IIM A

Product Mindset

(ProdMan Prep Book)

2025-26
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
There has been a steep increase in the number of firms offering product management roles in the recent past. This is not only
maneuvered by an increase in the number of firms visiting the graduate students, but also by expansion in their scope to
associate product manager roles for undergrads. In spite of this, there exists a gap in terms of comprehensive preparation
material suited for the Indian audience. Filling this gap was an uphill task, which couldn’t have been possible without the
stakeholders who were a part of the journey at different points in time.

First and foremost, we extend our deepest gratitude to the entire ProdMan Club (2025-26) and the team of collaborators. They
dedicated countless hours to the rigorous process of ideating, curating, and refining the content within these pages. We are
also incredibly thankful to the wider student and alumni community, whose valuable efforts in the past have greatly enriched
this work.

Thanks are also due to the Design team and the Publications team for bringing the content to its present shape.

Finally, we thank you, the reader. By engaging with this material, you become a vital part of this initiative. We hope you find it
valuable, and we welcome any feedback that will help us strive for continuous improvement.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Furthermore, we would like to individually thank the people who made this possible:

Publications Team: Anurag Rakshit, Apurva Narvekar, Dipak Agrawal, Jagadish Singh Naik, Mihir Rajora, Mukul Jain, Muskan
Gupta, Priyesh Pandey, Surabhi Porwal

Design Team: Amish Gupta, Anik Mondal, G R Srikanth, Jai Kumar, Kishor Khilare, Meghna

Last, but not least, our coordinator – Siddhant Samyak, for spearheading the effort from start to finish and making this primer a
reality not just for the present, but for the future as well.

The ProdMan Club

IIM Ahmedabad

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 Table of Contents
PM Concepts Page PM Concepts Page
Product Design 9 Testing 47
PLC 11 A/B Testing 49
User Personas 13
Tech Concepts Page
User Stories 15
Agile Methodology 52
UX Design 16
User Experience Design 57
PRD 17
Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence 64
MVP 19
Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality 72
CIRCLES 21
Cloud Computing 78
HOOK Model 22
Feature Prioritization 24 Blockchain 84

Rice 28 Internet of Things 89

Value Effort 29 Economics of Platforms 94

Kano Model 32 LLMs & Prompt Engineering 98

MoSCoW 35 Customer Funnel and Brand Lift 104

ICE 37 MCP and RAG 108

Metrices 39 Agentic AI 113
Heart Framework 41 Low Code Platforms 117
AARRR Framework 43 Building Trust in Products 120
North Star Metric 45 System Design 122

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 Table of Contents
Know Your Sector Page Practice Cases Page
Quick Commerce 129 Guesstimates 218
FinTech 133 Instagram Daily Uploads in India 219
Travel Tech 139 YouTube Daily Revenue 220
Food Tech 143 Zoom Daily Server Usage 221
E-Commerce 147 Number of Daily WhatsApp Chats 223
OTT 151 Food Delivery App Users 226
Ride Hailing Tech 155 Fantasy Football Platform Users 224
SaaS 159 New Product Design 227
DevTools 164 Office Space Sharing 228
HealthTech 169 Increase Voter Turnout 230
EdTech 174 Disney Theme Park Experience 232
AI 179 Startup Growth Hub by LinkedIn 234

Tackling Cases Page Ola for Schoolkids 235

Guesstimate Tips 186 Airline Entertainment System 237

Product Design: Do's & Don'ts 189 Alexa Skill 239

Intro to Go To Market Strategies 196 Social Media app for Covid-19 241

Intro to Product Metrics 207 Bicycle Renting App 243

Intro to Pricing 211 Podcast App at Spotify 245

Intro to RCA 215 Antique Marketplace 246

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 Table of Contents
Practice Cases Page Practice Cases Page
New Product Design Instagram Story Highlights 278
Ride Hailing App 249 Pricing 279
Health and Fitness App 251 Amazon Prime Pricing Projection 280
Internal Knowledge Repository 253 JioSaavn Family Plan 281
Book Recommendation App 255 Netflix Pricing Strategy 282
Samsung Galaxy Buds Experience 257 Vendor Price Negotiation 284
GTM Strategies 260 RCA 286
Social Fitness Product 261 Drop in Engagement 287
Table Reservation 262 Low Adoption Rate 290
Facebook Dating App 263 Drop in Watch Time 291
Lyft’s Indian Market Entry 265 Spike in Ride Cancellations 292
Tata Group Loyalty Program 267 Decline in Subscriptions 294
New Geographies 269 Drop in Daily Active Users 296
Metrics 270 Decline in Cart Additions 298
Instagram Creator Marketplace 271 App Improvement 300
Promotions in Google Pay 273 Facebook Reactions 301
Facebook Marketplace 274 BookMyShow User Engagement 303
Big Basket 275
WhatsApp In-App Video Playing 277

