PART I: DIELECTRIC MATERIALS Academic Year 2020

Chapter I: Dielectric Materials and Applications

industrial

I.1 Introduction and History

Materials have always defined the level of development.
of our civilization. Whatever his specialty, the engineer cannot
to design or build new objects without taking into account the
behavior of materials, as it is their properties that limit
very often the performance of the equipment.
The properties of materials are defined by the nature of the bonds.
chemicals, atomic arrangement, and microstructure. The concept of the
Materials science was born from the need to gain control over
properties of materials through the knowledge of fundamental laws that
govern their behavior.
Materials are defined as any solid, liquid, or...
gas used by humans for the manufacturing of objects
constituting the support of his living environment.
All sectors of human activity depend on materials. They
also appear in our body to reinforce or substitute for our
damaged biomaterials.
Various materials can be classified according to their properties, their
composition or their microstructure. The 5 main ones are distinguished
following material groups:
Dielectric materials;
Magnetic materials;
Superconductors;
The drivers;
Semiconductors
The history of dielectrics can be divided into three periods:
The first began with the discovery of the properties of amber.
and ended at the end of 16thcentury. It has attracted a lot of
interest especially among philosophers and historians.
In 1600, with the work of W. Gilbert, a second one opened.
period, rich in events, during which the history of insulators
confused with that of electricity. Electric machines, which appeared
around 1705, offer new possibilities to experimenters. The date
its completion is located at the beginning of the 19thcentury.
With the first achievements of telegraphy and lighting.
begins a third period corresponding to the use of a large
variety of insulating materials, developed based on products
natural, plant or mineral. The production of insulators
Synthetic started with the development of chemistry around
coal.

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Currently, petroleum derivatives are technically imposing themselves

economically, without having managed to eliminate any
very effective natural products.
I.2 Definitions
The isolation of a work, electrical device, refers to its ability to
support the electrical constraints applied to it (U, E, ...).
Isolation refers to the material element or the set of devices
constructive ensuring this isolation.
Self-regenerating insulation is called any insulation that can be
re-energization immediately after a trip or
bypassing that she has suffered damage (air, escape route along
insulators, …).
Non-self-regenerating insulation is referred to as any insulation
requiring an intervention that immobilizes for more or less time
the affected device, which may be permanently rendered unusable
(oil, paper in oil, SF)6(sulfur hexafluoride), ...).

An electrical insulator is a substance or a body whose

electrical conductivity is very low or the resistivity is higher than
1010 .cm.
Electrical conduction in insulators can be explained by the
energy band model (Fig.I.1).

Fig.I.1: Model of energy bands

a) Driver W 0.1 eV), b) Semiconductor ( W 1 eV), c)

Insulator (5 eV W 10 eV
B.C: Conduction band; B.V: Valence Band; Z.I: Zone
interstitial or forbidden

Conductors are characterized by a valence band.

partially or totally occupied forming an intersection with
empty conduction band (Fig. I.1a). On the other hand, the semi-
conductors and insulators possess an interstitial zone
difference in energy W) more or less large separating the bands of
full valence bands of empty conduction bands (Fig. I.1b, 1c). The
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This area allows to differentiate semiconductors. W

1 eV) of insulators (5 eV W 10 eV.
The irregularity in the structure of insulators due to the presence of
foreign particles (impurities) or manufacturing defects are favored
the transition of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band
( What becomes small).

I.3 Electrical properties of insulators

The essential electrical characteristics of insulating materials are:
Relative permittivity r;
Dielectric loss factor ;
Dielectric rigidity Ed;
Electrical resistivity ;
Disruptive discharge or breakdown UC

I.3.1 Permittivity (IEC Publication 250)

When a dielectric is subjected to the action of an electric field, it
product at the molecular scale various modifications that have the effect
to create a clean electric fieldpinside the substance,
opposing the external applied electric field (Fig. I.2). This
the characteristic of solid and liquid insulators is known as
relative permittivity r.

Fig. I.2: Electric field within an insulating material under

tension

The relative permittivity of a perfect dielectric is the quotient of the

capacity Cxbetween two electrodes supposed to be immersed in this dielectric,
by the capacity C0from the configuration of electrodes in the vacuum:
r= Cx/ C0 (1)
Absolute permittivity ais the product of the relative permittivity by the
electric constant of vacuum.
a= r. 0 (2)
0= 10 / 36 = 8.85. 10 F/m
-9 -12

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In the case of imperfect dielectrics, it is defined in a similar way.

a relative complex permittivity that takes into account dissipation
energy in the dielectric. It is written as:
*
r= r j r (3)
0ù ris the real part of the complex permittivity, playing the same role
what r in the case of perfect dielectrics.
* *
a= r. 0 (4)

I.3.2 Loss angle and dissipation factor

Any insulator subjected to an alternating electric field is traversed by
conduction and absorption currents that lead to losses
dielectrics. The real dielectric can be represented by the diagrams
following equivalents (Fig. I.3a, 3b).
The total current flowing through the entire circuit is phase-advanced.
on the tension of an angle Its complement is called angle of
losses. The tangent of this angle is called the dissipation factor (or
of losses) and is obtained as follows:
tg Ia/ Ir= Ua/ Ur= Pa/ Pr (5)
According to formula 3 or figure I.3c, we can write:
tg = r/ r (6)
Taking into account the conduction , tg take the following form:

7
With = 2 f (f frequency of the source), electrical conductivity

Fig. I.3a: Equivalent series electrical circuit, Fig.I.3b: Circuit

parallel equivalent electric

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Fig.I.3c: Fresnel Diagram

The product r = r is called loss index, as it characterizes

the energy dissipated in the dielectric.

I.3.2.1 Application
Determine the dissipation factor in both cases of figure I.3c.
Express Cs and Rsbased on Cp, Rpand tg Calculate the losses in the
two scenarios.

