DC NETWORK THEOREMS

Network Terminologies
Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor,
Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source) connected in any manner is called an electrical
network.

Node: A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are joined together is called
a node.

Branch: Part of a network that lies between two nodes is called a branch.

Loop: A closed path in a network formed by a number of connected branches is called a loop.

Mesh: Any path which contains no other

paths in it is called a mesh. (Thus a loop
contains meshes but a mesh does not
contain a loop)
The resistive network shown in the
adjacent figure has 5 nodes (a, b, c, d, g)
7 branches (ad, bd, bc, cg, ag, ac, bg) and
3 meshes (adbga, bcgb, adbca)

Characteristics of network elements

Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either
converts it into heat (R) or stores it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L) field is called passive
element.

Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element.
Examples of active elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic
devices that require power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it
can amplify power of a signal.

Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example:

Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element.

Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral (example:

Diode, Transistor) element.

Linear Circuit: A linear system is one that satisfies homogeneity and additive property.
Non-Linear Circuit: A non-linear system is that whose parameters change with voltage or
current. More specifically, non-linear circuit does not obey the homogeneity and additive
properties.

Active Elements: Voltage & Current Sources

A source is a device which converts thermal, mechanical, chemical or some other form of
energy into electrical energy.
 Independent Voltage & Current Sources

Ideal Voltage Source: An ideal voltage source is defined as an energy source which gives
constant voltage difference across its terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its
terminals, i.e. the terminal voltage is independent of the load resistance connected. The internal
resistance of the source is zero.

Practical Voltage Source: Real or practical voltage sources do not exhibit such characteristics.
As the load resistance connected across the source is decreased, the corresponding load current
increases while the terminal voltage across the source decreases.

Ideal Voltage Source Practical Voltage Source

Ideal Current Source: An ideal current source is a device that delivers a constant current to
any load resistance connected across it, no matter what the terminal voltage is developed across
the load (i.e. independent of the voltage across its terminals). The internal resistance of the
source is infinite.

Practical Current Source: Real or practical current sources do not exhibit such
characteristics. As the load resistance connected across the source is decreased, the
corresponding load current increases.
Source Transformation:
 Voltage Source to Current Source

For the practical voltage source, the load current is calculated as

𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿
Note that the maximum current delivered by the source (under short-circuit condition) is given
by
𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅𝑠
Thus we can rewrite the expression for load current as
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑅𝑠
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿
A simple current divider circuit having two parallel branches can realize the above equation.

A practical voltage source with a voltage Vs and an internal source resistance Rs can be
replaced by an equivalent practical current source with a current Is = Vs/Rs and an internal
resistance Rs.

 Current source to Voltage Source

For the practical current source, the load voltage is given by

𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 ∗ 𝑅𝐿 = ( ∗ 𝐼𝑠 ) ∗ 𝑅𝐿 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 ( ) = 𝑉𝑠 ( )
𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝐿
The above equation represents output from the voltage source across a load resistance and this
act as a voltage divider circuit. A voltage source with a voltage value Vs = Is Rs and an internal
source resistance Rs has an equivalent effect on the same load resistor as the current source.

A current source with a magnitude of current Is and a source internal resistance Rs can be
replaced by an equivalent voltage source of magnitude Vs = Is Rs and an internal source
resistance Rs.
Problem # 1

Using source transformation determine the current passing through 2Ω resistor.

Solution: Converting the two current sources into equivalent voltage sources, the following
network is obtained.

60+40
The current through 2Ω resistor is = 2𝐴
3+2+5

Kirchhoff’s Laws
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): It states that at any node (junction) in a circuit the algebraic
sum of currents entering and leaving the node at any instant of time must be equal to zero.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): It states that in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all
source voltages must be equal to the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops.

Problem # 2
Determine i1 and vo using KCL and KVL

Solution: Applying KCL at node P we get the current passing through 10Ω resistor as (i1 + 10)
Applying KVL in loop 1 we get,
10 − 5𝑖1 − 10(𝑖1 + 10) = 0
 𝑜𝑟, 𝑖1 = −6 𝐴
∴ 𝑣0 = 10 (𝑖1 + 10) = 40𝑉

Mesh Analysis
Step-I: If possible, convert current source to voltage source. [Otherwise, define the voltage
across the current source and write the mesh equations as if these source voltages were known.]
Step-2: Identify the number of meshes and label the mesh currents (Ii) carefully in a clockwise
direction.
Step-3: Write the KVL equations for each mesh by inspecting the circuit.

