Lecture Note 1
Chapter 1: THE NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Environment
• It means to encircle or surround an organism
• Includes the social and cultural conditions that may affect the organism
• It can be explained as the physical surroundings and factors - living things
(organisms) and nonliving things/environments (matter and energy).
• In a broader definition, it is everything that affects an organism during its lifetime.
Environmental Science
• is the systematic study of our environment and our place in it, merely the
connections and interactions in nature, and concerned with environmental
problems/issues.
• It can be explained as to how species interact with one another and the nonliving
environment (matter and energy).
• It is an interdisciplinary field that includes both the scientific and social aspects of
human impact on the world.
THE 7 ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Principle #1: Nature knows best.
• This principle is the most basic and comprises all the others.
• Humans have to appreciate and recognize the importance of nature and follow its
rules. We must not interfere with various natural processes to a continuous and
steady supply of resources provided to us. Remember, any disruption in the cycle
of nature can bring imbalance to our ecosystem.
Principle #2: All forms of life are important.
• Each organism plays a vital role in nature.
Principle #3: Everything is connected to everything else.
• All living organisms are influenced and adapt to non-living components to ensure
that the system is sustained.
Principle #4: Everything changes.
• The environment is continuously changing. All living organisms adapt to these
changes to survive.
• These changes may be linear, random, or cyclical.
• For example;
Linear change
-Evolution of species brought about by complex types of organisms.
Cyclical change may be exemplified by seasons and the rhythms in floral and
faunal life stages that go with the seasons.
Random change
- the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo that alters the topography of the land.
Principle #5: Everything must go somewhere.
• Matter is cycled so as wastes materials. Everything ends up elsewhere.
Principle #6: Ours is finite earth.
• Resources are limited in form.
• It is essential to know how much of a resource can be consumed at a given time.
Principle #7: Nature is beautiful, and we are stewards of God's creation.
• Humans are the most intelligent creatures that are capable of manipulating
nature to their advantage. Humans will not exist; thus, it should not be ravaged or
abuse in nature but to be taken care of.
Ethics is a field of philosophy that focuses on the study of value or quality and
seeks to define what is right and what is wrong irrespective of the culture and society.
Moral principles that try to define one’s responsibility towards the environment are
called environmental ethics.
Environmental ethics is the study of moral perspectives, beliefs, attitudes, and
issues concerning the environment. It applies ethical thinking to the natural world and the
relationship between humans and the earth.
Generally, it consists of three fundamental propositions:
1. The earth and its components (natural resources, human beings, animals, etc.)
are worthy of ethical concern.
2. The earth and its components have inherent value because they exist, not only
because they provide resources for human needs.
3. Based on the concept of an ecosystem, human beings should consider “wholes”
that comprises other living organisms and the environment.
Philosophical Approaches to Environmental Ethics
1. Anthropocentrism (Human-centered Ethics)
ü The basic premise is
Human beings are the central, most important species in the universe. Thus,
understanding the natural world should be centered on anthropology.
ü Some people believe that humans are essentially separate from or above nature.
ü It sees the world focusing on people and their needs.
ü and believed that nature is provided for human use/interest alone.
2. Biocentrism (Life-centered Ethics)
ü The fundamental premise is
All life has a standpoint, regardless of its value to humans.
Understanding biology is at the center of environmental ethics.
The biosphere is central to life on earth.
ü Some people believe that all living organisms have the right to exist. It is a system
of ethics that attempts to protect all life in nature.
ü All life is interdependent.
ü For example, if the deer population is over-hunted, then the coyote and wolf will
be affected.
3. Eco-centrism
ü It involves the essence of the system, rather than on individuals, species.
ü The environment itself has moral worth.
ü The environment should be maintained and deserves direct moral considerations
and not a concern that is merely derived from human or animal interests.
Environmental Attitudes
Any person concerned with the protection of the environment or who believes that
the sustainability of civilization depends on conserving natural aspects of the biosphere
free from pollution and maintaining biodiversity is called an Environmentalist.
Specifically,
1. Developmental Approach
Ø It tends to be the most anthropocentric and assumes that humanity is above all.
Ø It assumes that the human race is and should be the master of nature and that the
earth and its resources exist solely for our benefit and pleasure.
