displacement pump in EHA like
actuators since they require a speed of at least 52.4 rad/s reduced package heating, higher actuator stiffness and
(500 rpm) and they cannot displace enough fluid at a lower package size. A detailed explanation of how these
higher pressure (Eaton Hydraulic Training Services parameters are advantageous when a variable displace-
2006). ment pump is used in EHA is given in Anderson’s paper.
Axial piston pumps can be either fixed displacement Bo et al. (2005) described an electrically driven varia-
type or variable displacement type. A typical bidirec- ble displacement, bidirectional axial piston pump where
tional axial piston pump contains three ports, two the swash plate is driven by servomotor and segment
reversible input/output and one smaller port that collects gear arrangement instead of servo valve and the cylin-
the leakage flow. Flow from a fixed displacement, axial der. In such type of arrangement, the back drivability
piston pump can be controlled by varying the speed of of the actuator can be prevented by reducing the swash
 6 N. Alle et al.

plate angle to zero when required. Hence due to above is mechanically and electrically more robust and when
advantages and because of the higher response; variable coupled with efficient controller electronics can pro-
displacement, bidirectional axial piston pump are ideal vide high efficiency and fast dynamic response over a
for flight control applications. Their only disadvantage wide operating speed range with low electrical losses.
is their added complexity. High performance BLDC servomotors are powered
and controlled by a Pulse Width Modulation-Vector
5.2. Electric motor Source Inverter (PWM-VSI) and Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor (IGBT) inverter stage. This has allowed BLDC
Electric motor drives the hydraulic pump of the EHA motors to attain fast response of torque control and low
and is one of its most critical components from the point torque ripple (Matsuse et al. 2013). Wheeler et al. (2004)
of view of actuator control. Following are some of the recommended the use of matrix convertor permanent
recent developments in the field of electric motors that magnet motor drive for EHA that are used in aerospace
have made the realisation of PBW systems like the EHA applications due to advantages in size, weight and the
a reality. absence of the requirement for electrolytic capacitors.
Flight control application requires a compact motor The latest research is now towards adopting silicon car-
with high power density and acceleration capacity. The bide and gallium nitride as materials for power sem-
use of high energy density rare earth permanent mag- iconductor devices in motor drives. For the EHAs to
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nets to replace electromagnetic poles of motor and the be used in critical flight control applications, the BLDC
development of electronic commutation circuits for motor would require a reliable control algorithm which
electric motors have helped in the development of high would ensure safe start-up and operation. Hubik et al.
performance brushless motors for aerospace applica- (2008) dealt with the analysis and simulation of the
tions. These motors are without the brushes, slip rings start-up phase of the BLDC motor. They have discussed
or mechanical commutator that are present in conven- the development of control algorithms and electronics
tional DC motors or synchronous AC motors. Here the to improve run up performance of the BLDC motor in
armature of the motor is placed on the stator. This solves EHA for safety critical applications that would allow
the brush-linked problems such as Electro Magnetic closed loop control much sooner in the start-up phase
Interference and its associated sparking. The absence than was previously possible.
of commutator reduces the motor length. Hence, the
lateral stiffness of the rotor is greater, permitting higher
5.3. Hydraulic actuator
speed required for servo applications. Conduction
of heat through the motor frame is improved. Hence Hydraulic actuator is the working element of an EHA
increase in electric loading is possible and may provide system, used to covert hydraulic pressure and flow into
a higher specific torque and higher efficiency. These type force and velocity of the actuator. In aircraft, EHA is
of electric motors are now widely used for flight control used to transfer linear motion and power to the linkages
and are classified on the basis of the wave shape of their of control surfaces or engines. Two types of actuator
induced electro motive force (e.m.f.), i.e. sinusoidal and designs are being used in EHA system - asymmetric
trapezoidal. The sinusoidal type is known as Permanent design (single rod) and symmetric design (double rod).
Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) or Permanent EHA with symmetric actuators are generally used in
Magnet Brushless AC Motor and the trapezoidal type flight control actuation systems whereas asymmetric
is called as permanent magnet Brushless DC (BLDC) actuators are preferred for industrial applications.
Motor. The choice of the type of motor would depend A symmetrical actuator specifically designed for
on the type of power supply on board the system, e.g. the EHA system is reported by Habibi and Goldenberg
if an available AC power supply on an aircraft were to (2000). This has the following advantages over asym-
directly drive the motor, PMSM will be used. metric actuator as:
From the literature it has been noted that the over-
• Volume of hydraulic fluid displaced by the two pri-
whelming use of the BLDC motor in the EHA system
mary chambers of the actuator are equal,
enhances the performance. The only major disadvan-
• Equal maximum saturation speed and torque,
tage of the BLDC motors is the need for shaft position
• Dynamic characteristic is the same, thus simplify-
sensing (Elbuluk and Kankam 1995a). Jahns and Van
ing the controller structure.
Nocker (1989, 1990) have suggested an alternate perma-
nent magnet configuration for the use in BLDC motors The use of a double-rod symmetrical cylinder
called the Internal Permanent Magnet (IPM) in the keeps the inflow of the pump equal to the outflow
place of the commonly used Surface Permanent Magnet during the motion of the load as the aerodynamic load
(SPM) configuration. In SPM motors, the non-magnetic is approximately symmetrical around zero (Gendrin
sleeve covers the rare earth magnets that are mounted and Dessaint 2012). Flow balance between the actu-
on the rotor whereas in IPM motors, the rotor magnets ator and the pump is ensured using a symmetrical
are placed inside the iron core. The new configuration actuator in the EHA.
 International Journal of Fluid Power 7