Solution
-Rs and Cs are in series: tg = CsRs .
-Rpand Cpare in parallel: tg = 1/RpCp .
-R= RPtg2 / (1+tg2 ) , Cs = Cp(1 + tg2 ).
-Rpand Cpare in parallel: Pa=U2/Rp=U2Cp tg .
-Rsand Cs are in series: Pa=U2Cs tg (1+tg2 )

I.3.2.2 Determination of complex permittivity

The determination of the complex permittivity of an insulator is carried out in
making a capacitor whose dielectric consists of a
material in testing, then by measuring the capacity Cxand the factor of
dissipation tg of the capacitor thus formed. Values of Cxand of tg ,
we deduce the components of the complex permittivity from the relations
following:
r = Cx/C0, r = r .tg (8)

According to equation 8, determining the real permittivity requires the

knowledge of the empty capacity C0.
We can subdivide the methods of measuring permittivity into two.
families according to the choice made for the method of determining C0:

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In the first family, the electrodes are adjacent to the test tubes.
(samples), their geometry is well defined and the determination of C0
is carried out by calculation;
In the second family, the electrodes are massive and two measurements
successive tests are carried out, the first by inserting the specimen between the
electrodes, the second after having removed it. From these two measurements, we deduce
directly the report Cx/C0.

I.3.2.3 Electrical measurement methods of Cxand tg

The measure of Cxand tg may be carried out by the bridge method in the
range of the lowest frequencies (0.01 Hz to 10 MHz).
Two main types of bridges are used.
The Schering-type bridges (Fig. I.4) in which two arms are
capacitive (one of them is made up of the test capacitor), the
two others being resistant. This bridge is characterized by the fact that
the impedance Z1(Z2) is very big in front of Z3(Z4) in such a way that the
tension U3(U4) is very small. Points B and D are almost at the same
potential of point C (ground potential).
The Schering bridge allows for the comparison of a dielectric (Cx,tg x) to a
standard capacitor CNdevoid of electrical losses, R3, C4are
variables, R4is constant.
Due to the low measured capacitance values, parasitic capacitances,
in relation to the earth in particular, are likely to introduce some
significant causes of errors and it is often useful to resort to
other devices (Wagner device) to eliminate this source
of error.
In transformer-type bridges, the role of the capacities
Parasites are very reduced due to the very low impedances presented by
the proportionate arms that are very inductive since they are made up of
the windings of a transformer.

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Fig.I.4: Diagram of the Schering Bridge

Demonstration
Links ABD and BCD: VBD= Z2I2– Z1I1(8) and VBD= Z3I3Z4I4 (9)
Law of nodes: I2I3I5(10) and I4I2I5 (11)
The bridge is in balance if the current (I5circulating in the diagonal BD
is worthless
I5= 0, VBD= 0.
We find: Rx=R3C4/CN,Cx= CNR4/R3 = R4C4 ,
If in addition the electrodes containing the dielectric are flat, of surface
And at a distance of d, we find:
r = dR4CN/ 0SR3 r = d R42C4CN/ 0SR3
I.3.2.4 Influence parameters of permittivity
complex and the dissipation factor
I.3.2.4.1 Temperature and frequency
Insulating materials can be divided into two classes, one including
polar materials, the other, apolar materials. This
subdivision is linked to the presence or absence, in the molecule
polyatomic, with an electric order asymmetry.
Apolar materials are characterized by a factor of
low dielectric dissipation, varying little depending on the
temperature and frequency, as well as by a permittivity that
remains almost constant in a temperature range and
of frequency.
Polar materials exhibit depending on the temperature
or from the frequency one or several absorption bands
dipoles characterized by the passage of the dissipation factor
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dielectric by a maximum value as well as by a variation

fairly rapid concomitant of the permittivity.
Generally, the permittivity and the loss factor of these materials
are higher at low frequency and especially at frequency
industrial than those of apolar materials.
Dielectric dipolar losses are sometimes superimposed by losses due to
conduction observed essentially at high temperature and low
frequency.

I.3.2.4.2 Various Adjuvants

The permittivity is affected by the presence of various additives that it is
often essential to add to the materials to grant them either
a suitable thermal stability, or an adaptability appropriate for the use,
it is an increased mechanical resistance.

I.3.2.4.3 Other factors

Humidity greatly increases permittivity and
the dissipation factor.
Dielectric losses increase with the intensity of the field.
applied electric; especially from the moment when the ionization threshold
is outdated and where intense discharges begin to occur
in the lives of the insulator.
It follows that it is beneficial to choose insulators with low ...
tg especially for high voltage or frequency applications
high.
If the insulator is to serve as a dielectric for a capacitor, a
High permittivity is obviously advantageous. In all the
In other cases, on the contrary, it is desirable that it be as weak as possible.
on one hand it intervenes in the loss index, on the other hand, when
two insulators are placed in series, the dielectric stresses are
are distributed in inverse proportion to their permittivity so that the insulating material at
lower permittivity may be too constrained and break.

I.3.2.4.4 Values of the relative permittivity and the factor

losses of some insulating materials
Relative permittivity Dissipation factor Frequency

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Gas, Empty = 1 Gas

r tg Bass
less than or equal to
-6
10

Polyethylene r = 2 Polyethylene tg ≤ 5.10-4 Low

PVC r = 5 Silicone tg = 10-3 Bass

Porcelain r = 8 Paper tg = 5. 10-2 Low

Pure water r = 80 BaTiO3 tg = 10-3....10-2 Low

BaTiO3 r = 104Wood tg 0.2 Low

Porcelain tg = 10-2 High

Table I.1: Values of the relative permittivity and the loss factor
some insulating materials

I.3.3 Dielectric rigidity (DR)

The dielectric rigidity (DR) of an insulating material is the value of the field
electric to which it must be submitted so that it results in a
perforation which makes them unfit to further fulfill their function.
Practically, dielectric strength is defined as being the
report on the tension at which perforation occurs
(breakdown electric discharge) under the specified test conditions
and the distance between the two electrodes (thickness) to which is
applied the tension.
Following the relative positions of the conductors and the surface of the
materials distinguished by:
Transverse dielectric rigidity (TDR), for which the field
electric applied is perpendicular to the main surfaces of
material (Fig.I.5);
Longitudinal dielectric rigidity (RDL), obtained between two
conductors located on the same surface of the insulation (Fig.I.5).

