Table of Contents

Grammar ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
Word-level Grammar .................................................................................................................................... 3
Parts of Speech ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1. Verb ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Adverbs ................................................................................................................................................. 4
2.1. Kinds of Adverbs .......................................................................................................................... 4
3. Noun...................................................................................................................................................... 6
3.1. Types of Nouns ............................................................................................................................. 6
4. Pronoun................................................................................................................................................. 9
4.1. Types of pronouns......................................................................................................................... 9
5. Adjective ............................................................................................................................................. 17
5.1. Degree of Adjectives................................................................................................................... 17
5.2. Types of Adjective ...................................................................................................................... 18
6. Preposition .......................................................................................................................................... 22
7. Conjunction ......................................................................................................................................... 23
8. Interjection.......................................................................................................................................... 24
9. Determiners ........................................................................................................................................ 25
9.1. Articles ........................................................................................................................................ 27
9.2. Demonstrative Determiners ........................................................................................................ 27
9.3. Possessive Determiners ............................................................................................................... 28
9.4. Quantifiers................................................................................................................................... 30
9.5. Numbers ...................................................................................................................................... 31
9.6. Interrogative Determiners ........................................................................................................... 33
9.7. Pre-Determiners and Post-Determiners ...................................................................................... 34

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Sentence-level Grammar ............................................................................................................................ 36
1. Phrases ................................................................................................................................................ 36
1.1. Noun Phrase ................................................................................................................................ 36
1.2. Verb Phrase ................................................................................................................................. 36
1.3. Adjective Phrase ......................................................................................................................... 37
1.4. Adverb Phrase ............................................................................................................................. 37
1.5. Prepositional Phrase .................................................................................................................... 37
2. Sentence .............................................................................................................................................. 38
2.1. Types of Sentence (The 4 Types) ............................................................................................... 40
2.1.1. Declarative Sentence (statement) ........................................................................................ 41
2.1.2. Interrogative Sentence (question) ....................................................................................... 41
2.1.3. Imperative Sentence (command)......................................................................................... 42
2.1.4. Exclamative Sentence (exclamation) .................................................................................. 42
2.2. The Sentence Structure / 4 Types of Sentence Structure ............................................................ 43
2.2.1. Simple Sentence Structure .................................................................................................. 43
2.2.2. Compound Sentence Structure ............................................................................................ 43
2.2.3. Complex Sentence Structure ............................................................................................... 44
2.2.4. Compound-Complex Sentence Structure ............................................................................ 44
3. Types of Verbs ..................................................................................................................................... 45
3.1. Linking verbs ............................................................................................................................... 45
3.2. Intransitive Verbs ........................................................................................................................ 46
3.3. Transitive Verbs .......................................................................................................................... 47
3.3.1. Monotransitive verbs........................................................................................................... 47
3.3.2. Ditransitive verbs .............................................................................................................. 48
4. Direct and Indirect Object ................................................................................................................... 49
5. Reported Speech ................................................................................................................................. 50
6. Parenthetical Expression..................................................................................................................... 50

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 Grammar
Grammar is the way we arrange words to make proper sentences. Word level grammar covers
verbs and tenses, nouns, adverbs etc. Sentence level grammar covers phrases, clauses, reported
speech etc.

Word-level Grammar
Parts of Speech
These are the words that you use to make a sentence.

1. Verb

Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing. Along with
nouns, verbs are the main part of a sentence or phrase, telling a story about what is taking place.
In fact, without a verb, full thoughts can‘t be properly conveyed, and even the simplest
sentences, such as Maria sings, have verb.
OR
A verb expresses action or being.
jump... is... write... become
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or
more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must
agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different
forms to express tense.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.

Action verbs, express what is happening (do, work).

State verbs express a situation (be, have).

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2. Adverbs
Adverbs tell us more about verbs, adjectives or adverbs (loudly, really, extremely).
OR
An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It
usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared

2.1. Kinds of Adverbs

Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs.
2.1.1. Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the
question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.

 He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?)

 They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?)

 James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?)

We normally use Adverbs of Manner with dynamic (action) verbs, not with stative or state verbs.
 He ran fast. She came quickly. They worked happily.
 She looked beautifully. It seems strangely. They are happily.
2.1.2. Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?".
Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.

 Please sit here. (Where should I sit?)

 They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?)
 Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?)

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2.1.3. Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time
mainly modify verbs.
They can answer the question "when?":
 He came yesterday. (When did he come?)
 I want it now. (When do I want it?)
Or they can answer the question "how often?" (Frequency):
 They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?)
 We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)
2.1.4. Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the
question "how much?" or "to what degree?" Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and
other adverbs.
 She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)
 Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?)
 He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How
dangerously did he drive?)

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3. Noun
Nouns represent people (teacher, Mary), places (town, Asia) and things (table, music).

OR
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
man... Butte College... house... happiness

A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do
not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by
adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a
subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.