Oh et al. (2012) investigated the characteristics of the the stability, manoeuvrability and the flight profiles
single-rod cylinder using mathematical models along of aerospace systems (Habibi et al. 2008). In EHA
with other subsystems of EHA hydraulic circuit and dead band occurs mainly due to static friction in the
an electric motor. The performance of a closed-loop motor, pump cross-port leakage coefficient and the
hydraulic control system incorporating the EHA with pressure drop across the actuator/pump connection
load and controller has been studied. Takahashi et al. (Habibi and Goldenberg 2000, Jun et al. 2004b). Park
(2008) presented the concept, in which hydraulic res- et al. (2009) used a modified Proportional Integral
ervoir is built inside the piston rod of the EHA instead Derivative (PID) controller using Inverse Sinusoidal
of having a full-volume reservoir outside its cylinder. Input Describing Function (ISIDF) to mitigate the
This type of arrangement leads to volume and weight effects of the dead zone. Many researchers (Jun
reduction. et al. 2004a, 2004b, Liviu et al. 2010) used a dead zone
pre-compensator to eliminate the control voltage dead
6. Control methods zone whereas a load pressure positive compensator
used to handle the effect of load torque on the angular
Nonlinear problems in flight control have always velocity of the motor.
remained a field of study for scientists all over the world. EHA can be desensitized to the effects of the dead
The EHA system presents to the control engineer not zone by using the control strategy with the multiple
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only the nonlinearities but also some issue like the dead inner loops consisting of a high-gain inner-loop velocity
band which is peculiar to the EHA system. control of the driving motor and the inner-loop com-
The following sections list some of the challenges pensation for the differential velocity between the motor
in EHA system for flight control and describe how the vs. the control surface (Habibi et al. 2008). A cascade
researchers have tackled the problems. controller has three loops namely – motor current loop,
motor and pump speed loop and the hydraulic actuator
6.1. Nonlinearities in EHA linear position loop. Position controller assigns the con-
trol voltage of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) drivers
The dynamic characteristics of EHA system are complex of the motor. The velocity feedback forces the motor and
and nonlinear. The nonlinearities arise from the friction pump to track the angular velocity given by command
in the hydraulic actuator and the compressibility of the input. The current in the coils of the motor are adjusted
hydraulic fluid. The variation in efficiency of the pump and limited by the current feedback control (Jun et al.
(due to change in direction, pressure operating point and 2004a). Kang, Mare et al. (2008) concluded that the cas-
its speed of rotation) and the volume variation caused cade PID control efficiently helps the system to meet the
by the movement of the piston make the EHA charac- EHA requirements of rapidity and stiffness but may lead
teristics complex (Perron et al. 2005). Things become to some oscillations. Hence they used the state feedback
even more complex when the EHA-VPVM configura- control along with dynamic pressure feedback strategy
tion of the EHA is used which is a Dual Input Single for improving both static and dynamic performance of
Output nonlinear system with multiplicative nonlinear EHA. Jun et al. (2004b) have used the multi-loop cascade
property. Hence the fixed gain control laws cannot be PID control and have taken care of the nonlinearities
used for controller design of the EHA system. Zhang using the Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) that tunes the
et al. (2010) and Zhang and Li (2011) linearised the EHA PID coefficients automatically.
system through feedback linearisation and designed the
position control system using optimal control theory.
They have been able to meet the different requirements 6.3. Sensor noise
on dynamic response by adjusting the weighting coef- In the above control methods, the motor’s angular rate,
ficients of the displacement and the rotational speed of current and piston’s position are measured using sensors
pump. like Hall Effect sensors and Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT). All these sensors introduce some
6.2. Dead band degree of inaccuracy. High system gain tends to amplify
the effects of sensor noise (Kang et al. 1995). An effec-
The effects of friction in the EHA system are not only tive counter measure to sensor noise is to decrease the
nonlinear but also discontinuous. Even the use of a control system’s loop gain as much as possible, while
nonlinear gain Scheduled Proportional Controller still meeting specifications, e.g. tracking and disturbance
(SPC), as proposed by Sampson et al. (2004) results rejection. Multiple Input Single Output-Quantitative
in oscillations in the system response for small Feedback Theory (MISO-QFT) allows for such a balance
input signals at cross over regions where the veloc- economically (Kang et al. 1995). It is used to achieve a
ity changes its sign (Wang et al. 2008).This effect is robust control design and is preferred to standard high
known as the dead zone and is unique to modular gain design for sensor noise rejection and bias handling
actuation systems like EHA and EMA and affects characteristics. Kang et al. (1995) used QFT method to
 8 N. Alle et al.

design a controller for EHA, which is not only insensitive

to sensor noise but also robust with respect to actuator
parameter variations and flight conditions.