I.3.3.1 Transverse dielectric rigidity (TDR)

In practical conditions, this rigidity is dependent on many
experimental parameters and particularly phenomena that
arise in the external environment of the solid. This value is
qualified dielectric rigidity practicality.
When it is possible to completely free oneself from the effect of these factors
external, we then speak of intrinsic rigidity, characteristic
only the material to study. The ratio of the intrinsic stiffness to
Practical rigidity can sometimes exceed a value of 20.

I.3.3.2 Longitudinal dielectric rigidity (RDL)

Longitudinal rigidity depends little on the nature of the insulator, but
much more about its state of dryness and cleanliness. Indeed, in
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in most cases, the priming of the space between the two conductors is
product first in the ambient environment next to the surface of
solid. It is only in certain cases, for example that of materials
having undergone prolonged immersion in the water that the priming concerns
the insulation really causes a real destruction of its surface
(carbonization) making it unfit to support new ones
constraints.

Fig.I.5: Transverse dielectric rigidity

I.3.3.3 Essential influence parameters

I.3.3.3.1 Geometry of the specimens
The disruptive voltage as a function of the thickness 'd' of the material is
given by the following empirical relationship:
U = k d en (12)
Where:
k is a constant;
It depends on the nature of the surrounding environment and the nature of the tension.
applied and the duration of the trial.
As a result, a dielectric rigidity value cannot characterize a
material only if mention is made of the thickness under which it was
the measurement has been carried out.

The surface of the sample is not a parameter affecting the rigidity.

dielectric, but it should be large enough to avoid
the detours that require taking the measurements again, which
leads to additional material fatigue.
I.3.3.3.2 Temperature
When the temperature increases, the dielectric strength is either
constant, slightly decreasing. Then starting from a
certain limit temperature called transition temperature,
a very rapid decline has begun.
The transition temperature actually delineates two zones in which
the perforation mechanisms are different:

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Above this transition, the sharp decrease is attributed to

the rapid increase in conduction due to collisions of
electrons
Below the transition temperature, the behavior is
different depending on whether the materials are polar or nonpolar:
For a polar structure, the decrease in temperature due to
reduction of the average free path of electrons leads to the increase
of dielectric rigidity;
The dielectric rigidity of apolar materials is independent of the
temperature.
The influence of temperature on practical dielectric rigidity is a
somewhat analogous to that observed in the case of dielectric rigidity
intrinsic except that the transition temperature depends on the conditions
experimentation. Ex: PE (Tt= - 17° C), PS (Tt+55° C)

I.3.3.3.3 Nature of the tension

Generally, the disruptive voltage decreases when moving from
the transition from direct current to alternating current.

I.3.3.3.4 Duration of voltage application

The disruption tension decreases with the increase in duration.
of the application of voltage. This function defines the lifespan curve.
of a material, this decline is attributable to prolonged action or
repeated discharges that fatigue the material and make it vulnerable
under lower tensions.

I.3.3.3.5 Other parameters

The presence of gas inclusion materials and
of affective heterogeneities dielectric rigidity, for reasons that
they are corollaries of those already mentioned.
The influence of humidity is noticeable in the case of rigidity.
dielectric, especially when it comes to products
hygroscopic, like some paper-based laminates.
Tests are sometimes planned after conditioning in water for this.
type of products in order to specify the importance that humidity can have
material on this characteristic.

I.3.3.4 Measurement of dielectric rigidity

Dielectric strength is calculated based on the voltage measurement.
minimum electric producing, for a rise time in voltage
data, the dielectric strength breakdown of the insulation found between the
electrodes, according to its smallest thickness (Fig.I.6).
Ed= Ûd/d (V crest/m) or Ed= Ud/d (V/m) (13)
with Ûdpeak voltage
In practice, given the inhomogeneity of technical insulators, one finds oneself
content of average test values under specified conditions.

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Fig.I.6: Dielectric rigidity measurement cells (a: Measurement cell

of Edgas insulators, b: Measurement cell of Edsolid insulators
and liquids)

I.3.3.4.1 Standardized conditions for determining the

dielectric rigidity
The NFC 26.225 standard (IEC 243) precisely defines the conditions
in which dielectric rigidity measurements must be made
transversal and longitudinal of insulating materials:
According to the form in which the material is presented (plates
thick or thin, ribbons and sleeves, cylinders,...), games of electrodes
are planned;
The conditions of application for alternating current of frequency
industrial, either by rapid rise or in stages (application time
of the tension, 15 seconds in the first and 3 minutes in the second) ;
The characteristics of the power supply circuit and particularly of the
transformer that must deliver a perfectly sinusoidal voltage, because
disruption is conditioned by the peak value of the voltage
applied and the measured value is the effective value (tolerance for the
reportd/Ueff= 1.31 to 1.51;
The appropriate resistance to limit the breaking current;

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The suitable devices for measuring perforation voltage that do not

must not be influenced by the potential flow of the circuit in case of
discharges originating in the ambient environment;
No formal indication regarding the choice of immersion environment
the test tubes for measuring dielectric rigidity are not provided
in this standard, it is however essential to specify its nature
in the results taking into account the role that this parameter plays in the
perforation
The results must be based on the average of the obtained values.
on a sufficient number of test tubes, in order to minimize the effect of
considerable dispersion that generally affects the measurements of
disruption tensions. The NFC 26.225 standard provides for 5 tests, but if
one of the values thus obtained deviates by more than 15% from the value
average, 5 complementary determinations must be made and the
average calculated from 10 values.
For more precise determinations, especially when it comes to a
comparison between materials or the study of the influence of a parameter
on the dielectric rigidity of a given insulator, it is appropriate to use
statistical analysis methods to define the confidence limits of
apparent differences observed.