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Section 1

PM Concepts
 What Is Product Management
Throughout business history, innovators have kindled ideas that solve real Key Responsibilities of a Product Manager
problems. They built them, tested them, sometimes failed, and iterated with one
goal: to create and deliver meaningful solutions. Today, that end-to-end process is While responsibilities vary by company size, industry, and maturity, your journey as a
embodied in the role of the Product Manager. PM generally include:
• Market Research & Insight: Conducting customer and competitive analysis to
A common definition is that a product manager is the CEO of a product. PMs guide decisions
shoulder broad responsibility for vision, execution, and outcomes. They guide • Vision & Strategy: Crafting a clear product vision linked to business goals and
teams to discover, develop, and ship the right product, while bridging gaps translating it into a roadmap
among stakeholders. • Idea Generation & Prioritization: Conducting meetings to address customer
needs and prioritizing features using criteria like impact, feasibility, and value
What does a PM do? • Design & Development Collaboration: Shaping wireframes, writing user stories,
facilitating development with engineering teams, and supporting testing and
At its heart, product management is a strategic function at the intersection of iteration
business, technology, and user experience. A few key traits of a PM include: • Go-to-Market & Launch: Coordinating marketing strategy, aligning with launch
timelines, and ensuring support readiness
• Customer empathy: Uncovering both explicit and latent needs is essential. The • Ownership of Success Metrics: Tracking performance via customer satisfaction,
challenge lies in detecting unstated problems, going beyond what customers say adoption, retention, revenue etc.
to what they actually require. Sometimes people don’t know what they require
unless someone shows it to them. PMs listen to customers to define problems Performance measurement of PMs
but take ownership in shaping the solution. Your performance as a PM will be measured using activities associated with product
success, customers, and the overall process of product design and launch.
• Solution Ownership: PMs decide how to solve a problem. The quality of the
KPIs commonly used are:
solution, and its fit with customer context, sets apart great PMs from average
• Monthly Revenue – Month-wise revenue generated by the product
ones.
• Delivery-On-Time - Delivery of product or new feature on time
• Prioritization of Decisions: A PM constantly evaluates competing ideas. By • Product Quality - Number of deviation from standard quality practices
weighing metrics like feasibility, impact, effort, and business value, PMs ensure • Customer Counts - Increase in customer over a specified duration
teams focus on what matters most so that faster delivery of critical features is • Stickiness Ratio - Daily active user/ daily monthly user (DAU/DMU)
achieved while preventing wasted effort. • Customer Retention - Number of customers staying with the company over a
• Excellent Communication: PMs must adapt their message for different specified period
audiences, executives, engineers, designers, or marketers, using the right • Customer Satisfaction Score Measures overall satisfaction of customers with the
product or new features 8
vocabulary and context to align everyone toward the same product vision.

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 Product Design for PMs

Why Product Design Matters for PMs

A Product Manager bridges customer needs, business goals, and

technical delivery. You’re not just deciding what to build, you’re making
sure it solves the right problem in a way that is valuable, usable, and
feasible. UX Technology

Good product design ensures:

• The right problem is solved (not just what’s easy to build)

• Solutions are feasible for engineering and viable for the business
You are
• Users can achieve their goals smoothly and intuitively Business here!

As a PM, you don’t need to be the lead designer but must guide design
decisions, so the product delivers value consistently.

Reference: [Link] 9

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 How PMs Should Approach Product Design

1. Start with the user: Deeply understand their pain points, workflows, and environment.

2. Collaborate early: Involve design and engineering in ideation early, not just delivery.

3. Prioritize trade-offs: Every design choice impacts cost, time, and user experience.

4. Iterate fast: Get early versions into users' hands, test, and refine. Use prototypes, MVPs, and metrics to
validate before scaling.