6.4. Parameter uncertainties

Wang et al. (2008) conceived a Sliding Mode Control
(SMC), which is preferred for its robustness to parameter
uncertainties, external disturbances and un-modelled
dynamics. But performance of SMC can be severely
degraded by noise. Hence, Wang, Burton et al. (2011)
proposed a method referred to as the Sliding Mode
Controller and Filter (SMCF) that uses robust state
and parameter estimation strategy called the Variable
Structure Filter (VSF) in conjunction with SMC. Both
SMC and the VSF have inherent switching actions that
can lead to chattering. This problem has been addressed Figure 5. Subsystems of EHA system (Li and Wang 2010).
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in the SMCF through the introduction of a boundary

layer and a bypass high-frequency loop that is formed
by SMC and VSF. (2014) have presented an adaptive position control
Robust controllers can guarantee a control only for a pump controlled EHA based on an adaptive back
when the parameters and conditions vary within a stepping scheme. The main feature is the combination
certain bound. Adaptive control on the other hand of a modified back stepping algorithm with a special
does not need prior information about the bounds adaptation law to compensate all nonlinearities and
of uncertain or time varying parameters. Simple uncertainties in EHA system.
Adaptive Control (SAC) is a control methodology The two important aspects that determine the success
based on a two-degree-of-freedom control system. of the EHA controller are the accuracy of the mathe-
Cho and Burton (2011) have shown that there is a matical model and the effectiveness of the control strat-
significant reduction in position tracking error under egy. Fuzzy controllers are chosen for nonlinear systems
external disturbance load when SAC is used in an because they decrease the effects of inaccuracies in
EHA when compared to conventional PID control. mathematical model and have more simple interpreta-
Back stepping is a powerful, nonlinear control strat- tion than other controllers.
egy due to its ability to ensure an asymptotic sta-
bility of the controlled system without cancelling
useful nonlinearities (Kaddissi et al. 2011). Seo et al. 7. Multidisciplinary modelling approach and
(2010) used an Adaptive Back-Stepping (ABS) con- simulation strategies
troller with reconstruction error estimator to guar- The mathematical model of the EHA is required in order
antee stability for unknown parameters and a Radial to design a good controller based on conventional con-
Basis Function Neural Networks (RBFNN) algorithm trol strategies like Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)
to estimate system uncertainties. Kim et al. (2010) control, robust control, state space control, etc. This is
explained the use of ABS control scheme with Fuzzy not an easy task as EHA is an integrated system dealing
Neural Networks (FNN) for EHA. Direct Adaptive with many different kinds of disciplines like electronics,
Controller (DAC) uses estimated parameters directly. hydraulics and mechanics and one must have a good
On the other hand Indirect Adaptive Controller (IAC) knowledge about each of these disciplines. Moreover
uses controller parameters that are calculated from the the mathematical model of the EHA is necessary for
estimated parameters. When the identification algo- simulation studies of the dynamic characteristics. So the
rithm is limited to the gradient type, the DAC cannot different multidisciplinary modelling methods used in
separate the control law design from the parameters designing an EHA system irrespective of their applica-
estimation law. Therefore, the estimated parameters tion are elaborated below.
are not accurate enough to be used for predictions.
According to Kaddissi et al. (2011) IAC guarantees
the convergence of the system parameters to their 7.1. Need for multidisciplinary approach
real physical values as well as ensures the system sta- The main components of EHA system can be divided
bility. They used an indirect adaptive back stepping into four subsystems according to their characteristics
approach for the position control of EHA with the aim viz. electrical subsystem, hydraulic subsystem, mechan-
of identifying and tracking the variation of the system ical subsystem, control subsystem and are related as
parameters with the operating conditions. Ahn et al. shown in Figure 5 (Li and Wang 2010). The electrical
 International Journal of Fluid Power 9

subsystem consists of the motor driver and servo motor to describe bond graph models in the multi-purpose
to drive the pump. The hydraulic subsystem consists of object-oriented languages like Modelica. As an exam-
the pump, accumulator, control elements like valves and ple, a controlled hydraulic drive has been modelled
hydraulic cylinder. The control subsystem consists of a using the bond graph and described in the Modelica by
controller. EHA being a closed circuit system, the heat Elbuluk and Kankam (1995b). Ould Bouamama et al.
generated during operation cannot be removed by the (2002) used bond graph as a tool for Fault Detection and
circulating oil to the reservoir (heat sink) and so the heat Identification (FDI) design by using an external model
is also considered as one of the disciplines of EHA. When that describes a system in terms of functions without
modelling a multidisciplinary model, it is important not taking into account its physical and dynamic behaviour.
to neglect the multidisciplinary coupling characteristics Langlois et al. (2004) modelled a complete EHA system
which may cause low efficiency or even failure. There are from the electrical power supply to the flight control
two approaches to modelling of EHA. One approach is surface using bond graph and implemented in Saber
to use conventional modelling approach- mathematical software. The results of the simulation were compared
method to obtain the transfer function which may not with that of the behavioural model supplied to Airbus by
be always accurate due to use of simplifying assump- the manufacturers and the results were found to match
tions and abstractions. Another approach is to build the closely.
multidisciplinary model by bond graph technique and
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solve using the commercial software tools like AMESim 7.4. Collaborative simulation
and 20-SIM.
Collaborative simulation or co-simulation is another
method to design complex products with multidiscipli-
7.2. Conventional modelling approach
nary characteristics. This methodology allows individ-
The first method is the conventional transfer func- ual components to be simulated by different simulation
tion based approach adopted by most of the authors tools that run simultaneously and exchange information
like Habibi and Goldenberg (2000). The complexity of between them. Li and Wang (2010) presented a mod-
EHA makes the development of exact model a difficult elling method for EHA based on the collaborative sim-
task. Therefore simplified plant models are obtained by ulation using AMESim (multidisciplinary modelling)
linearisation around the operating points (Rabbo and and MATLAB (mathematical modelling) to improve the
Tutunji 2007). This approach gives less than a realistic model accuracy and realise the performance optimisa-
description of the EHA as they have neglected the non- tion. The collaborative simulation has been implemented
linearities in the system. The nonlinearities may arise by the interface module which is built in AMESim and
due to the nonlinear effect of the re-feeding hydraulic changed to a S-function which can be used in Matlab.
circuit, the effects of frictional resistance to the transla- Wang et al. (2009) applied multidisciplinary and collab-
tional and rotational elements of the system, the dead orative optimisation during the structural design to opti-
band associated with the pump motor unit and the con- mise the reliability and control performance of the EHA.
trol side-effects such as the noise produced from hys- Multidisciplinary models are limited to two or three dis-
teresis regulation (Gendrin and Dessaint 2012). Hence ciplines and do not reflect the multidisciplinary coupling
Kang, Jiao et al. (2008) modelled a typical architecture characteristics of the whole system. Li and Wang (2011)
of the EHA using the block diagram based on mathe- analysed the integral disciplines of the EHA system and
matical equation and have arrived at a more realistic have built the analysis-model for every discipline. Then
nonlinear accuracy model of the EHA. an integral multidisciplinary coupling model of the EHA
system has been built through the analysis of the cou-
7.3. Bond graph modelling approach pling relation between each analysis-model.