I.3.3.4.2 RD values for various materials

Insulators Intrinsic rigidity Practical rigidity
kV/cm (kV/cm)
Polyethylene 6 10 3 780
Polystyrene 6 10 3 250
PVC 4 10 3 xxx
Tab.I.2: Dielectric rigidity at 25 °C

It is difficult to establish a list of representative values due to the

variability of the conditions chosen by different experimenters. The
Dielectric rigidity values recorded in table I.2 can
vary within wide limits.

I.3.4 Transverse resistivities, surface resistivity, and resistance

of isolation
I.3.4.1 Definition and meaning
The transverse or volumetric resistance (Rvis determined in
applying a field perpendicular to the surface of a test tube and in
measuring the transverse current that results from the application of this field
(Fig.I.7). It relates to the internal properties of the material.
The surface resistance (Rsis the one that intervenes between two
conductors on the same insulating surface (Fig.I.7). It is a notion
which involves, in addition to the quality of the material, the deposition of a thin

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conductive layer (moisture or other) through which takes place in

all or part of the conduction.
The insulation resistance (Riinvolves both the resistance
transverse and the surface resistance of a material, in a way
representative of the practical employment conditions of materials.

Fig. I.7: Volumetric, surface, and electrical insulation resistance

I.3.4.2 Resistance and transverse resistivity (Currents

transitory and permanent
The transverse resistivity of an insulating material is defined, as that
of a driver by the relationship:
=RS/e (14)
With R: Report of the tension applied to a specimen of thickness e
by the current flowing through the insulation between the surface electrodes
S.
When a voltage step is applied to an insulator, the current that flows through it
results include a transitional term whose duration can vary and
a permanent term. The latter is called conduction current. It is to
from this is defined the actual transverse resistivity of the
material.
The truly permanent current is sometimes only reached after a while.
extremely long power-up times (hours, days, or weeks
depending on the case). For this reason, resistance calculations are often
carried out from pseudo-permanent currents (that is to say whose
variation over time is very low). As a result, it is often
default values of the resistance that are obtained. Knowing the
The dimensions of the specimen, the resistivity is deduced from formula 9.
However, there are areas of non-linearity within which
this law is not valid. However, it is still used for the
calculation, due to a lack of precise knowledge of the origin of non-linearity.

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I.3.4.3 Surface Resistance and Resistivity

In electronic materials (printed circuit boards), the main insulation
between two conductors is ensured by the surface of the insulator, hence
the practical importance of determining longitudinal resistance.
This resistance consists on one hand of purely superficial resistance,
but also a certain fraction of the internal resistance of the material. The
the relative values of these two components of resistance are dependent on
of various parameters, including the width and the spacing between
conductors as well as the respective moisture state of the layers
superficial and internal of the material.
By definition, the surface resistance is the quotient of the voltage
continuously applied between the two electrodes placed on the surface of
the insulator by the resulting current. The surface resistivity is the
quotient of the surface potential gradient by the current per unit of
width.

I.3.4.4 Influence Parameters

I.3.4.4.1 Applied field
The resistivity is independent of the applied field, that is to say that the
current increases proportionally to the voltage, for field values
less than a certain value that constitutes the limit of the zone of
linearity.
This limit is at different levels depending on the materials, their
temperature and their hygroscopic state. Beyond this limit, the
variation of the current as a function of the voltage is expressed, either by a
type of relationship:
i = k Un (15)
With n 2
Let it be by a relation of type:
i = i0e(A U1/2) (16)
Where A is a constant characterizing a current originating from a
emission by field effect from the electrodes.
In practical terms, it is appropriate to take resistivity measurements in
choosing fairly high field values to allow for
precise measurements, but still located within the domain of
linearity.

I.3.4.4.2 Temperature
The resistivity of insulating materials is given by the relation:
log = (A/T) + B (17)
The slope of the log line = f (1/T) gives the activation energy of
conduction process. This can vary depending on the materials.
Examples: Polyethylene: Ea= 30 kcal/mole, PVC: Ea= 80 kcal/mole.
As a result, the transverse resistivity decreases as the temperature
increased.

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I.3.4.4.3 Humidity
The influence of humidity on the transverse resistivity of materials
insulators depend on the water content at saturation of the material in question
and its current state of humidification.

I.3.4.5 Influence of some parameters on the

surface resistivity
Generally, the various factors that modify resistivity
The transverse of solid insulators has an analogous effect on resistivity.
superficial, although the relationships are less precise.

I.3.4.6 Methods for measuring surface resistivities

and transverse
The IEC 93 publication defines the main conditions under which
measurements of these resistivities must be made.

I.3.4.6.1 Choice of a measurement method

For the majority of insulating materials, the values of resistivities are
includes between 108and 1018 . cm. By using surfaces of the order of
20 cm2For a thickness of 2mm, it comes down to measuring a resistance.
of 106at 1016 under a voltage of 100 V in order to remain in the range
of linearity. The problem therefore comes down to measuring a variable current in
function of time and understood between 10-4and 10-14A.
Bridge methods, although more precise, are not suitable.
generally not for this use, due to the evolution of the current in
function of time that justifies a dynamic measurement method instead
that a method from scratch.
We use very high impedance type voltmeter devices.
input that aims to measure the voltage appearing across the terminals
of a shunt through which the current flowing through passes
the test tube. They are essentially amplifiers of which
the amplification occurs depending on the case either directly in continuous mode or
an alternative through a vibrator. This last technique
leads to more stable measurements, therefore to higher sensitivities.
In any case, the input impedance of the device must be at least
equal to 100 times the value of the shunt, this latter having to be itself
low compared to the value of the resistance to be measured. It is generally
suitable to pair these devices with a recorder that allows to
follow the evolution of the charging current over time in order to
define, if necessary, the moment when it reaches a stable value.