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 Key Concepts in Product Design

PLC (Product Life Cycle)

What it is:
The stages a product goes through in the market: Introduction → Growth → Maturity → Decline.

1. Introduction: You've just launched. Focus is on adoption and finding your first true fans (early adopters). You're validating your
core hypothesis with a real-world audience.

2. Growth: You have product-market fit! Focus shifts to scaling. You're rapidly adding features, entering new markets, and
acquiring users quickly to build a defensible market position.

3. Maturity: Growth is slowing down. Focus is now on optimization and retention. You're fending off competitors, increasing
efficiency, and finding new ways to get more value from your existing user base.

4. Decline: The market is shrinking, or a superior technology has emerged. Focus is on profitability. You may be "sunsetting" the
product, minimizing costs, or milking the remaining cash flow before retiring it.

Why PMs should care:

• Different stages need different strategies (e.g., heavy marketing in Introduction, cost optimization in Maturity).

• Helps decide whether to invest, sustain, pivot, or sunset a product.

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 Reference: [Link]

Example:

Instagram Reels in 2020 was in Introduction with rapid feature pushes and heavy promotion. In 2025, it’s in Maturity, focusing on refining UX and
increasing ad monetization.

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 User Personas

What it is:
Fictional, research-backed representations of your target customers, including demographics, product usage behaviors, goals, and
challenges. This helps in achieving a product-market fit. It is recommended to come up with around 3-4 user personas.

Why PMs should care:

• Personas anchor design choices in real user needs rather than internal opinions.

• They help align the team (designers, engineers, marketing) on who you’re building for (even prioritize some personas over others)

• In roadmap discussions, you can use personas to defend priorities (“Feature X matters because Persona A struggles with Y
problem.”)

Example:
For a budgeting app, your primary persona might be “Ravi, 28, urban professional, wants to track expenses easily on mobile, hates
manual entry.” That means you might prioritize bank sync over advanced analytics.

Reference: [Link]

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 User Stories

What it is:
Short, structured statements of a feature from a user’s perspective:
“As a [user type], I want [goal] so that [benefit].”

Why PMs should care:

• Keeps requirements user-focused rather than tech-focused.

• Makes it easier for developers to understand the context and purpose of a feature.

• Helps you slice work into smaller, deliverable pieces for faster iteration.

Example:
“As Ravi, I want to scan receipts so that I don’t have to type expenses manually.” This drives a feature decision to add an OCR-
powered upload option.

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 UX Design

What it is:
User Experience (UX) is how a user interacts with and feels about your product and its ease of use, clarity, flow, and satisfaction.

Why PMs should care:

• Poor UX kills adoption even if the feature is powerful.

• PMs must advocate for usability testing, accessibility, and intuitive workflows.

• Good UX can reduce customer support costs and increase adoption and retention.

Example:
In a food delivery app, if users drop off at the address entry, simplifying it with “use current location” can improve order completion
rates.

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 PRD (Product Requirements Document)

What it is:
A detailed, formal document that specifies how customers will interact with a product, the functionality needed to fulfil all use cases,
and the requirements for engineering and other teams. It often includes wireframes, user stories, and technical constraints. The PRD
serves as a central reference point for engineering, quality assurance, customer service, sales, and product marketing, ensuring
everyone understands what is to be built and why.

Key Sections:

• Problem Statement: The customer pain points the product aims to solve, backed by market research or customer discovery.

• Goals/Objectives: Desired user and business outcomes, aligned with the product vision and company strategy.

• User Personas & Stories: Detailed personas and narratives describing how representative users will accomplish key tasks.

• Features & Scope: Clear definition of in-scope and out-of-scope features for the release, with prioritization.

• Requirements & Use Cases: Comprehensive description of all the ways the product will be used, including functional and non-
functional requirements.

• Wireframes/Prototypes: Visual layouts or interactive models to guide engineering and design.

• Success Metrics: Quantitative and qualitative measures of success (e.g., adoption rates, engagement metrics, conversion rates).
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 Why PMs should care:

• Provides necessary detail for engineering to build without ambiguity, reducing back-and-forth.

• Acts as the single source of truth for all stakeholders, minimizing misalignment.

• Enables cross-functional teams to translate product goals into actionable work plans.

• Reduces the risk of scope creep by clarifying priorities and constraints upfront.