Let us consider a simple dc network as shown to find the currents through different branches
using Mesh (Loop) analysis.

Applying KVL around mesh (loop)-1: (note in mesh-1, I1 is known as local current and
other mesh currents & I2 and I3 are known as foreign currents.)
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅2 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )𝑅4 = 0
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )𝑅2 + (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )𝑅4
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼1 (𝑅2 + 𝑅4 ) − 𝐼2 𝑅4 − 𝐼3 𝑅2
Applying KVL around mesh (loop)-2: (similarly in mesh-2, I2 is local current and I1 and I3
are known as foreign currents)
− 𝑉𝑏 = −𝐼1 𝑅4 + 𝐼2 (𝑅3 + 𝑅4 ) − 𝐼3 𝑅3
Applying KVL around mesh (loop)-3:
𝑉𝑐 = −𝐼1 𝑅2 − 𝐼2 𝑅3 + 𝐼3 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )

th
[** In general, we can write for i mesh (for i = 1, 2, .... N)
∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑖 = −𝑅𝑖1 𝐼1 − 𝑅𝑖2 𝐼2 −. . . + 𝑅𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝑖 − 𝑅𝑖,𝑖+1 𝐼𝑖+1 − . . . − 𝑅𝑖𝑁 𝐼𝑁

ΣVii = the algebraic sum of all voltage sources around the ith mesh.
Rii = the total self- resistance around the ith mesh.
Rij = the mutual resistance between the ith and jth meshes.
Ii = the unknown mesh currents for the network.]
Problem # 3
Determine the current IAC using mesh analysis.

Solution: Applying source conversion technique the circuit becomes

Applying KVL in loop 1 we get

−24 − 4𝐼1 − 4𝐼1 − 4(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) − 8 = 0
Applying KVL in loop 2 we get
8 − 4(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) − 8𝐼2 − 8 = 0
Solving we get I1 = -3A and I2 = -1A. Thus IAC = I1= -3A

Problem # 4
Determine the current Iab using mesh analysis

Solution: Applying KVL in loop 1 (Here I2 = -2A)

3 − (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 ) − 2 (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
Applying KVL in loop 2
−4(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) − 𝑉1 − 2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
Applying KVL in loop 3
−3𝐼3 − 4(𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ) − (𝐼3 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
Solving we get, Iab = I1 – I3 = 0.39A

Nodal Analysis
Step-I: If possible, convert voltage source to current source.
Step-2: Identify all nodes in the circuit. Select one node as the reference node (assign as ground
potential or zero potential) and label the remaining nodes as unknown node voltages with
respect to the reference node. Assign branch currents in each branch. (The choice of direction
is arbitrary).
Step-3: Express the branch currents in terms of node assigned voltages. Write the KCL
equations for each node by inspecting the circuit.

Let us consider a simple dc network as shown to find the currents through different branches
using Nodal analysis.

Applying KCL at Node 1:

Is1 = I2 + I4 + Is3

𝑜𝑟, Is1 = V1R− V3 + V1R− V2 + Is3

2 4

1 1 1 1
𝐨𝐫, Is1 − Is3 = V1 ( + ) − V2 − V3
R2 R4 R4 R2
Applying KCL at Node 2:
I4 = Is2 + I3
 V1 − V2 V − V3
or, = Is2 + 2
R4 R3
1 1 1 1
or, −Is2 = −V1 + V2( + ) − V3
R4 R3 R4 R3
Applying KCL at Node 3:

I2 + I3 + Is3 = I1
V − V3 V2 − V3 V3 − 0
or, 1 + + Is3 =
R2 R3 R1
1 1 1 1 1
or, Is3 = −V1 − V2 + V3 ( + + )
R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
[In general, for the ith Node the KCL equation can be written as
1 1 1 1
∑ 𝑰𝒊𝒊 = −V1 − V2 − ⋯ + Vi − ⋯ VN
Ri1 Ri2 Rii RiN
where ∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑖 = algebraic sum of all the current sources connected to ‘Node-i’, i = 1 to N
(Currents entering the node from current source is assigned as +ve sign and the current leaving
the node from the current source is assigned as –ve sign).
R ii = sum of the values of resistance connected to the node 'i'.
R ij = sum of the values of resistance connected between the nodes 'i' and 'j'.]