I.3.4.6.2 Connection of the measuring cell (Fig. I.8)

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Fig.I.8: Schematic of measuring transverse and longitudinal resistivities

Measurement of transverse resistivity
superficial, 1: Live electrode, 2: Ground electrode, 3:
Guard ring, IsSurface current, Ivvolume current
cct= StRV/d (18) ccs= PRS/f (19)
WithSt: D0 /4;
2
D0(Average perimeter)
D0 = (D1+D2)/2 f = (D2–D1) / 2
RVVolume resistance RSSurface resistance

I.3.4.6.3 Resistivity scale

Table I.3: Resistivity scale of materials

I.3.5 Disruptive discharge or breakdown

The development of disruptive discharge within materials
solid insulators are related to one or more associations of the following phenomena:
Intrinsic discharge;
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Thermal discharge;
Partial discharge.
Other secondary causes such as electrochemical effects and
Deterioration chemicals of the insulation may arise from previous ones.

I.3.5.1 Intrinsic Discharge

The intrinsic discharge is due to the presence of free electrons, capable of
moving in the insulation. This phenomenon is initially manifested by
a characteristic of the current through the insulator presenting a
very clear saturation from a certain value of the voltage.

I.3.5.2 Thermal discharge

Dielectric losses due to the conductivity of dielectrics generating
a thermal energy, lower, equal to or greater than the possibilities
thermal evacuation by conduction or thermal convection of
dielectric. If the energy produced is greater than the thermal dissipation
the dielectric under the given cooling conditions, the
the temperature of the dielectric will increase leading to its degradation
progressive thermal by chemical decomposition and melting.

I.3.5.3 Partial discharge

High-quality insulating materials always involve some
inclusions of foreign particles and gas vacuoles. When these
insulators are subjected to an alternating voltage at industrial frequency, the
the resulting electric field is higher in the vacuoles than in
the insulator.
The formation of partial discharges in solid insulators is due to:
The increase in the permittivity of solid insulators compared to that of
gas
The low dielectric rigidity of gases (Eg Es/10).
These two observations lead to the occurrence of partial discharges.
in the vacuoles of insulators for voltages 20 to 60 times lower
that would cause the perforation of the solid dielectric.

I.3.5.4 Activation of gas insulation

It is the passage of an electric discharge through its insulating medium and
training thus its dielectric breakdown (Fig. I. 9).
The initialization of an air gap (Example: tip-plane) can take place
by three distinct electrical phenomena: (a): Primary avalanche; (b):
Streamers; (c): Leader.

I.3.5.4.1 Air interval priming

By primary avalanche
Birth and development of the primary avalanche (Fig. I. 10a).
Contact this one with the electrodes;

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Formation of an unstable leader with streamers at its head

contact with the ground electrode (Fig. I. 10b).
Establishment of air shock upon contact with the unstable leader with the
plan. This translates to an electric arc connecting the two electrodes.
(Fig. I. 10b).

Fig.I.9: Different types of insulation

Fig.I.10a: Avalanche or electronic multiplication

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Fig.I.10b: Air breakdown by primary avalanche

I.3.5.4.1.2 By streamers
The training of streamers is subject to reaching a certain size.
critique of the primary avalanche (nea= 108electrons). Then, the
streamers develop and connect with the plane. The rest of the
the phenomenon is similar to the previous case (Fig.I.11).

Fig. I.11 Air breakdown by streamers

I.3.5.4.1.3 By Leader
The formation of a stable leader type discharge is subject to the
birth and reaching a critical mass of streamers. This one
then propagates in the inter-electrode air gap.
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As soon as the streamers from the stable leader's head enter

contact with the grounded electrode, an unstable leader takes
birth in the air space between the two electrodes. This one
progresses towards the ground electrode, while its streamers see their
size shrinks while remaining always connected to the ground electrode (Fig.I.
12). As soon as the unstable leader comes into contact with the ground electrode, a
The air interval rupture is established. This is materialized by a
electric arc short - circuiting the two electrodes (Fig.I.12).

I.3.5.4.2 Dielectric strength of air

The dielectric strength of air is the ability to withstand stress of
tension without dielectric breakdown of its insulating medium. It is given by
the following formula:
Ut 90%UD
(20)

With:
Udbreakdown voltage or disruptive of the air gap and Utsa
dielectric strength.

Fig.I.12: Air breakdown by leader

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I.3.5.4.2.1 Maintenance of air under alternating current

In industrial frequency, and for d 3 m, the ignition voltage at 50%
The air gap of the point-plane configuration (RP) is of the form:

U 50% RP 750 2 ln 1  0.55d1,2  , d 3m (21)

The holding of any geometry can be evaluated by means of the

relation 22 (Determined from maneuver impact tests and given
by table I.3):

U 50% gq U 50% RP  1.35K 0.35K 2

 (22)

Table I.3: Air gap factors for different configurations

electrodes

Clean and dry, the insulating supports of the busbars, the crossings of
transformers and insulators have a similar performance at distance
directly in the air between their two extreme electrodes.
On the other hand, rain and even more pollution can lead to
reductions of their dielectric strength.

I.3.5.4.2.2 Air maintenance under maneuver influence

The breakdown voltage of a point-plane air gap under voltage of
positive maneuver at peak time Tcr= Tcritis in the form:

U 50% RP 1080ln 0.46d 1 
0.5 m ≤ d ≤ 25 m, Tcr= Tcrit (23)
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(U in kV and d in m)

For a standardized positive maneuver shock, illustrated in figure I.13 (T

= 250 µs, Tq= 2500 µs), the breakdown voltage of the same air gap is
in the form:
U 50% RP 500d0.6
(1 d 10 m), Tcr= 250 µs
(24)

(U in kV and d in m)

Rain leads to significant reductions in dielectric strength

air gaps in which chains of insulators or are located
supports of bars even if they are clean.