Bond graph methodology is based on the concept of

7.5. Model identification
power transmitted or energy exchange between sys-
tem components by a combination of effort and flow. Even a very detailed and well-built model will have lim-
Transfer functions can easily be found out from a bond itations as the exact values of important parameters like
graph design (Langlois et al. 2004). Therefore bond coefficients for discharge, flow, leakage, friction and bulk
graph is helpful in efficiently modelling multi-field and modulus cannot be derived theoretically and has to be
heterogeneous systems such as EHA. Bond graph struc- arrived at only experimentally. Hence before the model
ture facilitates the study of parameter variations. This can be used in embedded controllers, the technique of
helps to size components and optimise a complete sys- model identification can be used to improve upon a
tem (Langlois et al. 2004). Borutzky (2002) compared model by using the experimental results. Habibi et al.
Object Oriented Modelling (OOM) and the bond graph (2000) used model identification technique to derive a
methodology and concluded that bond graph modelling range of values for unknown parameters like cylinder
may be viewed as a form of OOM. Hence it is possible leakage coefficient and effective bulk modules. They have
 10 N. Alle et al.

then validated the model through open-loop testing of automatic design – reconfigurable or active fault tolerant
the system. The derived model closely matched with control (FTC) as shown in Figure 6 (Lunze and Richter
the measured response at low to medium frequencies 2008). A model-matching approach aims at finding a
of excitation. Rabbo and Tutunji (2007) showed that the controller that assigns the reconfigurable closed-loop
recursive identification models can be used for the iden- system, which follows the same behaviour as the nomi-
tification and analysis of hydrostatic systems and have nal closed-loop system (Lunze and Richter 2008).
studied the effect of variation in volume displacement, For reliable and safer EHA systems FTC or reliable
the motor torque on pressure and hydraulic motor speed. control can be used considering the expected failures at
its design stage. A reliable control EHA system is more
8. Reliability, redundancy and fault tolerance maintainable than conventional hydraulic systems and
hence more available.
Aerospace subsystems, especially those that are used
on aircrafts have to be highly reliable and fault toler-
8.2. Fault tolerant control
ant. EHA system is a complex system and any one of its
several components can fail during operation. A relia- FTC can either be of the active type or of passive type.
ble EHA system is one which fulfils its function with- An Active FTC system reacts to component fail-
out interruption for a specified period of time – EHA ures by reconfiguring control actions and relies on FDI
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is operational when needed. In contrast to reliability, scheme, for up-to-date information about system sta-
availability also depends on maintenance strategies. tus. It allows the feedback control to remain operational
after severe faults and failures. As shown in Figure 7
8.1. Redundancy, reliability and availability (Lunze and Richter 2008) active or reconfigurable FTC
augments the ordinary control loop (execution level) by
Redundancy is a prerequisite for fault-tolerant systems. a supervision level with the aim to satisfy the loop per-
Redundancy has to be ensured both at the flight control formance requirements for both the faultless plant and
surface level and at the subsystem level – EHA system. the faulty plant (Richardeau et al. 2007). Model based
Physical redundancy at the flight control surface level control, quantitative reasoning and neural networks are
would mean the use of multiple EHAs or a combination employed for active FTC.
of EHA and EMA in parallel on a flight control surface. A Passive FTC system, on the other hand, can tolerate
Failure of one unit can then be accommodated using a component failure by maintaining stability and perfor-
simple hydraulic by-pass valve in case of multiple EHAs. mance by means of robust control, by reliable H∞ design
(Huang et al. 2006). But this would increase system cost or by simultaneous stabilization. Once operational, the
and weight. To minimise the chances of actuators of the closed-loop system need not be changed to respond to
same surface getting affected at the same time, functions a fault. But the set of faults that can be tolerated without
such as bypass, movement damping and load limiting active controller re-adjustment is severely limited (Lunze
have to be provided. If the actuators drive the surface and Richter 2008). However passive FTC schemes can
simultaneously, load sensing and compensation means be derived in a straight forward manner when compared
are useful to avoid design for force fight related overload to active FTC schemes as it mostly uses single fixed-
(Frischemeier 1997). EHA systems are superior to EMA gain control law without depending on fault diagnostic
when physical redundancy is used. A failed EMA can algorithms. A fixed-gain linear time-invariant passive
jam the control surface/system and prevent operation of fault tolerant controller synthesised via Quantitative
back up EMAs, whereas simple hydraulic valve allows the Feedback Theory (QFT) has been used successfully to
hydraulic ram of the failed EHA to move freely as the flight maintain tracking performance against malfunction-
control surface moves under the control of the remain- ing position sensors and hydraulic pump (Niksefat and
ing healthy units (Huang et al. 2006). Redundancy at the Sepehri 2002) and leakage due to faulty actuator piston
subsystem level, i.e. within the EHA, can be realised either seal (Karpenko and Sepehri 2003, 2005).
through physical redundancy or analytical redundancy.
Physical Redundancy would refer to the duplication
8.3. Fault detection and identification
of critical sensors on the EHA. It would allow the use
of simple schemes for the detection and alleviation of FDI plays an important role in reconfigurable active
faults and failures but would increase the overall cost FTC. They are classified as signal-based fault detection
of the system. methods and model-based fault detection methods.
Analytical Redundancy on the other hand refers to Both the methods depend on sensors. The sensors can
the functional relationship between system inputs and provide signals for the position of actuator, the pressure
outputs, rather than to the components themselves. of hydraulic system, the angle of swash plate, the current
Though more challenging, it would help in reducing and the rotational speed of the servo motors (Zhang
the cost of the EHA. Model matching and fault hiding et al. 2010). Figure 8 shows typical sensors in an EHA
are two approaches for analytical redundancy that use configuration.
 International Journal of Fluid Power 11
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Figure 6. Approaches for active FTC (Lunze and Richter 2008).