Problem # 5
Determine the node voltages using nodal analysis.

Solution: Applying KCL at Node 1:

𝑣1 − 𝑣2 𝑣1
2.5 = +
8 4
Applying KCL at Node 2:
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑣2
5 = 2.5 + +
8 12
Solving the equations we get v1 = 13.33V and v2 = 20V

Problem # 6
Determine the current Iab using nodal analysis.

Solution: Applying KCL at Node a: (Here Va = 3V)

𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐
𝑖= +
1 3
Applying KCL at Node b:
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏 − 0 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑐
= +
1 2 4
Applying KCL at Node c:
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑐
+ +2=0
4 3
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
Solving the equations, we get 𝐼𝑎𝑏 = = 0.39𝐴
1

Star – Delta Conversion & Delta – Star Conversion

Delta to Star Conversion

Delta Network Star Network

The star and delta networks will be equivalent if the resistances between any two terminals are
equal for both the networks.

Resistance between terminals Star Network Delta Network

A&B RA + RB RAB || (RBC + RCA)
B&C RB + RC RBC || (RAB + RCA)
C&A RC + RA RCA || (RBC + RAB)

Between A & C terminals:

𝑅𝐶𝐴 (𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴𝐵 )
𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴
Between C & B terminals:
𝑅𝐵𝐶 (𝑅𝐶𝐴 + 𝑅𝐴𝐵 )
𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐵 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

Between B & A terminals:

𝑅𝐴𝐵 (𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 )
𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐴 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

Adding above three equations, one can write an expression as given below:

𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝐴 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐴𝐵

𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 =
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

Subtracting, we can write the express for unknown resistances of star network as
𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐴 = …….(a)
𝑅𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝐵𝐶 +𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐵𝐶
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅 ……(b)
𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝐵𝐶 +𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅 …… (c)
𝐴𝐵 +𝑅𝐵𝐶 +𝑅𝐶𝐴

Star to Delta Conversion

From equations (a), (b) and (c) we get

𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝐴
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴 = = 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴𝐵
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴

𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
∴ 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 +
𝑅𝐶
 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
∴ 𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 +
𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴
∴ 𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 +
𝑅𝐵

Summary:

Delta to Star Star to Delta

𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 +
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐶

𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝐵 𝑅𝐶
𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶 +
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐴

𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐴
𝑅𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶𝐴 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑅𝐴 +
𝑅𝐴𝐵 + 𝑅𝐵𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶𝐴 𝑅𝐵

Problem # 7
Determine Rab and i for the following circuit.

Solution: 24Ω, 20Ω and 10Ω are connected in delta. Converting to equivalent star network
24 ∗ 20
𝑅𝑎 = = 8.888Ω
24 + 20 + 10
10 ∗ 20
𝑅𝑏 = = 3.703Ω
24 + 20 + 10
24 ∗ 10
𝑅𝑐 = = 4.444Ω
24 + 20 + 10

Thus 8.888Ω and 30Ω resistors are in series having

equivalent resistance 38.888Ω
Similarly, 50Ω and 3.703Ω resistors are in series
having equivalent resistance 53.703Ω
 38.888∗53.703
Thus 𝑅𝑎𝑏 = 13 + 4.444 + 38.888+53.703 = 17.444 +
22.555 ≅ 40Ω
50
∴𝑖= = 1.25𝐴
40

Problem # 8
Determine the equivalent resistance between the terminals A and B of network shown using
star delta conversion