Fig.I.13: Shape of the maneuver shock wave

I.3.5.4.2.3 Air retention under lightning impulse

For a standardized positive lightning strike, illustrated by figure I.14(TCR=
1.2 µs, Tq 50 µs), the breakdown voltage of a plane-to-point air gap
is of the form:
U 50% RP 530d
1m d 10m
(25)

(U in kV and d in m)

The interval factor for the normalized CF+ can be expressed in

function of the interval factor K for CM+ by relation 26:

K cf  0.74 0.26Kcm

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(26)

It is necessary to estimate the dielectric strength of insulator strings.

negative polarity air lines to determine the amplitude of
the majority of surges caused by lightning arriving at the substations;
Formula 27 can be used:

U 50%)cf  700d

(U in kV and d in m) (27)

Fig.I.14: Shock wave shape of lightning

I.4 Thermal classification of insulators and

insulation systems
The lifespan of an electric machine is generally limited by
that of its insulators much more than by the wear of its parts.
mechanics.
The operation of any electrical equipment is accompanied by losses.
therefore, a warm-up that must be limited to compatible values
with the proper handling of insulation materials.
Indeed, the effect of temperature on insulators leads to two
types of phenomena:
Physical transformations, immediate and pure.
reversible (softening, melting, decrease in rigidity)
dielectric);
Slow and irreversible deformations due to reactions
chemical (oxidation, polymerization, depolymerization, hydrolysis, ...)

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leading to a progressive degradation of physical properties.

These transformations are encompassed under the term 'aging.'
thermal' and they are the ones that most often limit temperatures
use of insulation.
We call the lifespan of an insulator at a temperature T the time
to maintain this temperature, necessary to lower such
essential property of this insulator up to the point where it is not
capable of fulfilling its function.
It was around 1930 that Montsinger established for the insulating materials based on
cellulose an empirical law expressed by the rule of 8 degrees.
Ladurée of a cellulose-based insulating material is divided by 2
for every increase of 8°C in temperature.
This law proves to be quite accurate in a limited range of temperature.
(90 to 130 °C). It is convenient and can be used for estimates.
coarse, even for other insulators than cellulose, provided that
take 10 to 12 °C instead of 8.
Dakin (USA) recently showed that the laws of thermal aging
can be expressed by the simple relation:
ln L = A + B/T (28)
In which L is the lifespan, T the absolute temperature, A and B are
constants depending on the lifespan.
Experience has shown that a good number of insulators follow quite
exactly this law, provided that it does not cover a wide area
of temperatures and especially on the condition that the chemical reactions that
governing their degradation is of the first order, which is not
unfortunately not the case.
The following classification, adopted in 1957 by the IEC, is still in use.
strength
-Class Y: Limit temperature 90 °C;
Organic materials such as cotton, silk, paper, cellulose fiber,
employees without impregnating.
-Class A: Maximum temperature 105 °C;
Previous materials suitably impregnated with a varnish or
immersed in a liquid dielectric, bakelite wood, enameled wires
glossy varnish.
-Class E: Maximum temperature 120 °C;
Previous products protected from air, polyester resins, films of
polyethylene terephthalate, enameled wires in polyvinyl formal.
-Class B: Maximum temperature 130 °C;
Insulators based on inorganic products such as mica, asbestos, fiber of
glass, agglomerated by products such as asphalt or shellac.
Class F: Temperature limit 155 °C;
Products such as the previous ones but bonded with resins that have
better thermal stability (alkyds, alkyd silicones, epoxy).
Class H: Maximum temperature 180 °C;
Products such as the previous ones but agglomerated with resins
silicones (Silicone elastomers).
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-Class C: Temperature above 180 °C;

Completely inorganic materials and binders. In addition:
polytetrafluoroethylene.
This classification is based almost entirely on experience.
acquired in service. She claims to assign to each material a
maximum operating temperature regardless of the function it will have
to be filled in the machine.
It is being replaced by a classification based on
thermal indices determined by well-defined precise methods, and
which would qualify each material in terms of its electrical behavior
mechanical or otherwise, during aging. Such indicators
would allow selecting either one with full knowledge.
material intended for a specific application.

I.5 Factors to consider in the choice of insulation

I.5.1 Function
The basic function of any insulation is to ensure a separation.
electric between two conductors held at different potentials. This
can be achieved in various ways:
- By interposing a solid dielectric barrier between the parts under
tension (ground isolation, between turns, ...). The dielectric properties
transversals, notably the dielectric rigidity, should be considered here in
priority
By maintaining a distance between the conductors, immersed in air,
in oil or another dielectric fluid. In this case, the qualities of
surfaces will be predominant (resistance to movement, low
hygroscopic, ...
The purely mechanical function: support, adjustment, and fitting of
conductors already possessing their own insulation.

I.5.2 Temperature
According to the temperature at the operating point and the lifespan
depending on the machine or device, we will choose this or that insulation.
without losing sight of the fact that only system tests are conclusive.

I. 5.3 Other constraints

Mechanical constraints such as vibrations, stresses
electrohydrodynamics in case of short circuits, expansions and
differential contractions due to temperature variations.
The constraints encountered during implementation by
example during the winding of wires, the shaping of insulators,
the impregnation, ...
External environmental or atmospheric constraints:
humidity, dust, chemical atmospheres, radiation, ...

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Chapter II: Polarization Phenomena

electric
II.1 Polarization of dielectrics
A dielectric placed between the plates of a parallel capacitor is
subjected to a constant direct voltage is traversed by a current
electric. When the insulator is removed from the capacitor, the latter will be
traversed by a current of reverse direction. Under the action of a
electric field, a thin layer of charges appears
negatives on one side of the material and a thin layer of charges
positives on the other side (Fig. II.1). These charges compensate
partially the action of the loads carried by the reinforcements of the
capacitor. For the voltage across it to remain
constant, the source must provide additional loads equal to the
charges produced on the dielectric, which explains the transition of a
electric current translating the appearance of polarization charges. The
the phenomenon of polarization presents a certain analogy with the
displacement of charges by influence in metals. There exists
however, a notable difference between these two phenomena. In the
metals the electrons can move over large distances
(charge separation), while the polarization charges cannot
to move only over a distance on the order of magnitude of a molecule
(no charge separation of polarization).