Example:
Before launching a “Dark Mode” feature:

• Problem: Users experience eye strain in low-light conditions.

• Personas & Story: “Melody, a working mother in her 40s, uses the app late at night after putting her kids to bed. She finds the
bright interface uncomfortable and wants a softer display option.”

• Scope: Apply dark mode to all core screens; exclude legacy admin dashboard in v1.

• Requirements: Toggle switch in settings, persist mode preference, ensure color contrast meets accessibility standards.

• Success Metric: ≥ 40% of nightly active users enable dark mode within one month of release. 18

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 MVP (Minimum Viable Product)

What it is:
An MVP is the most misunderstood concept in product management. It is not a half-finished, buggy product. It is the version of a new
product that allows you to collect the maximum amount of validated learning about your customers with the least amount of effort.

Why PMs should care:

• Prevents overbuilding and wasting resources.

• Lets you test assumptions early and pivot quickly if needed.

• Gives real-world feedback to inform future iterations.

Example:
Instead of building a complete AI résumé review platform, launch a simple “upload PDF, get instant score” tool to see if job seekers
are interested.

Reference: [Link]

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 CIRCLES Framework

What it is:
A problem-solving framework for design questions

• Comprehend the Situation: Ask clarifying questions to understand the goal.

• Identify the Customer: Define your target user personas.

• Report the Customer's Needs: State their problems and use cases (via user stories).

• Cut Through Prioritization: Prioritize which use case to solve first.

• List Solutions: Brainstorm multiple potential solutions.

• Evaluate Trade-offs: Analyze the pros and cons of your proposed solutions.

• Summarize Your Recommendation: State your final recommendation

Why PMs should care:

• Useful in structured thinking during design discussions.

• Helps avoid jumping to solutions without fully understanding the problem.

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 HOOK Model

What it is:
A behavioral design loop for building habit-forming products:

• Trigger: The cue that initiates a behavior. This can be external (like a notification) or internal (like the feeling of boredom).

• Action: The simplest action a user can take in anticipation of a reward (e.g., scrolling a feed, clicking a play button).

• Variable Reward: The reward that satisfies the user's need but is delivered unpredictably. This is what creates craving (e.g., the
thrill of seeing what's next in your social feed).

• Investment: A small bit of work the user puts into the product, which loads the next trigger and increases the likelihood of them
returning (e.g., following a user, creating a playlist, sending a message). This work could bring returns from the user (e.g., user
spending money/inviting other people to the platform/providing data, etc.)

Why PMs should care:

• Helps create products users naturally return to.

• Encourages thinking about long-term engagement rather than just acquisition.

Reference: [Link] 22

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 Example: Duolingo
• Trigger: Daily push notification.

• Action: Complete a lesson.

• Variable Reward: Fun streak animations.

• Investment: User progresses in a skill tree, making them return tomorrow. 23

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 Why Feature Prioritization Matters for PMs

As a PM, you will always have more feature requests than you can build. Your job is to decide what to work on first, balancing:

• User Value: How much pain does this solve? How much delight does it create?

• Business Value: Does this drive revenue, increase market share, improve retention, or reduce costs?

• Strategic Fit: Does this feature move us closer to our long-term product vision?

• Effort & Feasibility: What will it take to build this, and do we have the resources and dependencies in place?

Poor prioritization wastes engineering effort; delays impact and frustrates stakeholders.
Good prioritization maximizes ROI and keeps the team focused.

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 How PMs Should Approach Feature Prioritization

Start with Your North Star: Always begin with your company's strategic goals and your product's vision. If a feature doesn't align with
these, it should be heavily questioned, no matter how exciting it seems.

Gather & Centralize Inputs: Create a single repository for all ideas. This includes user feedback from support tickets, requests from
the sales team, insights from market research, new technology opportunities, and ideas from your internal team.

Choose the Right Framework: No single framework is perfect for all situations. Select a tool that fits the stage of your product, the
data you have available, and the decision you need to make (more on this below).

Socialize & Align: Prioritization is not a solo activity done in a dark room. Share your framework and reasoning with key stakeholders
(engineering leads, design, marketing, leadership). This transparency builds trust and alignment, even when you have to say "no".

Iterate and Revisit: Priorities are not set in stone. The market changes, you get new data, a competitor makes a move. Revisit and
adjust your roadmap regularly, typically every quarter.