Solution: Converting star to delta we get

2∗3
𝑅𝑐𝑒 = 2 + 3 + = 6.5Ω
4
2∗4
𝑅𝑐𝐵 = 2 + 4 + = 8.66Ω
3
4∗3
𝑅𝑒𝐵 = 4 + 3 + = 13Ω
2

Converting delta Ace to star we get

4∗2
𝑅𝐴0 = = 0.64Ω
4 + 2 + 6.5
4 ∗ 6.5
𝑅𝑐0 = = 2.08Ω
4 + 2 + 6.5
6.5 ∗ 2
𝑅𝑒0 = = 1.04Ω
4 + 2 + 6.5

Equivalent resistance between c & B =

3∗8.66
3+8.66
= 2.23Ω
13∗1
Equivalent resistance between e & B = =
13+1
0.93Ω
The equivalent resistance between the terminals ‘A’ and ‘B’ is
4.31∗1.97
𝑅𝐴𝐵 = (2.08 + 2.23)||(1.04 + 0.93) + 0.64 = 4.31||1.97 + 0.64 = + 0.64 = 1.99Ω
4.31+1.97

Superposition Theorem
Statement of Superposition Theorem
In any linear active bilateral network containing two or more independent sources, the resultant
current / voltage in any branch is the algebraic sum of currents / voltages caused by each
independent sources acting alone, while all other sources are replaced by their internal
resistances.
Explanation of Superposition Theorem

Let us consider a network

containing two voltage sources E1
and E2 and a current source Is as
shown in the diagram. We would
like to determine the current I
through resistor R2.

Considering E1 source only and

replacing E2 by short circuit and Is by
open circuit, we calculate the current I’
passing through R2

Similarly considering E2 source only and

replacing E1 by short circuit and Is by open
circuit, we calculate the current I’’ passing
through R2

Finally considering Is source only and

replacing E1 and E2 by short circuit, we
calculate the current I’’’ passing through
R2

According to superposition theorem, the current I can be obtained from

𝐼 = 𝐼 ′ |𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐸1 + 𝐼 ′′ |𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐸2 + 𝐼 ′′′ |𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐼𝑠
Limitations of Superposition Theorem
1. This theorem can be applied for linear active and bilateral network only.
2. This theorem can be applied for network containing atleast two sources.
3. This theorem is not applicable for calculating power.

Problem # 9
Calculate ‘v’ in the circuit below by using superposition theorem.

Solution: Considering 12V source only (6A current

source is replaced by open circuit)
12
𝑣1 = ∗ 2 = 4𝑉
4+2

Considering 6A current source only (12V source is

replaced by short circuit)
4
𝑖3 = ∗ 6 = 4𝐴
4+2
𝑣2 = 2𝑖3 = 8𝑉

By Superposition theorem we get 𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 12𝑉

Problem # 10
Using Superposition theorem determine the current Iab
Solution: Considering 3V only and replacing 2A by
open circuit we get
3 3
𝐼= = = 1.043𝐴
2 + 1||(4 + 3) 7
2+8
7
𝐼𝑎𝑏1 = ∗ 𝐼 = 0.913𝐴 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑏)
7+1

Considering 2A only and replacing 3V by short

circuit we get
3 3
𝐼4Ω = ∗2= ∗2
3 + (4 + 1||2) 3 + (4 + 0.67)
= 0.783𝐴
2
∴ 𝐼𝑎𝑏2 = ∗ 0.783
2+1
= 0.522𝐴 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑏 𝑡𝑜 𝑎)
According to superposition theorem
𝐼𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼𝑎𝑏1 − 𝐼𝑎𝑏2 = 0.39𝐴

Thevenin’s Theorem
Statement of Thevenin’s Theorem
Any linear active bilateral network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source in series with a resistance. The voltage source (known as Thevenin’s equivalent
voltage source VTH) is the voltage across the open circuited load terminals and the resistance
(known as Thevenin’s equivalent resistance RTH) is the internal resistance of the network
looking from the open circuited load terminals after replacing all the sources by their internal
resistances.

Mathematically, the current (IL) through the load

resistance RL placed across the terminal AB, is given by,
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿
where VTH = voltage across open circuited terminal AB,
when RL is removed,
RTH = equivalent resistance viewed through AB when the sources are removed by their
internal resistances.