Ø It suggests that improvements in human condition require converting ever more of
nature to human use; thus, the environment has value only insofar as human
beings economically utilize it.
Ø It yields to industrialization and modernization.
2. Conservationists Approach
Ø It is concerned with using natural areas and wildlife (fauna, flora, and
microorganisms) to benefit present and future generations of human races and
other forms of life.
Ø People who believe that land should be used only to a certain extent, to what needs
to be used.
3. Preservationists Approach
Ø tends to be the most eco-centric towards the environment.
Ø It is concerned with the preservation of natural areas. Their primary goal is to
ensure those undisturbed natural areas are free from harmful human activities.
Ø protects the environment from harmful human activities
However, cornucopians are those who assume or believe that all parts of the
environment (natural resources) are to be exploited for the advantage of humans.
Reference:
Tuazon, et. al. (2020). Environmental Science Module. Bulacan State University
The Seven Environmental Principles*
1. Everything is connected to everything else. (Ang lahat ng bagay ay
magkakaugnay.)
The intricate relationships of various elements of the ecosystem bind the components
together into one functional unit. The trees in the forest are home to ferns, orchids, birds,
insects and mammals. When these plants and animals die, their products of
decomposition contribute to soil fertility. Plants provide oxygen to animals for aerobic
respiration while animals furnish carbon dioxide to plants for photosynthesis. The quality
of the soil determines the type of vegetation that exists while vegetation contributes to the
minerals of the soil when they die. The living component of the ecosystem affects and is
affected by the abiotic components, such as air, temperature, land. Inter-specific
relationships create a dependency with each other so that they both have to co-exist to
live. All these relationships provide dependencies, check and balances that compose the
details of our life-support systems.
Human interaction with nature oftentimes alters the ecosystems. The waste we
improperly dispose of brings about the deterioration of land and water quality. This may
in turn reduce their capacity to provide life for other organisms. Deforestation causes soil
erosion and the earth deposited on the water bodies covers the coral reefs resulting to
fishery loss. Suspended particulates from vehicular and stationary sources may cause
lung problems among city residents. War causes destruction of wildlife and habitats.
There is a cause and effect chain, even when it is neither always visible nor observable.
Global economic systems affect the distribution of biological goods worldwide. Through
the Galleon trade, spices reached different parts of the world. Today, oranges and apples
from China have become easily accessible to the Filipino market. Developing countries
argue that globalization promotes the introduction of species detrimental to the recipient
habitat and market.
2. All forms of life are important.(Ang lahat na may buhay ay mahalaga.)
All living organisms were created for a purpose in relation to humans, other species on
earth and global ecosystem in general. Thus, when a species becomes extinct, it is like
removing a piece of a jigsaw puzzle from the web of life. The variety of life forms,
manifested by the different levels of biological diversity – community, species and genes
– contributes to the stability of the environment. Food webs, food chains and ecological
relationships link plants and animals together in the web of life. Even bacteria, insects,
snakes and rats have ecological functions even though humans perceive them as
parasites or pests.
The Philippines ranks high among the biodiversity hotspots – the richest but the most
threatened of terrestrial ecosystems in the world. The Philippines has rich flora and fauna:
an estimated 13,500 plant species, 80 amphibians, 240 reptiles, 556 birds, 174 mammals,
300 corals, 27 mangrove species. Of these, approximately 75% are endemic. Some of
the threatened species are the Philippine eagle (Pythecophaga jefferyi), Philippine
crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis), and Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis).
The composition of biological diversity naturally changes slowly but the rate of transition
has become faster due to factors such as habitat destruction. Deforestation may diminish
forest species such as birds that are vulnerable to modification of their home. Pollution of
waters reduces the quantity of fishes, shells, algae and other aquatic life. Over harvesting
of natural products likewise contributes to the unsustainable use of food and material
resources.
To maintain ecological balance, therefore, the conservation of genes, species and
ecosystems becomes essential to keep life together. Biodiversity conservation strategies
commence with the protection of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Land uses,
such as protected areas, ensure that the natural state of these habitats continue to exist
in designated areas. Community-based approaches in conservation maximize citizens’
participation in protected areas. Integrity of natural ecosystems can likewise be guarded
through the preservation of indigenous species.