3.1. Types of Nouns

 Common nouns and proper nouns,
 Concrete nouns and abstract nouns,
 Countable and uncountable,
 Collective nouns,
 Compound nouns
3.1.1. Common Nouns
A common noun is the general, non-specific term for a person, place, thing, or idea. Usually,
common nouns are not capitalized unless they begin a sentence.
For example, as you work on your homework, think about the things you are using. You might
be using a computer, a textbook, or a pencil. All of these are generic items that we encounter on
a regular basis and are common nouns.
The vast majority of nouns are common nouns. Words like car, dog, teacher, house, water,
music, plane, sea—they are all "general" nouns and NOT the name of some person or place. We
call them common nouns.
3.1.2. Proper nouns
A proper noun is a specific, unique person, place, thing, or idea. Unlike common nouns, proper
nouns are always capitalized whether they begin a sentence or not.

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Let‘s consider the same example from above, but instead, now we will be more specific about
the resources necessary to complete your homework.
As you work, you may be using a Pearson Algebra 1 textbook, a Google Chromebook, and a
Ticonderoga pencil. You are better able to visualize this scenario if proper nouns are provided
since they are more specific and unique.
For example, the word building is a common noun. Examples of buildings include The White
House, The Art Institute of Chicago, and Memorial Hall at Harvard University. All the examples
are Proper nouns,
3.1.3. Concrete nouns
A noun denoting a material object rather than an abstract quality, state, or action, e.g. dog,
building, tree etc.
OR
A concrete noun is a noun that can be identified through one of the five senses (taste, touch,
sight, hearing, or smell).
3.1.4. Abstract nouns
An abstract noun is a noun that cannot be perceived using one of the five senses (i.e., taste,
touch, sight, smell, and hearing). For Example: Courage, Sadness, Happiness etc.
3.1.5. Countable nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example: "pen".
We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some more countable
nouns:
3.1.6. Uncountable nouns
Unlike countable nouns, uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc. that we cannot divide
into separate elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can
count "bottles of milk" or "liters of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself.
3.1.7. Collective nouns
A collective noun is a noun that represents a collection of individuals, usually people, such as:
 a team (for example: eleven football players)
 a family (for example: mother, father and two children)
Here are some more collective noun examples.

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  committee, senate, company, audience, police, army etc.
3.1.8. Compound Nouns
A compound noun is a noun that is made with two or more words. A compound noun is usually
[noun + noun] or [adjective + noun], or [verb + noun], or [preposition + noun] etc. example
Football , blackboard, washing machine, underworld etc.
There are three forms for compound nouns:
 open or spaced - space between words (tennis shoe)
 hyphenated - hyphen between words (six-pack)
 closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words (bedroom)

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4. Pronoun
Pronoun is a small word like (you, ours, some,) that can take the place of a noun.
OR
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
She... we... they... it
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific
noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is
the girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or
things; possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize
another noun or pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative
pronouns identify, point to, or refer to nouns.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.

4.1. Types of pronouns

 Personal Pronouns
 Subject Pronouns
 Object Pronouns
 Possessive Pronouns
 Demonstrative Pronouns
 Interrogative Pronouns
 Relative Pronouns
 Reflexive Pronouns
 Intensive Pronouns
 Reciprocal Pronouns
4.1.1. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:
 number: singular (eg: I /he) or plural (eg: we/they)
 person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person (eg: he)
 gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
 case: subjective (eg: we) or objective (eg: us)

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We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is
Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I
am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about
another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.
Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:

number person gender personal pronouns

subjective objective

singular 1st male/ female I me

2nd male/ female you you

3rd male he him

female she her

neuter it it

plural 1st male/ female we us

2nd male/ female you you

3rd male/ female/ neuter they them

Examples (in each pair, the first sentence shows a subjective pronoun, the second an objective
pronoun):
 I like coffee. / John helped me.
 Do you like coffee? / John loves you.
 He runs fast. / Did Ram beat him?
 She is clever. / Does Mary know her?
 It doesn't work. / Can the man fix it?
 We went home. / Anthony drove us.
 Do you need a table for three? / Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?
 They played doubles. / John and Mary beat them.

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When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few
exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal
is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are
often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:
 This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsatian.
 The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
 My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
 Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.

For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several
solutions to this:

 If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.

 If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
 If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.

We often use it to introduce a remark:

 It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.

 It is important to dress well.
 It's difficult to find a job.

We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:

 It's raining.
 It will probably be hot tomorrow.
 Is it nine o'clock yet?
 It's 50 kilometers from here to Cambridge.
4.1.2. Possessive Pronouns
We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent"
) belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).
We use possessive pronouns depending on:
 number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
 person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)
 gender: male (his), female (hers)

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Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each
possessive pronoun can:
 be subject or object
 refer to a singular or plural antecedent

number person gender (of "owner") possessive pronouns

singular 1st male/ female mine

2nd male/ female yours

3rd male his

female hers

plural 1st male/ female ours

2nd male/ female yours

3rd male/ female/ neuter theirs

 Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)

 I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)
 I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object =
your key)
 My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)
 All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
 John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
 John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)
 Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)
 Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)
 Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)
 I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (object = your garden)
 These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children)
 John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)

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 Notice that the following (with apostrophe [']) do NOT exist: her's, your's, their's

Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an
interrogative possessive pronoun). Look at these examples:

 There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was.
 This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it?
4.1.3. Demonstrative Pronouns:
Demonstrative pronouns normally indicate the closeness of or distance from the speaker, either
literally or symbolically. This, these, that, and those are the demonstrative pronouns. They also
work as demonstrative adjectives when they modify a noun. However, demonstrative pronouns
do not modify anything rather replace the nouns/noun phrases.
Sometimes neither, none and such are also used as demonstrative pronouns.
Example:
 That is a long way to go. (demonstrative pronoun)
 This is my car. (demonstrative pronoun)
 Hand me that cricket bat. (demonstrative adjective)
 Neither is permitted to enter the building.
 Such are ways of life.
4.1.4. Interrogative Pronouns:
Interrogative pronouns produce questions. They are what, which, who, whom, and whose.
Who, whom, and whose refer to questions related to a person or animal; what refers to an idea,
object, or event; and which can indicate either a person/s or a thing/s.
Example:
 What was the name of your dog?
 Which is your favorite movie?
 Who works for you?
 Whom do you prefer in this competition?
 There‘s a new bike on the lawn. Whose is it?

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4.1.5. Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns introduce the relative clause. They are used to make clear what is being talked
about in a sentence. They describe something more about the subject or the object.
The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possession Uncertainty

Which Which Whose Whichever ---- (for things)

That That ---- (for both things and people)

Who Whom Whose Whoever/whomever/whosever ---- (for person)

Example:
 The car that was stolen was the one they loved most.
 A person who loves nature is a good person.
 Our school, which was founded in 1995, is being renovated.
 I will accept whichever party dress you buy me on Valentine's Day.
 Whoever you are behind this great initiative, I want to thank you.
4.1.6. Reflexive pronoun
Reflexive pronoun redirects a sentence or a clause back to the subject, which is also the direct
object of that sentence. A reflexive pronoun comes when the subject performs its action upon
itself. Here, ‗itself‘ is a reflexive pronoun.
Example:
 Since she is her own boss, she gave herself a raise. (Here, ‗herself‘ is the direct object
of the clause and the same person is the subject)
 She allowed herself more time to get ready.
 The computer restarts itself every night.
 We told ourselves that we were so lucky to be alive.
4.1.7. Intensive Pronouns:
Intensive pronouns add emphasis/importance but do not act as the object in the sentence. They
can appear right after the subject.

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Example:
 I will do it myself. (Here, ‗myself‘ is not an object)
 I myself saw the missing boat into the harbor.
 We intend to do all the work ourselves.
 You yourselves are responsible for this mess.
Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive pronouns, but the function
and usage are different. An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent. Look at these example
reflexive and intensive pronouns (which ones are intensive?):
 I made it myself. OR I myself made it.
 Have you yourself seen it? OR Have you seen it yourself?
 The President himself promised to stop the war.
 She spoke to me herself. OR She herself spoke to me.
 The exam itself wasn't difficult, but the exam room was horrible.
 Never mind. We'll do it ourselves.
 You yourselves asked us to do it.
 They recommend this book even though they themselves had never read it. OR They
recommend this book even though they had never read it themselves
4.1.8. Reciprocal Pronouns
We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the same way
towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A. So we say:
 A and B are talking to each other.
The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I give you a present and
you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:
 each other
 one another
When we use these reciprocal pronouns:
 there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot use
reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it)
 they must be doing the same thing
Look at these examples:

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o John and Mary love each other.
o Peter and David hate each other.
o The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.
o Both teams played hard against each other.
o We gave each other gifts.
o Why don't you believe each other?
o They can't see each other.
o The gangsters were fighting one another.
o The boats were bumping against each other in the storm.

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5. Adjective
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun (big, red, and expensive etc.)
OR
An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
Pretty... old... blue... smart
An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the
question of which one, what kind, or how many. It normally indicates quality, size, shape,
duration, feelings, contents, and more about a noun or pronoun.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.

5.1. Degree of Adjectives

There are three degrees of adjectives: Positive, comparative, superlative.
These degrees are applicable only for the descriptive adjectives.
Examples:
 Positive degree: He is a good boy.
 Comparative degree: He is better than any other boy.
 Superlative: He is the best boy.
The simplest form of the adjective is its positive form/degree.
When two objects or persons are being compared, the comparative form/degree of the adjective
is used. When three or more things are being compared, we use the adjective‘s superlative
form/degree.
A few adjectives, like good and bad form their comparatives and superlative with different
words:
That is a good book. This is a better book. Which of the three is the best book?
He made a bad choice. She made a worse choice. They made the worst choice of all.

The comparative and superlative forms/degrees of most adjectives, however, are formed by
adding the suffixes –er and –est, or by placing the words more and most in front of the positive
form.