Fig. II.1: Polarization of a dielectric (D0Electric induction in the

see, DPElectrical induction due to polarization

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In the absence of solid material (Gas or vacuum), the electric induction is

the shapeD(29)
0 E
By introducing a solid insulating material with relative permittivity r,
the total electric induction becomes:
D D0 D p 0E D p 0 rE (30)
Dp 0E( r 1) (31)
Dp
r 1 r (32)
D0
Dp 0 rE (33)
D 0 E1 
r  (34)

- D0is the electric induction in the vacuum and Dpthat in the material; D l
total electric induction.
- ris called relative electric susceptibility or polarization capability
electric (electric polarization capability) of the dielectric.

II.2 Different types of polarization

II.2.1 Electronic polarization
Electronic polarization (Fig. II.2) is due to the displacement of
electrons in relation to the nucleus of an atom (or vice versa). All the
atoms exhibit this type of polarization to varying degrees, which the
the establishment time (of relaxation) is very short r= 10-15s).

Fig. II.2: Electronic polarization (a: Eext= 0,b: Eext

II.2.2 Ionic polarization

The ionic polarization (Fig.II.3), whose recovery time is
of the order of r =10-13at 10-12, results from displacement in the opposite direction
ions of opposite signs. This polarization is only found in
ionic crystals.

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Materials with these types of polarization are not polar. They

are not affected by temperature and dielectric losses are not
not appreciable in industrial frequency.

Fig. II.3: Ionic polarization (a: Eext= 0,b: Eext 0)

II.2.3 Dipole polarization or orientation polarization

Orientation polarization (Fig. II.4) results from the orientation of
dipolar molecules under the action of the electric field whose time of
relaxation is a matter of r=10-8This type of polarization appears
in gases, liquids, and viscous amorphous bodies.

Fig.II.4: Dipole polarization/orientation (a: Eext= 0,b: Eext 0)

II.2.4 Interfacial Polarization

Interfacial polarization (Fig. II.5) results from the concentration of
charges related to defects such as impurities, gaps,
inclusions. This local accumulation is caused by the migration of the
charges under the effect of the electric field. The establishment time of

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this polarization is on the order of r=10-3s. This type of polarization is

meeting in heterogeneous dielectrics (Polyethylene) or in
composite dielectrics (oil-impregnated paper).

Fig.II.5: Interfacial polarization (a: Eext= 0,b: Eext 0)

For a dielectric exhibiting all polarizations, the diagram

the equivalent electric is of the following form:

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Fig.II.6: Equivalent electrical diagram of a material possessing all

the polarizations
II.3 DC Voltage Polarization

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Fig. II.7: Equivalent electrical circuit of a dielectric (CVAbility to

life without the dielectric, RVVolume or transverse resistance, CP:
Capacitance due to the electric polarization of the material, RPResistance due to
the electric polarization of the dielectric material that occurs in the
time constant P= RPCP)

II.3.1 Dielectric charging process

When applying a direct voltage step to a material
dielectric at t = 0, it will be traversed by:
A capacitive current iC(t) = CVdu/dt only present during the jump
sudden change in tension (sudden variation in tension);
A current due to the polarization of the dielectric iP(t) which decreases more or
slower according to the time constant P= RPCPThe current
characterizing the charging process of the dielectric is called current
of absorption;
A conduction current iVdue to the conductivity of the dielectric (the
dielectric is not a perfect insulator.

(35)
The charging process is used, for example, to check if the insulation
of an electric machine has absorbed a lot of moisture. If the ratio of
currents after 15 and 60 s is less than 2.5, it will be necessary to dry the insulation of
the machine before its startup.

II.3.2 Dielectric Discharge Process

If we disconnect the dielectric from the voltage source, the
capacitors CVe CPdischarge respectfully through the
resistances RVand RV+ RP.
If we replace the source with a short circuit at time t = tK:
1) IV= 0 (The dielectric is disconnected from the source);
2) i (t) = iC(t) + iP (t) (36)
The capacitor discharges very quickly because of the resistance of
discharge is void. CPdischarges with the constant P= RPCP.
If we remove the short circuit, the capacitor CPdischarges through
RPand RV, CVis charged so that the voltage across terminals AB will
increases, which explains the residual tension at the terminals AB of the
dielectric.

II.4 Characteristics and Areas of Use of Materials

dielectrics
According to the purpose of insulation, we can distinguish two groups of
dielectrics

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Passive dielectrics whose main function is insulation of

two electrical conductors between themselves or an active electrical conductor
of its environment;

Active dielectrics where the exploitation of various phenomena of

polarization of materials allows to distinguish:

a) Normal dielectrics for capacitors;

b) Ferroelectric materials with remanent electric polarization;

c) Piezoelectric materials for energy conversion

electricity into mechanical energy and vice versa.

Table II.1 allows to differentiate between a passive and an active dielectric.

It should be noted that an dielectric is defined as a material endowed with
an electrical resistivity ttransversal variant between 1010and 1024 .cm. The
surface resistivity sof an insulating material is practically 100 times
lower than its volume resistivity v.

Nature of the dielectric Passive Active

Insulators
Relative permittivity r) small big
Loss factor (tg ) small small
Dielectric rigidity (Ed) big big
Table II.1: Difference between a dielectric and an insulator

II.4.1 Passive Dielectrics

Tables II.2 and II.3 summarize the electrical characteristics
important among the various most commonly used passive dielectrics as well as the
areas of their employment.

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Tab.II.2: Electrical characteristics and application range of insulators

organic and inorganic solids, liquids and gases
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Table II.3: Electrical characteristics and field of application of insulators

thermosetting and thermoplastic
II.4.2 Active Dielectrics
II.4.2.1 Active dielectrics for technical capacitors
For reasons of electrical energy storage, the different types of
Technically possible capacitors are schematized in figure II.8.