Explanation of Thevenin’s Theorem

Let us consider a circuit containing a voltage
source Vs and resistors R1, R2 and R3. Our aim
is to determine the current through RL
Step I: (To find VTH)
Remove load resistance RL
Determine the voltage across open circuited
load terminals.

Step II: (To find RTH)

Remove load resistance RL
Remove the sources by their internal
resistances.
Compute the resistance of the network
viewing from the open circuited load terminals.

Step III: (To find IL)

Draw Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
𝑉𝑇𝐻
Compute load current using the relation 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅
𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿

Limitations of Thevenin’s Theorem

This theorem can be applied for linear active and bilateral network only.

Problem # 11
Using Thevenin’s theorem determine the current Iab

Solution: Step I: (To find VTH)

Va = 3V
3 3
𝑉𝑏 = ∗2+2∗ ∗2= 2𝑉
3+4+2 3+4+2
Due to voltage source Due to current source
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = 1𝑉
Step II: (To find RTH)

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 )||𝑅4

= (3 + 4)||2 = 1.55Ω

Step III: (To find IL)

𝑉𝑇𝐻 1
𝐼𝐿 = = = 0.39 𝐴
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 1.55 + 1

Problem # 12
Using Thevenin’s theorem determine the current through 3Ω resistor.

Solution: Step I: (To find VTH)

6 1
𝑖1 = = 𝐴
6 + 12 3
𝑖2 = 1𝐴
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 12𝑖1 − 2𝑖2 = 2𝑉

Step II: (To find RTH)

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (6||12) + 2 = 6Ω

Step III: (To find IL)

𝑉𝑇𝐻 2
𝐼𝐿 = = = 0.22 𝐴
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 6+3
Problem # 13
Using Thevenin’s theorem determine the current through 10Ω resistor connected between 1
and 2 terminals.

Solution: Step I: (To find VTH)

20 1
i1 = = A
90 + 10 5
20 1
i2 = = A
55 + 5 3
1
𝑉TH = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 10𝑖1 − 5𝑖2 = 𝑉
3

Step II: (To find RTH)

R TH = 9 + 4.58 = 13.58Ω
Step III: (To find IL)
1
𝑉𝑇𝐻 3
𝐼𝐿 = = = 0.0141 𝐴
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 13.58 + 10
Norton’s Theorem
Statement of Norton’s Theorem
Any linear active bilateral network can be replaced by an equivalent current source in parallel
with a resistance. The current source (known as Norton’s equivalent current source IN) is the
short circuit current through the load terminals and the resistance (known as Norton’s
equivalent resistance RN) is the internal resistance of the network looking through the open
circuited load terminals after replacing all the sources by their internal resistances.

Mathematically, the current (IL) through the load resistance RL

placed across the terminal AB, is given by,
𝑅𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = ∗𝐼
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑁
where IN = short circuit current through AB when RL is
removed,
RN = equivalent resistance viewed through AB when the voltage source are removed by
their internal resistances

Explanation of Norton’s Theorem

Let us consider a circuit containing a voltage
source Vs and resistors R1, R2 and R3. Our aim
is to determine the current through RL

Step I: (To find IN)

Remove load resistance RL
Determine the current through short circuited
load terminals.

Step II: (To find RN)

Remove load resistance RL
Remove the sources by their internal resistances.
Compute the resistance of the network viewing
from the open circuited load terminals.

Step III: (To find IL)

Draw Norton’s equivalent circuit.
𝑅𝑁
Compute load current using the relation 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝐼𝑁
𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿

Limitations of Norton’s Theorem

This theorem can be applied for linear active and bilateral network only.
Problem # 14
Determine Norton’s equivalent circuit across terminals 1 and 2

Solution: Step I: (To find IN)

Converting 10V source into current source

we obtain the following circuit

No current will pass through 5Ω resistor as there is a short circuit path parallel to it.
The entire current of 4.5 A (2A+2.5A) will have two paths to flow: one path is through 4Ω
resistor and the other path is through 2Ω short circuit 2Ω having equivalent resistance
of 4Ω. Thus
4
𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = ∗ 4.5 = 2.25𝐴
4 + (2 + 2)

Step II: (To find RN)