Strategies outside of the protected areas can be adopted. Cities and human settlements
can still keep trees, patches of forests and garden as home for wildlife like birds,
butterflies, and insects. Agricultural ecosystems sustain the variety of plants and animals
through inter-cropping, multi-cropping and crop rotation. Plant and animal breeding can
increase the population of commercially important species without directly harvesting
from the wild. The captive breeding of Pag-asa, the Philippine eagle, provided a solution
to the diminishing eagle population. Although it is still recommended that habitat
protection must be the first step to species protection.
3. Everything must go somewhere. (Ang lahat ng bagay ay may patutunguhan.)
By-products of consumption go back to the environment. Everything that we throw away
– pieces of paper, left-over food, peelings of fruits, plastic wrappers, used containers –
have to go somewhere. Even plants and animals have their own wastes – feces, urine,
dead leaves and branches. It is the law of nature that the by-products of metabolism
return to the soil, acted upon first by worms, bacteria and fungi, and then converted into
minerals, to be again absorbed by plants and eaten by animals. In short, they enter into
a material cycle that is an integral part of the ecosystem. But what happens if what we
throw is an artificial product such as plastic? Then natural bacteria can not recognize
them and may not be capable of breaking them apart. These non-biodegradable products
must enter another material cycle – the one that goes to the factory to be manufactured
into a new product. Thus the retrieval, collection and recycling of these materials become
necessary so that they do not pollute land and water habitats.
In our present consumer-oriented, setting up an ecological solid waste management
system becomes necessary for maximizing the use of resources. Ecological solid waste
management recommends that solid wastes be reduced, segregated, re-used and
recycled. Biodegradable materials are either to be eaten again or composted. Non-
biodegradable materials have to be segregated and collected for recycling.
Industries have their own responsibility in reducing their effluents. End-of-the-pipeline
technologies are augmented by clean technologies in raw product extraction and
manufacturing. The “polluters pay” principle adopted by governments intensifies the
campaign for clean land, water and air. Waste exchange programs by industry turn
wastes of one industry into raw products of another. In that way, habitats for organisms
are not destroyed or deteriorate.
4. Ours is a finite earth. (Ang kalikasan ay may hangganan.)
Everything that we need is provided by nature in abundance – food, water, energy,
minerals and air. However, some resources that we depend upon nowadays are extracted
excessively but are slow to replace. These non-renewable resources experience limits of
supply. For instance, fossil fuels produced over thousands of years may be exhausted in
a hundred years. Some energy sources like water, and wood may be replaced easier but
have become inaccessible due to pollution and excessive extraction. Diminishing forest
cover have resulted from logging, ineffective reforestation and continued land conversion.
However, food scarcity and poverty may have resulted from failed distribution systems
rather than inability of the land and water bodies to yield food.
It can be argued that increasing population decreases the amount of resources available
to each person. Carrying capacity, or the ability of the ecosystem to support a number of
people, may be influenced by limit of resources due to an increasing population.
Competition increases as the carrying capacity is reached. Per capita consumption must
also be taken into account because people in Northern countries generally consume more
food, energy and resources than people in the developing Southern countries. Carrying
capacity may be addressed two ways: increase resources and reduce population growth.
Agricultural productivity for instance may be increased with better availability of water and
farm inputs.
Pollution reduces the absorbing capacity of air and water. Pollution likewise reduces the
availability of land and water to produce food for human consumption. A river classified a
Class IV means that it becomes fit only for only for navigation and can no longer sustain
life forms. Likewise, oil spills from accidents or war destroy bays and rivers. Waterways
that have become cesspool of domestic wastes cannot contain fishes and shells or if they
do might transmit toxins and harmful bacteria to consumers.
Several solutions have been suggested to solve this problem: reduction of consumption,
increased use of renewable energy, emissions trading, and pollution control. The
conservation ethic and technological solutions have become viable strategies to address
finiteness of resources. Biodiversity conservation is anchored on the principle that lost
species are irreplaceable. Thus, extinct species have acquired a greater value – more
effort has to be exerted to protect and save endangered species. The conservation ethic
supports the belief that we should tread lightly on the earth by using only what we need.
The philosophy of “sapat”, meaning “enough” suggests that we should buy and consume
only what we need and leave some for the less privileged and the next generation.