Fig.II.8: Types of technical capacitors

Figure II.9 gives an idea of the characteristics of the different ones

realizable technical capacitors.

Fig.II.9: Technical characteristics of various capacitors

II.4.2.2 Ferroelectric Dielectrics

A ferroelectric material is one in which the moments
dipoles are coupled. This coupling phenomenon constitutes the
ferroelectricity.
Ferroelectric materials are characterized by a permittivity.
extremely high relative, on the order of 104All properties
Electric materials are very sensitive to temperature. Ferroelasticity
disappears beyond a temperature known as the Curie temperature
ferroelectric (Fig. II.10).

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A ferroelectric domain is defined as any region in which all the

dipoles are aligned parallel to each other.
variation in the structure of domains being an irreversible phenomenon, the
polarization characteristic as a function of the electric field takes the
shape of a hysteresis cycle in alternating field (Fig. II.11).

Fig. II.10: Spontaneous polarization and ferroelectric domains

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Fig. II.11: Ferroelectric hysteresis cycle

The characteristic magnitudes of the cycle are defined as follows:
The main hysteresis cycle is the one obtained in an alternating field.
with an amplitude of at least Es(Saturation);
The remanent polarization Prand the coercive field Ec defined by the
intersections of the main cycle with the axes.
Ferroelectricity only occurs in crystalline structures.
particular. Above the Curie temperature (120 °C), the titanate
barium (BaTi03) has a perovskite structure (Fig.II.12a).
Perovskite is a mineral with the formula ABO3named in tribute to
Russian mineralogist Lev Aleksevich von Perovski. Its structure is illustrated
by figure II.13. It is called pseudo-cubic because in its most shape
simple this structure is cubic (Fig.II.13a). In this structure, O
is invariably an oxygen anion O2- (divalent), site A is filled
by a divalent cation (Ca)2+, Ba2+, Pb2+... and site B is filled by a
tetravalent cation (Mn)4+4+, You4+Zr4+, Nb4+...). In this structure the
8 sites A form a cube. The oxygen anions O2-are at the center of
each face forms an octahedron at the center of which is site B.
In cubic form, this structure is centrosymmetric and of this
fact cannot be piezoelectric. However, when site B is occupied
by ions of different natures and thus of different sizes, this
leads to distortions of the perovskite lattice. These distortions
dissymmetrize the crystal structure which is then ferroelectric (Fig.II.

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The crystalline structure of the deformed perovskite lattice can be

of rhombohedral or quadratic phase (Fig. II.13bet13c).

Fig. II.12: Perovskite structure of BaTiO3

Below the Curie temperature, this structure undergoes a
deformation changing from cubic to tetragonal. The displacements of the ions
gives the deformed structure a dipole moment which, for reasons of
symmetry can have six different orientations.

Fig.II.13: Three phases of the perovskite structure

II.4.2.3 Piezoelectric Dielectrics

Piezoelectric materials are characterized by:
Electric polarization under the action of a mechanical constraint;
In the absence of mechanical constraint, their dimensions change.
when they are polarized under the effect of an external electric field.

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The quartz SiO2(Fig. II.13), barium titanate BaTiO3(Fig.II.12) and

aluminum phosphate AlPO4are piezoelectric materials
most used.

Fig.II.13a: Structure of quartz in absence and under the effect of a

mechanical constraint

Fig.II.13b: Direct and inverse piezoelectric effect

II.4.2.3.1 Application Areas of Piezoelectrics

Piezoelectric materials allow for the conversion of a wave
acoustic into electrical signal and vice versa. They form the core of
transducersacoustics used to emit or detect waves

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acoustics in all frequency ranges. They can be found in

several fields.

In the ranges of audible frequencies, we carry out

microphonesand of thespeakers, notably in the
mobile phones.

In thesonars, used in the navy, but also in

the automobile, for obstacle detection.

In medicine, they are used for the realization ofultrasounds, who

require the emission and detection of ultrasonic waves, as well as
for certain ultrasound therapies.

It is possible to achieve someresonatorsvery stable piezoelectrics

over time and with very precise frequencies. The vibration
very stable piezoelectric allows for the realization of time references
exploitable in electronics. ThewatchesQuartz use resonance
of a quartz crystal to create the regular clock pulses.

Thepiezoelectric microbalances, and particularly the

quartz microbalancesalso rely on this principle and
allow for very precise mass measurements.

Piezoelectric materials are therefore natural candidates for

applications based on pressure detection. Sensors of
Piezoelectric sensors are used notably for automotive purposes.
(tire pressure), aeronautics (pressure in the nozzles), some
scaleor the music (electronic drums).
Piezoelectric actuators and motors benefit from the effect
inverse piezoelectric: in these devices, an electric field is
used to command a deformation or a displacement.

Thegas lighterand thebriquette"electronics" are examples of the

way in which piezoelectric materials allow to produce high
tensions. The direct piezoelectric effect allows for the production of very high voltages.
tensions, higher than the breakdown voltage of air 30 kV/cm for a
a gap of a few millimeters. When this tension is reached,
a spark from the discharge is produced and utilized to ignite the gas
the lighter or the stove.

Atransformerpiezoelectric is a voltage multiplier

alternative. Unlike the classical transformer which uses a
magnetic coupling, the utilized coupling is acoustic. By effect
inverse piezoelectric, an excitation voltage allows to create (with the help of
ofelectrodeslocated at one of the two ends of the bar) a
alternative constraint in a bar of a highly strong material
piezoelectric (a PZT ceramic: Lead Titanate-Zirconate by

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example). This constraint allows for the implementation ofvibrationfrom the bar to one
frequency chosen to match a resonance frequency.
direct piezoelectric effect, a voltage is produced on electrodes
located at the second end of the bar. This tension, which benefits
from the amplification of the movement due to resonance, maybe 1,000 times
higher.

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