𝑅𝑁 = 5 || (2 + 4 + 2) = 5||8 = 3.077 Ω
Step III: Norton’s equivalent circuit

Problem # 15
Using Norton’s theorem determine the current Iab

Solution: Step I: (To find IN)

Using mesh analysis we will determine IN
For mesh 1: 3 - 2(I1 – I2) = 0
From mesh 2 we get I2 = -2A
∴ 𝐼1 = −0.5𝐴
For mesh 3: −3𝐼3 − 4(𝐼3 −
𝐼2 ) = 0
I3 = -8/7A
9
∴ 𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 𝐴
14
Step II: (To find RN)

𝑅𝑁 = (𝑅1 + 𝑅3 )||𝑅4 = (3 + 4)||2 = 1.55Ω

Step III: (To find IL)

𝑅𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = ∗ 𝐼 = 0.39𝐴
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑁
Equivalence of Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems

Any linear active

bilateral network

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit Norton’s equivalent circuit

𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝑁
𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅 𝐼𝐿 = 𝑅 ∗ 𝐼𝑁
𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿

It can be proved that the equivalent circuits given by Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem
yield exactly the same current and same voltage in the load resistance and they are effectively
identical to one another.
On short circuiting terminals A and B of Thevenin’s equivalent circuit we obtain the short ciruit
current Isc as
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝐼𝑆𝐶 =
𝑅𝑇𝐻
By definition, RTH = RN
𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝑅𝑁
∴ 𝐼𝐿 = ∗ 𝐼𝑠𝑐 = ∗𝐼
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿 𝑠𝑐
Thus Norton’s equivalent circuit from Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit is shown in the adjacent figure.

By applying source transformation to Thevenin’s

equivalent circuit we obtain the circuit as shown in the
adjacent figure which is the same circuit obtained by
applying Norton’s theorem in Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit.

Similarly by applying Thevenin’s theorem in Norton’s equivalent circuit we obtain the same
circuit when we apply source transformation.
Thus we can say that there is equivalence between Thevenin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuits
in the context of source transformation.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Statement of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
A resistive load connected to a linear active bilateral network receives maximum power when
the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s resistance i.e. internal resistance of the network
as seen from the load terminals after removing all the sources by their internal resistances.

Mathematically the power (PL) delivered to the resistive load (RL) is given by
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿2 ∗ 𝑅𝐿
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝐿 = ∗ 𝑅𝐿
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2
where VTH = Thevenin’s equivalent voltage and
RTH = Thevenin’s equivalent resistance
Now by adjusting the value of RL, maximum
power can be delivered though RL if and only if
𝑑𝑃𝐿
=0
𝑑𝑅𝐿
2
𝑑 𝑉𝑇𝐻
or, {(𝑅 2
∗ 𝑅𝐿 } = 0
𝑑𝑅𝐿 𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )

2 2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 2𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑇𝐻
or, (𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )2
− (𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )3
=0

2 {(𝑅
𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )−2𝑅𝐿 }
or, (𝑅𝑇𝐻 +𝑅𝐿 )3
=0

2 (𝑅
or, 𝑉𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑅𝐿 ) = 0

or, 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝐿 since VTH ≠ 0

[Note: If we take the second order derivative of PL w.r.t RL, the result is negative. Thus we can
confirm that the power transferred to the load resistance is maximum when RL = RTH]

It is thus clear that the maximum power is transferred to the load resistance when the load
resistance is equal to Thevenin’s equivalent resistance.
2
𝑉𝑇𝐻
Hence value of maximum power 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑇𝐻
Efficiency of the circuit under maximum power transfer condition:
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 , 𝑃𝐿 𝐼𝐿2 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝐿2 𝑅𝐿 1
Efficiency = = 2 = 2 = = 50%
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝐿 (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻) 2 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝐿 2
Problem # 16
Determine the value of RL for which maximum power transfer will take place. Also find the
value of maximum power.

Solution:
𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 6||3 = 2Ω
Thus the value of RL for which maximum power transfer
will take place is 2Ω

12 6
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = ∗3+ ∗ 1 ∗ 3 = 6𝑉
6+3 6+3

Due to voltage source

Due to current source

2
𝑉𝑇𝐻 36
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 4.5𝑊
4𝑅𝑇𝐻 4∗2