5. Nature knows best. (Ang kalikasan ang mas nakakaalam.)
Nature manifests certain processes that enable it to maintain balance and remain in a
state of equilibrium. The nutrient cycling of nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorous in
the air, water and land indicates that minerals are utilized within the confines of the earth.
The flow of energy from the sun enables light to be converted into sugar in plants through
photosynthesis, and later for consumer organisms to obtain energy from plant starch.
Food chains and food webs allow transfer of energy from producers and consumers and
provide the means for all living organisms to acquire nutrition. Population control also
occurs naturally through predator – prey relationships.
The equilibrium in the ecosystem is maintained, thus if humans intervene, unforeseen
negative impacts known as ecological backlash, may arise. Floods are often times
backlashes of excessive felling of trees. The importation of golden kuhol, that became a
pest, reminds us that biological organisms may not acclimatize in a new environment or
may cause harm to indigenous species.
The environmental ethics promote that we conform to ecological principles and stay close
to natural products and processes. We should patronize natural food and consumable
materials. Organically grown vegetables provide healthy food without the side effects that
may arise from pesticides. Ecological technology offers an option for us to choose, that
which is closest to nature. The extent to which Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
affect health remains debatable and the formidable task of providing adequate safe food
for a growing population continues to challenge agricultural scientists and environmental
managers worldwide.
6. Nature is beautiful and we are stewards of God’s creation. (Ang kalikasan ay
maganda at tayo ang tagapangasiwa ng lahat na nilikha ng Diyos.)
Creation presupposes the existence of a Creator. The beautiful nature around us, perfect
by itself, has deteriorated due to the negative impacts of human use. This principle
suggests how a Human-Creator relationship is translated in our attitude towards creation.
Theologians explain that there are different levels of this relationship. First is a
relationship determined by dominion of humans over creation, that humans can do as
they wish because this was given by God. The book of Genesis says “have dominion over
the fish of the sea and the birds of the air...” The second level is one of stewardship, that
of a caretaker where humans are not owners but guardians of the integrity of nature. The
third level promotes a kinship relationship postulated by St. Francis de Assisi in the
famous verse “Bother sun, Sister moon”, where humans are no higher than the birds and
fishes of the sea. Fourth is one of sacrament, where nature becomes a testimony of God’s
love. Fifth is a covenant relationship, where protection of the earth is a life mission
manifested in the things that we do and say.
Different religions from Islam to Buddhism to Judeo-Christian to indigenous people’s
animism express the belief of caring for the earth, including all creatures. Thus it is the
goal of environmental education and biodiversity conservation education to motivate
target audiences towards developing an eco-spirituality that moves them into a more
meaningful relationship with nature and a greater participation in the biophysical
economic processes that make this world a better place to live in.
7. Everything changes. (Ang lahat ay nagbabago.)
Changes in the biophysical world occur naturally. As they say, there is nothing more
permanent in this world than change. Consider the following examples. Metamorphosis
of caterpillars to butterflies illustrates morphological changes that occur in living forms.
The increase of vegetation on earth augmented the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere
through time. Seasons are cyclic changes that contribute to the diversity of flowers, fruits,
vegetables and other crops during the year. Random changes manifested by natural
catastrophe such as typhoons destroy forests, coral reefs and mangroves. Volcanic
eruptions annihilate surface flora and submerge rivers.
Human-induced alteration such as climate change may cause more massive
repercussions. Land use change – from forests to agricultural land to human settlements
– change the composition of vegetation and animals. Human-induced changes can be
managed so that the negative impacts are minimized and positive changes accentuated.
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) provides a tool for the projection, planning and
management of change brought about by industrialization and human settlement
expansion. Effluents can be managed through policy and pollution control techniques by
both industry and government to achieve clean air and water.
Sustainable development presents a paradigm of change for the 21st Century.
Sustainable development promotes ecological integrity, equitable sharing of resources
and people empowerment as pillars of growth. Biodiversity conservation contributes to
ecological integrity, through both in-situ and ex-situ techniques. Biodiversity conservation
becomes successful only if coupled with poverty alleviation, improving equity of access
to resources and instituting social change. Environmental education facilitates social
transformation by modifying attitudes and behavior of people towards an ecological ethic.
*Adapted from Barry Commoner, as compiled by Miriam College.
Source: [Link]
[Link]