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5.2. Types of Adjective
 Descriptive Adjectives/Qualitative Adjectives
 Quantitative Adjectives
 Proper Adjectives
 Demonstrative Adjectives
 Possessive Adjectives
 Interrogative Adjectives
 Indefinite Adjectives
 Articles
 Compound Adjectives
5.2.1. Descriptive Adjectives/Qualitative Adjectives
A descriptive adjective is a word which describes nouns and pronouns. Most of the adjectives
belong in this type. These adjectives provide information and attribute to the nouns/pronouns
they modify or describe. Descriptive adjectives are also called qualitative adjectives.
Participles are also included in this type of adjective when they modify a noun.
Examples:
 I have a fast car. (The word ‗fast‘ is describing an attribute of the car)
 I am hungry. (The word ‗hungry‘ is providing information about the subject)
 The hungry cats are crying.
 I saw a flying Eagle.
5.2.2. Quantitative Adjectives
A quantitative adjective provides information about the quantity of the nouns/pronouns. This
type belongs to the question category of ‗how much‘ and ‗how many‘.
Examples:
 I have 20 bucks in my wallet. (How much)
 They have three children. (How many)
 You should have completed the whole task. (How much)

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5.2.3. Proper Adjectives
Proper adjectives are the adjective form of proper nouns. When proper nouns modify or
describe other nouns/pronouns, they become proper adjectives. ‗Proper‘ means ‗specific‘ rather
than ‗formal‘ or ‗polite.‘
A proper adjective allows us to summarize a concept in just one word. Instead of writing/saying
‗a food cooked in Chinese recipe‘ you can write/say ‗Chinese food‘.
Proper adjectives are usually capitalized as proper nouns are.
Example:
 American cars are very strong.
 Chinese people are hard workers.
 I love KFC burgers.
 Marxist philosophers despise capitalism.

5.2.4. Demonstrative Adjectives

A demonstrative adjective directly refers to something or someone. Demonstrative adjectives
include the words: this, that, these, those.
A demonstrative pronoun works alone and does not precede a noun, but a demonstrative
adjective always comes before the word it modifies.
Examples:
That building is so gorgeously decorated. (‗That‘ refers to a singular noun far from the
speaker)
 This car is mine. (‗This‘ refers to a singular noun close to the speaker)
 These cats are cute. (‗These‘ refers to a plural noun close to the speaker)
 Those flowers are heavenly. (‗Those‘ refers to a plural noun far from the speaker)

5.2.5. Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective indicates possession or ownership. It suggests the belongingness of
something to someone/something.
Some of the most used possessive adjectives are my, his, her, our, their, your.
All these adjectives always come before a noun. Unlike possessive pronouns, these words
demand a noun after them.

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Examples:
 My car is parked outside.
 His cat is very cute.
 Our job is almost done.
 Her books are interesting.

5.2.6. Interrogative Adjectives

An interrogative adjective asks a question. An interrogative adjective must be followed by a
noun or a pronoun. The interrogative adjectives are: which, what, whose. These words will not be
considered as adjectives if a noun does not follow right after them. ‗Whose’ also belongs to the
possessive adjective type.
Examples:
 Which phone do you use?
 What game do you want to play?
 Whose car is this?

5.2.7. Indefinite Adjectives

An indefinite adjective describes or modifies a noun unspecifically. They provide indefinite/
unspecific information about the noun. The common indefinite adjectives are few, many, much,
most, all, any, each, every, either, nobody, several, some, etc.
Examples:
 I gave some candy to her.
 I want a few moments alone.
 Several writers wrote about the recent incidents.
 Each student will have to submit homework tomorrow.

5.2.8. Articles
Articles also modify the nouns. So, articles are also adjectives. Articles determine the
specification of nouns. ‗A‘ and ‗an‘ are used to refer to an unspecific noun, and ‗the‘ is used to
refer to a specific noun.

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Examples:
 A cat is always afraid of water. (Here, the noun ‗cat‘ refers to any cat, not specific.)
 The cat is afraid of me. (This cat is a specific cat.)
 An electronic product should always be handled with care.

5.2.9. Compound Adjectives

When compound nouns/combined words modify other nouns, they become a compound
adjective. This type of adjective usually combines more than one word into a single lexical unit
and modifies a noun. They are often separated by a hyphen or joined together by a quotation
mark.
Example:
 I have a broken-down sofa.
 I saw a six-foot-long snake.
 He gave me an ―I‘m gonna kill you now‖ look.

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6. Preposition
A preposition expresses the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word (at, in, from).
OR
Prepositions express a relation of position or direction, of time, of manner, of agent or other
relation. Prepositions are followed by a noun, a pronoun, or a noun phrase.
OR
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase
modifying another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until
(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The
prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list
includes the most common prepositions:

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared.

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7. Conjunction

Conjunctions join two parts of a sentence (and, but, though).

OR
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because,
although, while, since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared.

23
8. Interjection
Short exclamations with no real grammatical value (ah, dear, er)
OR
An interjection is a word used to express emotion.
Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.

The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared.