Figure 7. Active or reconfigurable FTC (Lunze and Richter 2008).

Signal-based fault detection methods use thresholds based methods are preferred for fault detection of elec-
to extract information from available measurements and tric drives and hydraulic pumps. Rotor defects can
use it to determine if a fault is present. Signal-model be detected by an analysis of the stator current. The
 12 N. Alle et al.
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Figure 8. Sensors/transducers in EHA (Habibi et al. 2000).

comparison of a torque-model based on the stator volt- internal leakage as well as cylinder chamber external
ages and a second model based on the rotor-currents leakage at either side of the actuator is detailed by An
can help in detecting faults (Muenchhof et al. 2009). and Sepehri (2004). Gadsden et al. (2011) introduced a
A nonlinear observer based principle combined with new type of Interacting Multiple Model (IMM) filtering
Wald’s sequential test has been proposed by Khan et method by combining the standard IMM with Smooth
al. (2005) to detect faults. The fault detection process is Variable Structure Filter (SVSF) as detailed by Habibi
facilitated using the control signal and the actuator’s lin- (2007) for the purpose of fault detection and diagnosis.
ear velocity, which are the measurable input and output Wang and Syrmos (2009) developed an EKF-based mul-
variables respectively. Observer based methods assume tiple-model estimation scheme to fuse the FDI results
that more than one internal states of the system - differ- from IMM algorithm with the fault estimation using
ential chamber pressure can be measured and the effect EKF method to generate more accurate fault diagnosis.
of the external forces are known or can be neglected. It can be used not only to estimate the faulty state but
Marton and Varga (2011) formulated a fault detection also to extrapolate the trend of faulty state which can be
method for EHA system, where the rod position is the used to avoid the catastrophic failure. Wavelet transform
only measurable state of the actuator and the external is an extended time-frequency analysis used to get wave-
load generated force is not measurable but its limits cor- let coefficients at different scales. Wavelet transform has
responding to normal operation are known. been shown to be more sensitive and robust than spec-
Model-based fault detection methods, on the other trum analysis in detecting faults associated with hydrau-
hand, takes into account faults which can be modelled lic pumps (Gao et al. 2005). Wavelet transform also be
through system identification. This type of fault detection used for both offline and online internal leakage detec-
and diagnosis is used when well-defined models can be tion as detailed by Goharrizi, Sepehri and Wu (2009),
created and utilized (Gadsden et al. 2011). Model-based Goharrizi and Sepehri (2010a, 2010b). Goharrizi et al.
approaches use the Kalman Filter (KF) for estimation of (2011) studied the external leakage fault detection and
parameters. But KF is applicable to linear systems only. its isolation from internal leakage in hydraulic actuators.
Hence Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) which is an exten- A new filtering strategy was proposed by combining a
sion of KF for nonlinear problems can be used to identify stationary wavelet transform with relatively new SVSF,
physical quantities such as the laminar leakage coeffi- that reduces the SVSF chattering effect and improve
cient, increased friction of the piston, etc. (Muenchhof et the overall estimation accuracy. The results of applying
al. 2009). Chinniah et al. (2006) used EKF for estimating the KF, SVSF, Wavelet transform based KF and Wavelet
the viscous friction and effective bulk modulus to detect transform based SVSF on an EHA were compared and
faults in EHA systems. EKF for identifying cross-port discussed by Zhang et al. (2012).
 International Journal of Fluid Power 13