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[Refer to the Metrics section to understand what a North Star is.]

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 Key Frameworks for Prioritization

RICE
What it is:
A scoring formula: (Reach × Impact × Confidence) / Effort

• Reach: How many users will this feature affect over a specific period?
o e.g., 5,000 users/month

• Impact: How much will this move the needle for those users?
o Use a scale:
o 3 for massive impact,
o 2 for high,
o 1 for medium,
o 0.5 for low.

• Confidence: How sure are you about your Reach and Impact scores?
o (100% for high confidence, 80% for medium, 50% for low).
o This is crucial for de-biasing.

• Effort: How many "person-months" will this take from the entire team (product, design, engineering)?

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 Why PMs should care:

• Gives a quantitative way to compare ideas.

• Reduces bias towards “loudest voice in the room”.

Example:
You have two ideas:

• Add “One-Click Checkout” (Reach: 50K users, Impact: High, Confidence: 80%, Effort: 3 months).

• Add “Gift Wrapping Option” (Reach: 10K, Impact: Medium, Confidence: 90%, Effort: 1 month).

The RICE score will likely show that “One-Click Checkout” has a higher impact overall, even though it’s harder to build.

Reference: [Link]

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 Value-Effort Matrix

What it is:
A 2×2 chart:

• High Value / Low Effort → Quick Wins, they provide immediate impact and build momentum.

• High Value / High Effort → Major Projects, these are your strategic initiatives. They need to be broken down into smaller phases
and planned carefully

• Low Value / Low Effort → Fill-ins, only do these if you have free time, which you rarely will. They don't move the needle

• Low Value / High Effort → Avoid, at all costs.

What brings “Value”?

• User Value (Customer Impact): Improves satisfaction, solves pain points, or creates delight for users.

• Business Value (Commercial Impact): Drives revenue, accelerates acquisition and growth, boosts retention, or reduces costs.

• Strategic Value (Future Impact): Strengthens competitive advantage, supports long-term goals, and aligns with the company’s
vision.
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 What demands “Effort”?

• Development Effort: Time and complexity required for design, coding, and testing.

• Resource Cost: Financial investment, team bandwidth, and opportunity cost.

• Risk & Uncertainty: Technical challenges, dependency bottlenecks, or potential market failure.

Why PMs should care:

• Simple visual tool for quick decisions.

• Useful for early-stage or small-team prioritization.

Example:
A “Search Bar Improvement” that boosts retention but takes 2 days to code? → Quick Win → Build now.
A “New AI Recommendation Engine” that takes 6 months with unclear ROI? → Likely avoid for now.

Reference: [Link]

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 Kano Model

What it is:
The Kano Model shifts your thinking from "what features should we build?" to "how will this feature affect user satisfaction?" It
classifies features into:

• Must-haves (Basic Expectations): Users expect these and will be dissatisfied if they are missing, but they won't be delighted if
they are present.
o (e.g., A hotel room must have a bed).

• Performance Features (Satisfiers): The more you provide, the more satisfied users become.
o (e.g., Faster Wi-Fi, more storage space).

• Delighters (Exciters): Unexpected features that create delight. Their absence doesn't cause dissatisfaction, but their presence
can create loyal fans.
o (e.g., a free welcome gift in your hotel room).

• Indifferent: Features that customers think are neither good nor bad. They can be unimportant features to the customer.

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 Why PMs should care:

• Helps avoid wasting effort on over-optimizing basic features when you could add delighters.

• Keeps user satisfaction in mind, not just business metrics.

• Today's "Delighter" is tomorrow's "Must-have." Features naturally migrate down the Kano curve over time as user expectations
change.

Reference: [Link] 33
analysis/#:~:text=The%20Kano%20Analysis%20model%20(pronounced,can%20be%20measured%20and%20explored.

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 Example:
For a hotel booking app:
Must-have: Accurate room availability
Performance: Lower prices, better filters
Delighter: Free late checkout for loyal customers
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Reference: [Link]
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 MoSCoW

What it is:
MoSCoW is less about prioritizing a backlog and more about defining what must be included in a specific release or MVP.

• Must Have: Non-negotiable features for the release to be viable. If even one of these is missing, the launch is a failure.

• Should Have: Important but not vital. The release is still valuable without them, but they would be painful to leave out.