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9. Determiners
Determiners are one of the nine parts of speech. They are words like the, an, this, some, either,
my or whose. All determiners share some grammatical similarities:
 Determiners come at the beginning of a noun phrase, before adjectives.
 Determiners limit or "determine" a noun phrase in some way.
 Many determiners are "mutually-exclusive": we cannot have more than one of them in
the same noun phrase.
 If we do have more than one determiner, they go in a very specific order.
Look at these examples noun phrases. The first word in each noun phrase is a determiner:
 the dog
 those people
 some brown rice
 either side of the road
 seven pink elephants
 your oldest child
 which car
Main Determiners
These are the main determiners. There can be only ONE main determiner in a noun
phrase.
 Articles: a/an, the
 Demonstratives: this/that, these/those
 Possessives: my/your/his etc.
So if you have an article, you cannot also have a demonstrative. If you have a possessive, you
cannot also have an article. You can have one article OR one demonstrative OR one possessive.
For example, you can say "this dog" or "my dog", but you cannot say "this my dog". The table
below shows how the main determiners "mutually exclude" each other:

25
 noun phrase

main determiners

articles demonstratives possessives

a dog

the soup

this flower

those birds

my sister

their car

The following are the determiners that we will cover in the lecture
 Articles
a/an, the

 Demonstrative Determiners
this/that, these/those

 Possessive Determiners
my, your, his, her, its, our, their

 Pre-Determiners and Post-Determiners

Pre-determiners come before main determiners and post-determiners come after main
determiners. (For how many and where, see order of determiners.)

 Quantifiers
all, every, most, many, much, some, few, little, any, no...

 Numbers
cardinal and ordinal numbers
Double/twice/three times...

 Interrogative Determiners
Whose, what, which

26
9.1. Articles
a/an, the

The determiners a/an and the are called "articles". They are the most common of all determiners.
They come at the very beginning of a noun phrase. We divide them into "indefinite" and
"definite".

We use indefinite to mean non-specific. Indefinite is general. We use definite to mean

specific. Definite is particular. When we are talking about something in general, we use a or an.
When we are talking about something in particular, we use ―The”.

9.2. Demonstrative Determiners

This/That, These/Those

The demonstrative determiners this/that, these/those point to something that is close or distant.
The closeness can be in:

 space (next to the speaker, 20 meters from the speaker, 1000km from the speaker)

 Time (now, yesterday, last week, next year).

27
 Near Far

Singular this that

Plural these those

Like all determiners, demonstrative determiners come at the beginning of a noun phrase, so they
come in front of any adjective(s).

Look at these example sentences:

 I like this food.

 I use these pens.

 I have to do it this morning.

 We don't meet these days.

 Look at that big cloud.

 Can you see those birds?

 Do you remember that man we met last week?

 Those days on holiday were enjoyable.

9.3. Possessive Determiners

we use possessive determiners to show who owns or "possesses" something. The possessive
determiners are:

 my, your, his, her, its, our, their

Note! These are determiners. Don't confuse them with possessive pronouns.
Like all determiners, possessive determiners come at the beginning of a noun phrase, so they
come in front of any adjective(s).

Look at these example sentences:

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Possessive determiner with gender example sentence
(Male, Female, Neuter)

Singular

my M/F This is my book.

his M His name is John.

her F Her first name is Mary.

its N The dog licked its wounded paw.

Plural

our M/F We have sold our house.

their M/F/N The students thanked their Thai teacher.

SINGULAR or PLURAL

your M/F Your two children are lovely/ I like your hair.

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Be careful! There is NO apostrophe (') in the possessive determiner its. We use an apostrophe to
write the contraction of "it is" or "it has". For example:
it is raining → it's raining
it has finished → it's finished
I'm taking my dog to the vet. It's broken its leg.

9.4. Quantifiers
all, every, most, many, much, some, few, little, any, no...
Quantifiers are determiners that describe quantity in a noun phrase. They answer the question
"How many?" or "How much?" on a scale from none (0%) to all (100%).
We use some quantifiers only with countable nouns. We use some other quantifiers only with
uncountable nouns. And we use some with countable or uncountable nouns.

The table below shows quantifiers that can indicate quantity from 0% to 100%. Notice which
ones can be used with countable, uncountable or both:

countable uncountable

100% all

every

most

many much

some

(a) few (a) little

fewest least

any

0% no

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Like all determiners, quantifiers come at the beginning of a noun phrase, so they come in front of
any adjective(s).

Look at these example sentences:

 I want all the eggs and I want all the red wine.

 Please give me every egg you have.

 Who has the most eggs? Who has the most money?

 We don't have many eggs. We don't have much money.

 I have some eggs. I have some money.

 I have a few eggs. I have a little money.

 I don't have any eggs. I don't have any money.

 We had no eggs. We had no money.

There are other quantifiers such as enough and several that cannot easily be shown on a scale:

 We have enough eggs for the party. No need to buy any.

 There are several eggs in the fridge but you'd better buy some more.

9.5. Numbers
Cardinal and ordinal numbers
Double/twice/three times...

Numbers are one kind of determiner. In terms of meaning, numbers are similar to quantifier
determiners, but most grammarians treat them separately.

Numbers can be "cardinal" (one, two, three) or "ordinal" (first, second, third), as shown in this
table:

31
 cardinal ordinal

1 one first 1st

2 two second 2nd

3 three third 3rd

10 ten tenth 10th

21 twenty-one twenty-first 21st

99 ninety-nine ninety-ninth 99th

100 one hundred one hundredth 100th

1000 one thousand one thousandth 1000th

Like all determiners, numbers come at the beginning of a noun phrase, so they come in front of
any adjective(s).

Look at these example sentences:

 I ordered two cakes.

 There were three hundred angry people present.