8.4. Component reliability 8.5. Dynamic reliability

In order to design a reliable EHA, reliability has to be It is difficult to assess the dynamic reliability in the mul-
built into each of the components and the sub-systems. ti-state varying systems like EHA using traditional tech-
A total fault-tolerance EHA system must have fault tol- niques like Monte Carlo simulation (Wang, Zeng et al.
erant actuators and drives, fault tolerant sensors as well 2011). Hence, powerful mathematical frameworks have
as fault tolerant controller. been developed that are capable of handling the interac-
The motor is one of the critical components of the tions among the components and the process variables.
EHA system. Bearing defects can be reduced and reliabil- They constitute a more realistic modelling of systems for
ity can be increased by using wet motors, where hydrau- the purpose of reliability, risk and safety analysis (Labeau
lic oil is present in the motor in order to reduce the et al. 2000). Wang, Zeng et al. (2011) proposed an inte-
number of oil seals as discussed by Huang et al. (2006) grated method of dynamic performance and reliability
and Huang et al. (2011). In case of BLDC motors, fault that uses Markov models, simulation and probabilistic
detection methods can be combined to achieve opti- dynamics.
mal performance under various operating conditions
as outlined by Muenchhof et al. (2009). In this paper, 9. Thermal effects
parameter estimation has been used to determine the
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flux linkage and the resistance of the armature wind- In the traditional hydraulic system, the heat generated
ings whereas parity equations are used to calculate five in the hydraulic actuator is brought back to the reservoir
residuals. Logic to monitor the signals from the three by the hydraulic oil which gets cooled there. But heat
hall sensors for improper combinations of their outputs can only be removed by local heat transfer in the EHA
are also used to detect a fault. The detected faults include system. Removing the centralised hydraulic system elim-
overheat, winding interruptions and increased friction. inates an effective heat transfer network, thus resulting
All sensors are monitored for offset and stuck-at faults. in less overall heat to reject but with localised ‘hot spots’
The hydraulic cylinder is one of the actuation mod- such as high-power motors and motor controllers. The
ule of the EHA. As shown in Figure 9 (Muenchhof et following sub-sections look into the aspects of thermal
al. 2009), a typical fault tolerant hydraulic cylinder of analysis and thermal management taking into consid-
EHA consists of two opposite acting cylinder chambers eration this aspect of the EHA system.
that are connected to one fixed displacement pump each.
Bypass valves allow the piston to move whenever the 9.1. Thermal analysis
pump axle is blocked and the pump is not able to rotate
(Muenchhof et al. 2009). But such an arrangement will Due to the compactness of the EHA system, there
increase the size and weight of the EHA. Moreover a is minimum heat exchange. Therefore, it is impor-
double rod cylinder has to be designed to ensure equal tant to facilitate temperature prediction at an early
active piston areas in all chambers. stage of the design process. The analysis of the heat

Figure 9. Fault-tolerant hydraulic actuators (Muenchhof et al. 2009).

 14 N. Alle et al.

generation and dissipation in an EHA system can be The pressure drop in pumps and valves also generates
implemented by building the temperature field model heat, the amount of which depends on the mechani-
of the EHA system. The temperature field model of cal dimension of these parts, the density and specific
the motor can be built by the finite element method enthalpy of the hydraulic oil. The necessary thermal
or the equivalent thermal network method. The tem- economy for the actuator can be obtained by properly
perature field model can be built by the equivalent sizing the accumulator. If the load cycles require short
thermal circuit method (Kong et al. 2011). Powell et term peak power only with sufficient time for cooling
al. (2007) described and introduced a method of mod- down, the heat capacity of the actuator casing including
elling heat flow in rotor of electrical machines and hydraulic fluid can be used to minimise its size.
a novel technique for lumped parameter representa- The energy loss can also be reduced by optimising
tion of the transient thermal behaviour of hydraulic the control algorithm of EHA for aircraft use. In EHA-
fluid. Modelling in such tools improves the accuracy VPVM configuration of the EHA, the displacement and
of analysis level without increasing drastically the rotating speed of pump can be adjusted simultaneously.
complexity of the model implementation. The dynamic response becomes faster as the steady-state
Andersson et al. (1999) studied two concepts of EHA rotating speed increases but the energy loss becomes
in order to examine the necessity of a heat exchanger. more. Fu et al. (2011) suggested an optimum control
Thermal modelling and simulation of hydraulic com- algorithm for the EHA-VPVM configuration in aircraft
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ponents have been done under various operating con- application so that system has fast dynamic response
ditions and concluded from the results that the fluid during take-off and landing and higher efficiency and
temperature will vary depending on duty cycle and less energy loss when aircraft cruises.
ambient temperature. Chen et al. (1995) have developed
lumped-parameter EHA thermal models to characterise 10. Design optimisation
component heat transfer within their operating environ-
The design of the EHA has to be optimised based on the
ments using realistic actuator duty cycles generated from
mission requirements and on the specific application. Two
six Degree-of-Freedom aircraft simulation.
approaches, viz., optimisation for energy efficiency and
9.2. Thermal management optimisation for performance, have been described below.