• Could Have: Desirable but not necessary. These are nice-to-haves that will be included only if time and resources permit.

• Won't Have (This Time): Explicitly out of scope for the current release.

Why PMs should care:

• Works well in Agile for release planning.

• Helps manage stakeholder expectations when resources are limited.

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 Example:
For a conference app MVP:
• Must Have: Agenda & Speaker Info
• Should Have: In-app Q&A
• Could Have: AR Navigation
• Won’t Have: Virtual Reality Tour (this year)
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Reference: [Link]

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 ICE

What it is:
Score = Impact × Confidence × Ease (simpler cousin of RICE, without Reach).

• Impact: How much will this positively affect the user or business? (Scale of 1-10)

• Confidence: How sure are you about the impact score? (Scale of 1-10)

• Ease: How easy is this to build? (Scale of 1-10, where 10 is very easy)

Why PMs should care:

• Fast to apply for backlog grooming.

• Ideal when you don’t have detailed user reach data yet.

• However, ICE can bias you towards features that deeply impact a small number of users.

Example:
You’re deciding between “Dark Mode” vs “Custom Themes” in a beta app:
• Dark Mode: Impact 8, Confidence 9, Ease 7 → Score = 504
• Custom Themes: Impact 5, Confidence 7, Ease 5 → Score = 175
• → Build Dark Mode first. 37

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 Reference: [Link]
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 Why Metrics Matter for PMs

Without metrics, you’re flying blind. PMs need measurable indicators to:

• Objective Decision-Making: Replace gut feelings and the "loudest voice in the room" with evidence-backed choices.

• Diagnosing Problems: Identify precisely where your product is succeeding or failing, so you can focus your efforts where they
matter most.

• Driving Alignment: Give your team and stakeholders a shared definition of success and a straightforward way to track progress
toward it.

• Telling a Story: Use data to craft a compelling narrative about your product's journey, its challenges, and its victories.

A PM’s success is often judged by impact, and impact is demonstrated through clear, relevant metrics, i.e. tracking the right things.

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 How PMs Should Approach Metrics

1. Start from Your Objective: What is the single most important goal for your product right now? Is it acquiring new users?
Increasing engagement? Driving revenue? Your primary objective dictates your primary metric.

2. Build a Metric Tree: Don't just pick a single metric. Map out how your primary goal (the North Star) breaks down into smaller,
actionable drivers. This helps your team see how their daily work contributes to the bigger picture.

3. Choose Leading and Lagging Indicators:

a. Lagging Indicators confirm long-term success (e.g., monthly revenue, customer retention). They are easy to measure but
hard to influence directly.

b. Leading Indicators predict future success (e.g., daily active users, number of items added to a cart). They show early signs
of progress and are more actionable.

4. Identify Counter-Metrics: For every metric you try to improve, you must track a counter-metric to ensure you're not causing harm
elsewhere. If you're trying to increase ad clicks (your goal), you must also monitor session time or user complaints (your counter-
metric) to make sure you're not just annoying users.

5. Avoid Vanity Metrics: A vanity metric is a number that looks good on paper but doesn't actually help you make decisions (e.g.,
total number of sign-ups since launch). Focus on actionable metrics that change your behavior.

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 Key Frameworks & Models for Metrics
HEART Framework
What it is:
A UX measurement framework from Google, focused on:

• Happiness: How do users feel about your product?

o (Measured via surveys like NPS, CSAT, or app store ratings).

• Engagement: How often and how deeply do users interact with your product?
o (e.g., sessions per user per week, photos uploaded per day).

• Adoption: How many new users are trying your product or a specific feature?
o (e.g., new accounts created, % of users who use a new feature in its first 7 days).

• Retention: What percentage of users are returning over time?

o (e.g., daily/monthly active users, churn rate).

• Task Success: Can users accomplish their goals quickly and easily?
o (e.g., time to complete a key task, success rate of a search query).

Why PMs should care:

• Gives a holistic view of product experience beyond pure numbers. Helps understand the "why" behind the numbers.
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• Helps balance short-term engagement with long-term satisfaction.

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 Example:
For a project management app:
• Happiness: NPS = +40
• Engagement: Avg. 3 logins/week
• Adoption: +15% new sign-ups MoM
• Retention: 70% of teams are active after 3 months
• Task Success: 90% of tasks created are completed within deadlines
If Retention is dropping while Happiness is high, maybe users like the app but don’t find it essential daily.