 Jane won first prize and Jo won third prize.

 They have just produced their one millionth sports cars.

When used together in a noun phrase, ordinals normally come before cardinals.
 The first three prizes went to the same family.

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9.6. Interrogative Determiners
Whose, what, which

The interrogative determiners are: what, which, whose

Whose iPad did you use?

car keys are these?

What stupid man told you that?

books did you read?

Which red pen do you want?

three teachers do you prefer?

Whose means "belonging to which person": They didn't know whose car it was.
What is for asking for information specifying something: What time did you arrive? I wonder
what reason he gave.
Which is for asking for information specifying one or more people or things from a definite
set: Which table would you prefer? I wonder which teacher told him that.

Like all determiners, interrogative determiners come at the beginning of a noun phrase, so they
come in front of any adjective(s).

Look at these example sentences:

 Whose iPhone was stolen?

 He couldn't remember whose car keys they were.

 What idiot told you that?

 I don't know what non-fiction books he was reading.

 I asked them which Italian car was best.

 Which nightclubs on the Champs Elysées did you go to?

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9.7. Pre-Determiners and Post-Determiners
Pre-determiners come before main determiners and post-determiners come after main
determiners.
(For how many and where, see order of determiners.)

Order of Determiners

There are rules about the order of determiners in a noun phrase.

 It‘s possible to have NO determiner: John likes dogs. People breathe air. Wine is
alcohol. This is the so-called "zero determiner". And is mainly possible with proper
nouns (ie names), plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns.
 All determiners, when present, come at the BEGINNING of a noun phrase (before any
adjectives): the big black dog / my favourite car
 If you have a "main determiner", you can have only ONE.
 Some determiners function as "pre-determiners" — they can come BEFORE a main
determiner. You can have ONE pre-determiner: all the right people / half my weight
 Other determiners function as "post-determiners" — they can come AFTER a main
determiner. You can have ONE OR MORE post-determiners: the next time / my first
two jobs
 If you do have more than one determiner, the table below is a guide to the normal order.
Remember, this is a guide only. Not every combination is possible.

34
One of these One of these One or more of these

pre- main determiners post-determiners

determiners

quantifiers articles demon- possessives ordinals cardinals, other

stratives quantifiers

all, both a/ this/that my/her etc. first/ one/two...

half, one- an/ these/ second... many/much/more/
third the those last/next most
double, few/little
twice, ten less/least
times several
other

all those last few dollars

both my younger
sisters

three times your salary

a little more red wine

an- -other drink

the most money

the next three weeks

these first three seats

my last wife

her next two husbands

four more people

several other friends

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Sentence-level Grammar
1. Phrases
A phrase is one or more words that form a meaningful grammatical unit within a clause.
There are five main types of phrase in English, as below.
The five main types of phrases are.
Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase and Prepositional Phrase

1.1. Noun Phrase

A noun phrase (NP) can be a single noun or a group of words built around a single noun, for
example:

 Animals need water.

 Who ate the last sandwich?

 All passengers with tickets can board now.

1.2. Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP, also called a "verb group") consists of a main verb and its auxiliary verbs
(including modals), for example:

 We have been working since 9am.

 I will be going to France next week.

 It may have been being repaired.

36
1.3. Adjective Phrase
An adjective phrase can be a single adjective or a group of words built around a single adjective,
for example:

 He has clever ideas.

 It was a very big meal.

 The students were really bored with the film.

1.4. Adverb Phrase

An adverb phrase can be a single adverb or a group of words built around a single adverb, for
example:

 Please do it now.

 He spoke very softly.

 They did it as fast as possible.

1.5. Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by its object (usually a noun phrase),
for example:

 They were arguing about money.

 The window was behind a large brown sofa.

 They resumed after an unusually large meal.

The table below shows all five phrase types used in a single clause:

he is jumping over the very lazy dog as fast as possible

NP VP Prep.P Adv.P

NP

Adj.P

37
2. Sentence
In simple terms, a sentence is a set of words that contain:
1. a subject (what the sentence is about, the topic of the sentence), and
2. a predicate (what is said about the subject)

Look at this simple example:

sentence

subject predicate

verb

You speak English.

The above example sentence is very short. Of course, a sentence can be longer and more
complicated, but basically there is always a subject and a predicate. Look at this longer example:

sentence

subject predicate

verb

Ram and Tara speak English when they are working.

38
Note that the predicate always contains a verb. Sometimes, in fact, the predicate is only a verb:

sentence

subject predicate

verb

Smoke rises.

So we can say that a sentence must contain at least a subject and verb.
There is one apparent exception to this – the imperative.
When someone gives a command (the imperative), they usually do not use a subject, they don't
say the subject because it is obvious - the subject is YOU! Look at these examples of the
imperative, with and without a subject:

sentence

subject predicate

verb

Stop!

Wait a minute!

You look!

Everybody look!

39
Note that a sentence expresses a complete thought. Here are some examples of complete and
incomplete thoughts:

complete thought?

sentence He opened the door. YES

Come in, please.

Do you like coffee?

not a sentence people who work hard NO

a fast-moving animal with big ears

Note also that a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (AmE period) or a
question mark or an exclamation mark (AmE exclamation point). Look at these examples:
 People need food.
 How are you?
 Look out!