The thermal modelling and analysis and its utility in

10.1. Optimisation for energy efficiency
developing a thermal management techniques for a flight
worthy EHA has been described by Chen et al. (1995). EHA system may be more efficient than traditional hydrau-
The actuators are mostly used in rarefied atmosphere lic systems. But there is definitely a scope for optimisation of
where heat cannot be easily dissipated through convec- their design in order to get a more energy efficient systems.
tion. It can only be dissipated through conduction and For example, the efficiency of the EHA depends strongly
radiation at the position where the actuator is installed. on the load conditions, with significantly low efficiency
The conventional centralised Environmental Control under conditions of partial load which occur when either
System cooling approach may need to be augmented the desired velocity or load is much less than its maximum
with local thermal control techniques and improved value. Ho and Ahn (2010) presented an energy regenera-
heat sinks to eliminate any requirements for coolant tion scheme that can be applied to electro hydraulic actua-
lines running all over the aircraft. The effectiveness of tor which makes it highly efficient even under partial load
heat sinks can be studied from the thermal models as conditions. Here hydraulic accumulators used for energy
described above. Efforts to reduce the problem of heat recovery can be decoupled from or coupled to the circuit
generation at the source can be attempted if the power to improve the efficiency of the system in varying speed,
loss of EHA can be reduced as detailed in (Fu et al. 2011). and torque situations.
In the EHA the main heat source is the iron loss of the Parameter variation can be studied for its effect on the
stator iron core and the copper loss of the stator winding. system efficiency for a specific application. Bond graph
The heat generated depends on the current in the stator structure facilitates the study of parameter variations,
windings, the rotation speed and the dimensions of the making it convenient to size components and optimise
motor. Hence motor efficiency plays an important role a complete system (Li and Wang 2010).
in achieving the required thermal economy. The motor The model of the multidisciplinary coupling char-
has different efficiencies under different speeds and tor- acteristics can be applied to Multidisciplinary Design
ques. If the pump displacement is varied according to Optimisation (MDO) of the EHA system. The flow chart
the speed requirement of the actuator, then the motor of the MDO is shown in Figure 10 (Li and Wang 2011).
can be allowed to operate more or less near the higher The analysis process, the objective function and the con-
efficiency operating point (Fu et al. 2011). This way the straint condition can be obtained from the multidisci-
heat dissipated by the motor can be reduced. plinary coupling model of the EHA system.
 International Journal of Fluid Power 15
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Figure 10. Steps for MDO (Li and Wang 2011).

10.2. Optimisation methods for performance and 11. Applications

reliability
Aerospace industry in the last decade has dedicated
Traditional design and optimisation methods for itself to the development of greener aircrafts in the com-
EHA consider performance and reliability require- mercial transport (Mare 2010). PBW actuators such as
ment separately. They may lead to stable and good EHAs, Electro-Backup Hydrostatic Actuators (EBHA)
performance, but designed scheme may be sensitive to and EMA principally in backup mode for primary and
the environment fluctuation, internal parameter var- secondary flight controls have replaced the conventional
iation and component catastrophic failure. Zeng et al. Servo Hydraulic Actuators (SHA).
(2009) developed an integrated design optimisation Several other applications of EHA have been reported in
method which integrates performance and reliability the literature. Irving and Stephen Smith (2006) have devel-
requirements into the design process. A mathematical oped EHA, which has been used in F18 Stabilator. Fault
model for an Electro-Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA) has tolerant EHA developed by Moog Inc. has been used for
been made first and then injected uncertain charac- thrust vectoring control. Airbus has tested EHA for inboard
ters of parameters variation, component failure and aileron on A340 in 2002. The latest Airbus A380 uses EHA
disturbance from environment based on their distri- to actuate ailerons (Le Tron 2007). Takahashi et al. (2008)
butions and mission profile. After that, a response developed an EHA prototype for Landing Gear Extension
surface between the reliability and the system Design and Retraction System (LGERS) application.
Dependent Parameters (DDP) has been created based
on the simulation and performance results, thus pro-
12. Conclusions
ducing optimised DDPs, which can deliver maximum
reliability and meet the performance requirements. This paper has tried to consolidate the research work
Hegde et al. (2013) developed optimisation architec- carried out so far on Electro Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)
ture of EHA for aircraft flight control with constrain- system and presented the state-of-the-art technology
ing flight conditions and load cases. specific to flight control application. From the review
 16 N. Alle et al.