2.1. Types of Sentence (The 4 Types)

There are four types of English sentence, classified by their purpose:
 Declarative sentence (statement)
 Interrogative sentence (question)
 Imperative sentence (command)
 Exclamative sentence (exclamation)

40
Sentence types are sometime called clause types.

form Function example sentence (clause) final

punctuation

1 declarative statement: It tells us John likes Mary. .

something

2 interrogative question: It asks us Does Mary like John? ?

something

3 imperative command: It tells us to Stop! ! or .

do something Close the door.

4 exclamative exclamation: It What a funny story he told !

expresses surprise us!

2.1.1. Declarative Sentence (statement)

Declarative sentences make a statement. They tell us something. They give us information, and
they normally end with a full-stop/period.
The usual word order for the declarative sentence is:
 subject + verb...

Declarative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

Positive Negative

I like coffee. I do not like coffee.

We watched TV last night. We did not watch TV last night.

Declarative sentences are the most common type of sentence.

2.1.2. Interrogative Sentence (question)

Interrogative sentences ask a question. They ask us something. They want information, and they
always end with a question mark.
The usual word order for the interrogative sentence is:

41
  (wh-word +) auxiliary + subject + verb...
Interrogative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

Positive negative

Do you like coffee? Don't you like coffee?

Why did you go? Why didn't you go?

2.1.3. Imperative Sentence (command)

Imperative sentences give a command. They tell us to do something, and they end with a full-
stop/period (.) or exclamation mark/point (!).
The usual word order for the imperative sentence is:
 base verb...

Note that there is usually no subject—because the subject is understood, it is YOU.

Imperative sentences can be positive or negative. Look at these examples:

positive negative

Stop! Do not stop!

Give her coffee. Don't give her coffee.

2.1.4. Exclamative Sentence (exclamation)

Exclamative sentences express strong emotion/surprise—an exclamation—and they always end
with an exclamation mark/point (!).
The usual word order for the Exclamative sentence is:
 What (+ adjective) + noun + subject + verb
 How (+ adjective/adverb) + subject + verb
Look at these examples:
 What a liar he is!
 What an exciting movie it was!
 How he lied!
 How exciting the movie was!

42
2.2. The Sentence Structure / 4 Types of Sentence Structure
In the previous section we saw the minimum requirements for the formation of a sentence. Now
we can look in more detail at the four types of sentence structure.
 Simple Sentence Structure
 Compound Sentence Structure
 Complex Sentence Structure
 Compound-Complex Sentence Structure

2.2.1. Simple Sentence Structure

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause contains a subject
and verb and expresses a complete thought.)

 I like coffee.
 Mary likes tea.
 The earth goes round the sun.
 Mary did not go to the party.

2.2.2. Compound Sentence Structure

A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semi-
colon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone.

 I like coffee and Mary likes tea.

 Mary went to work but John went to the party.

 Our car broke down; we came last.

There are seven coordinating conjunctions:

 and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

43
2.2.3. Complex Sentence Structure
A complex sentence consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause. (A dependent
clause starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and contains a subject and
verb, but does not express a complete thought.)

 We missed our plane because we were late.

 Our dog barks when she hears a noise.

 He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.

 Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?

Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:

 after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until,
when, where, whether, while

Here are the five basic relative pronouns:

 that, which, who, whom, whose

2.2.4. Compound-Complex Sentence Structure

A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

 John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy.

 He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later.

44
3. Types of Verbs
To understand sentence construction, it helps if you know a little about three types of verb:

 linking verbs

 intransitive verbs

 transitive verbs
All verbs have a subject (the person or thing that "does" the action). The real difference between
linking, intransitive and transitive verbs is whether or not they have an object (the person or
thing that "gets" the action)

3.1. Linking verbs

Linking verbs link two parts of a sentence. They link the subject to a noun or adjective.
In this sense, linking verbs are like a mathematical equals sign (=).

subject verb subject complement

Mary is a nurse.

Mary = a nurse

Linking verbs do not make sense if used alone: they need a "subject complement" to complete
their meaning.
 They are (???)
They are teachers
 I feel (???)
I feel unwell
In the above examples, teachers and unwell are subject complements.
Linking verbs work in two different ways:
1. the two parts of the sentence are the same thing (Mary is my mother)
2. the first part has the quality described by the second part (Mary is English)

45
The most obvious linking verb is the verb:
 be
Other linking verbs include:
 appear, become, feel, get, grow, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, taste, turn
Linking verbs cannot be passive.
Look at these example sentences with linking verbs:
 Is that your car?
 I am feeling thirsty.
 John is my boyfriend.
 My father became an engineer.
 The milk will turn sour if you leave it.
 Her explanation did not appear plausible.
 Hillary remained under suspicion for the rest of her life.
(Note that linking verbs are sometimes called "copula verbs".)
3.2. Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs have NO object. Their action is not transferred from the subject to something
else.

subject verb

She cried.

Many intransitive verbs can make sense if used alone:

 He fainted.
 She cried.
 Our car broke down.
Of course, we often do follow intransitive verbs with other words telling us how,
where or when—but NEVER with an object:
 He fainted after lunch.
 She coughed bitterly.
 Our car broke down in Bangkok.
Intransitive verbs cannot be passive.

46
Examples of intransitive verbs are:
 bark, boast, change, cough, die, go, live, run, sit, sleep, wave
Look at these example sentences with intransitive verbs:
 They live in London.
 Tell your dog to sit now.
 Were the dogs barking?
 The news hasn't changed.
 He died after a long illness.
 When I saw him he was running.
 The president waved to the crowds.
3.3. Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs have an object. Their action is Transferred from the subject to something else
(the object). Transitive verbs can be active OR passive.
Some transitive verbs have one object (Mono-transitive verbs); and some have two objects
(Di-transitive verbs)

3.3.1. Monotransitive verbs

Monotransitive verbs have ONE object: a direct object

subject verb direct object

He kicked the ball

Examples of monotransitive verbs are:

 bomb, clean, break, destroy, eat, kill, like, put off, trigger, turn down, want
Look at these example sentences with monotransitive verbs:
 Do you love me?
 The Allies bombed Dresden.
 Pick it up and throw it away.
 Tara doesn't want a new car.
 Bond killed the snake and ate it.
 Can fracking trigger earthquakes?
 Do you think they'll turn down my offer / turn my offer down?

47
3.3.2. Ditransitive verbs
Ditransitive verbs have TWO objects: a direct object and an indirect object.

subject verb indirect object direct object

Sue passed Ann the ball

Examples of ditransitive verbs are:

 buy, give, grant, lend, make, pass, send, serve, show, teach, tell
Look at these example sentences with ditransitive verbs:
 Make me an offer.
 Who teaches him French?
 The bank won't lend them any money.
 They will serve the guests lunch at 12:30pm.
 Kid refused to show the teacher her homework.
 Anthony bought his new girlfriend some roses on her birthday.
 The local council have granted us permission to open a shop.

48
4. Direct and Indirect Object
Direct Object
The direct object receives the action of the verb directly.
The normal order of an English sentence is subject-verb-object, like this:

subject verb object

He kicked the ball.

In the above sentence, the action or verb is "kicked". The subject (He) performed the
action (kicked). And the object (the ball) received the action.
Strictly speaking, "the ball" is the direct object, and the direct object directly received the action
of the verb.
Indirect Object
The indirect object receives the direct object.
The indirect object of a verb receives the direct object. In effect, the action moves from the
subject, through the verb, to the direct object and then the indirect object.

subject verb indirect object direct object

Sue passed Ann the ball

Note that the indirect object comes between the verb and the direct object.
Look at some more example sentences:

subject verb indirect object direct object

The teacher gave the class some homework.

I read her the letter.

John bought Mary a ring.

John brought Mary some flowers.

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5. Reported Speech
Here is the structure that we use to "report" what another person has said.
If we want to say what somebody has said, we basically have two options:
 We can use the person's exact words - in quotation marks "...".if we are writing
(Direct speech)
 We can change the person's words into our own words (reported speech).

direct speech reported speech

(exact words) (my words)

He said: "I love you." He said that he loved me.

6. Parenthetical Expression
(Words added to a sentence without changing its meaning or grammar)
A parenthetical expression is a word or words added to a sentence without changing the meaning
or grammar of the original sentence. Parenthetical expressions give extra information but are not
essential. You can add and remove a parenthetical and the sentence works just the same.
Some information in a sentence is essential to its meaning, and some information may be less
important or "nonessential":
When nonessential information is added parenthetically to a sentence, it is usually separated
from the main sentence by commas or other punctuation. In fact there are three types of
punctuation that can separate parenthetical expressions:

 commas , .......,
 round brackets (.......)
 long dashes —.......—
Commas are the usual form of punctuation for parenthetics. Remember, if the parenthetic
appears in the middle of the sentence there must be TWO commas, one before and one after.

Brackets are the next most common form of punctuation for parenthetics. Bracketed
parenthetics can only appear in the middle of the sentence, and there must always be TWO
brackets.

50
Dashes for parenthetics are much less common. If the parenthetic appears in the middle of the
sentence, there must be TWO dashes, one before and one after.
Look at these examples of parenthetical expressions:
 Some foods, sugar for example, are not good for us.
 Timothy, who lives near Stonehenge, goes to church regularly.
 Tara, although she comes from a hot climate, hates hot weather.
 Anthony, however, decided not to go.
 The planet closest to the sun (ie Mercury) has the most extreme temperature variations.
 The 70th anniversary of the D-Day landings (6 June 1944) was attended by many world
leaders.
 The cheetah—the world's fastest land animal—is native to Africa.
 If they didn't understand you—a qualified teacher—how will they ever understand me?
Note that in all the above cases, where the parenthetic is in the middle of the sentence, there must
be a PAIR of punctuation marks—an opening mark and a closing mark. However, when a
parenthetic is at the beginning or end of a sentence, we can use a single comma or a single dash.
It is NOT possible to use a single bracket. Look at these examples:
 Well, how are you going to explain yourself now?
 You should never drink and drive, of course.
 John had not been drinking—or so he says.

51