of the references, several aspects on EHA system are List of acronyms

noted and summarised below:
ABS Adaptive Back-Stepping
• EHA technology has matured considerably. BLDC Brushless DC
• EHA is a viable option for an efficient, reliable and DAC Direct Adaptive Controller
maintainable PBW hydraulic actuation system. DDP Design Dependent Parameters
• EHA has been used in the latest generation of mil- DISO Dual Input Single Output
itary and commercial transport aircraft. DOF Degrees of Freedom
• Most of literature indicates the growing impor- DSP Digital Signal Processing
tance of EHA. Several authors have published their EBHA Electro-Backup Hydrostatic Actuator
work on EHA. The major aspects addressed by the ECS Environmental Control System
authors have been on configuration design, model- EHA Electro Hydrostatic Actuator
ling and simulation approaches, control strategies, EKF Extended Kalman Filter
fault tolerance and thermal analysis. EMA Electro Mechanical Actuator
• Initial research into this field aimed at achieving EMI Electro Magnetic Interference
the same level of positional accuracy as servo valve EPAD Electrically Powered Actuation Design
controlled hydraulic systems. FBW Fly-By-Wire
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• To enable it to be successfully used for aerospace FDI Fault Detection and Identification
application, the EHA will be required to have high FDBP Fixed Displacement Bidirectional Pump
positional accuracy and dynamic response, relia- FLC Fuzzy Logic Controller
bility and fault tolerance. FNN Fuzzy Neural Networks
• Cost, energy efficiency and thermal stability have FPVM Fixed Pump Variable Motor
to be taken into account during the design stage. FTC Fault Tolerant Control
• VPVM configuration of the EHA is capable of IAC Indirect Adaptive Controller
providing the required efficiency as well as high IAP Integrated Actuator Package
dynamic response. IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
• Motor and power inverter technologies have IMM Interacting Multiple Model
matured sufficiently. IPM Internal Permanent Magnet
• Advanced nonlinear control strategies have made it ISIDF Inverse Sinusoidal Input Describing
possible to achieve the required positional accuracy Function
under varying flight conditions. KF Kalman Filter
• Latest analytical redundancy and reconfigurable LGERS Landing Gear Extension and Retraction
FTC techniques can be used for realising an intel- System
ligent, reliable and cost effective EHA system. LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer
• The future research in the field of EHA will be directed MDO Multidisciplinary Design Optimisation
towards stronger and lighter materials, higher pressures MISO Multiple Input Single Output
and better control along with fault tolerant systems. NRV Non Return Valve
• A most revealing feature is that almost minimal OOM Object Oriented Modelling
work has addressed on the development of energy PBW Power-By-Wire
optimised configuration, failure modes, redun- PID Proportional Integral Derivative
dancy strategies and approaches for integrated PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
vehicle health management. PRV Pressure Relief Valve
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
The reference attempts to cover the technical literature
PWM-VSI Pulse Width Modulation – Vector Source
in English language for slightly more than two decades,
Inverter
1990’s to 2015. There may be of course other work in
QFT Quantitative Feedback Theory
the field that has been published in other languages, par-
RBFNN Radial Basis Function Neural Networks
ticularly in German, Japanese, Chinese and Russian. The
SAC Simple Adaptive Control
criterion used to include a reference has been whether
SHA Servo Hydraulic Actuator
it would be available from a major technical university
SMC Sliding Mode Control
library or e-journals. Unpublished internal reports,
SMCF Sliding Mode Controller and Filter
unpublished conference proceedings etc. are not cited
SPC Scheduled Proportional Controller
in this paper. In a field with so many inter-disciplinary
SPM Surface Permanent Magnet
interactions, selection mainly focuses on fluid power sys-
SVSF Smooth Variable Structure Filter
tems and control which reflects the primary interests of
VPFM Variable Pump Fixed Motor
the authors.
VPVM Variable Pump Variable Motor
VSF Variable Structure Filter
 International Journal of Fluid Power 17

Disclosure statement PhD scholars in the field of fluid power, oil hydraulics, robot-
ics and Mechatronics. His current research interest includes
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. hydraulic hybrids, underwater robotics, networked robotics,
robot calibration, mechatronics, MEMS, micromachining,
and oil hydraulics.
Notes on contributors
Karunanidhi Subramaniam received his
Navatha Alle received her BE degree in
BTech degree in Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical Engineering in 2005 and ME
in 1985 and MTech degree in Precision
degree in CAD/CAM from Chaitanya
Engineering and Instrumentation from
Bharati Institute of Technology in 2007.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras in
Currently, she is working in Actuation sys-
1995 and PhD in Micro Actuators for
tems for Aerospace Applications at
Hydraulic Servo valve Application from
Research Centre Imarat, Hyderabad, India.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras in
She is a PhD research scholar at Department
2010. He has published many papers in
of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute
international journals and conferences. Currently, he is a sci-
of Technology Madras, Chennai, India. Her current research
entist working in Actuation systems for Aerospace
interest includes Electro Hydrostatic Actuators, developing a
Applications at Research Centre Imarat, Hyderabad, India.
fault Tolerant System, Mechatronics and Oil Hydraulics.
His current research interest includes Electro Hydrostatic
Actuators, fault Tolerant Systems, Micro actuators,
Downloaded by [Indian Institute of Technology Madras] at 04:37 15 April 2016

Somashekhar S. Hiremath works as an

Mechatronics, MEMS, Precision Machining and Oil
associate professor and head Precision
Hydraulics.
Engineering and Instrumentation
Laboratory of Department of Mechanical
Apratim Talukdar received his Bachelor of
Engineering at Indian Institute of
Engineering degree in Mechanical
Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu,
Engineering from Birla Institute of
India. He received the doctoral degree in
Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India in the
2004 from Indian Institute of Technology
year 2005. He is currently working as a sci-
Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. As an
entist in the field of Actuation Systems for
academic credential he received Two National Awards:
Aerospace Applications at Research Centre
Innovative Student Project Award 2005 (Best PhD Thesis of
Imarat, Hyderabad, India. His current
the year 2004–2005 in the Department of Mechanical
research interests include Electro
Engineering) from the Indian National Academy of
Hydrostatic Actuators, Fault Tolerant Systems, Mechatronics,
Engineering (INAE), New Delhi and Prof. K. Arumugam
Control Systems and Oil Hydraulics.
National Award for Innovative Research Work in Engineering
and Technology from Indian Society for Technical Education
(ISTE), New Delhi. He has published many papers in
National and International level. More than 100 papers in his ORCID
credits. He was delivered more than 60 Invited talks on vari- Singaperumal Makaram [Link]
ous topics of his research areas at Engineering Colleges, 6728-4939
Universities, Research centres, Industries and conferences.
Currently he has handling many Consultancy and Sponsored
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