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Reference: [Link]

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 AARRR Framework (Pirate Metrics)

What it is:
A funnel-based model to track growth:

• Acquisition: How do users find you? (e.g., visitors from organic search, cost per install from ads).

• Activation: Do users have a great first experience (their "aha!" moment)? (e.g., % of users who complete onboarding, % who use a
key feature in their first session).

• Retention: Are users returning? (e.g., 30-day active user rate, churn rate).

• Referral: Are users telling others about your product? (e.g., viral coefficient, number of invites sent).

• Revenue: Are you making money? (e.g., customer lifetime value (LTV), average revenue per user (ARPU)).

Why PMs should care:

• Perfect for mapping the user journey, especially new products, startups, etc.

• Pinpoints where the funnel is leaking.

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 Example:
For a music streaming app:
• Acquisition: 50K installs from ads last month
• Activation: 60% play a song in the first session
• Retention: 30% listen weekly after 1 month
• Referral: 5% invite a friend
• Revenue: ₹150 average monthly subscription per paying user
If Retention is weak, you focus on playlists, personalized recommendations, and offline mode.
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Reference: [Link]

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 North Star Metric (NSM)

What it is:
A single, guiding metric that reflects the core value you deliver to users.

The Litmus Test for a Good NSM:

• It expresses user value.

• It represents your product strategy and measures progress.

• It's a leading indicator of revenue.

Why PMs should care:

• Creates alignment across teams, i.e., your entire company.

• Prevents teams from chasing random metrics that don’t drive long-term value.

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 Example:

Airbnb’s NSM:
Nights Booked. Because it reflects both guest satisfaction (they’re
booking stays) and host success (earning income).

Duolingo's NSM:
Daily Active Users (DAU) who complete at least one lesson. Just
tracking DAU would be a vanity metric. By adding the qualifier
"complete at least one lesson," they ensure they measure engaged
learning, which is the core of their value proposition.

Uber’s NSM:
Rides Completed. Because it reflects value for both sides, i.e. the
rider and the driver. Further, it acts as a leading indicator of revenue.

Reference: [Link]

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 Why Testing Matters for PMs

Even the best product ideas are just hypotheses until proven in the real world.

Testing helps PMs:

• De-risk Decisions: Would you bet a million dollars on a coin flip? Building a feature without testing is the business equivalent.
Testing allows you to validate your assumptions on a small scale before committing significant engineering resources.

• Allocate Capital Intelligently: Your team's time is your company's capital. Testing ensures you invest in features that
demonstrably improve the user experience and drive business metrics.

• End "Opinion-Based" Debates: Testing provides an objective referee in arguments about design or functionality. Instead of
debating which button color is better, you can say, "Let's test it and let the data decide." This builds a culture of evidence over
authority.

• Learn Faster: Every test, whether it succeeds or fails, provides a valuable insight into your users' behavior. The faster you learn,
the faster you can iterate and outpace the competition

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 How PMs Should Approach Testing

• Formulate a Crystal-Clear Hypothesis: This is the most critical step. A strong hypothesis is specific, testable, and connects an
action to an expected outcome.
o Weak Hypothesis: "Changing the button will improve clicks."
o Strong Hypothesis: "If we change the primary call-to-action button on the homepage from blue to orange (the change), we
will increase the click-through rate (the metric) by 10% (the expected impact) because the new color has higher contrast and
creates more urgency."

• Define Your Success Metric (and Counter-Metric):

o Primary Metric: Choose the one key metric that will determine if the test is a success (e.g., conversion rate, user retention).
o Counter-Metric: Identify a metric that could be negatively affected. If you're testing a change to increase ad clicks, your
counter-metric might be session duration or user block rate to ensure you're not just annoying your users.

• Ensure Statistical Significance: You need to run the test long enough and on a large enough group of users to be confident that
your results aren't due to random chance. Use a sample size calculator to determine this beforehand.

• Analyze and Act: Once the test concludes, analyze the results. There are three possible outcomes:
o Success: Your hypothesis was correct. Roll out the change to 100% of users.
o Failure: The change had no effect or an adverse effect. Scrap the idea and, most importantly, document what you learned
from the failure.
o Inconclusive/Interesting: The primary metric didn't move, but a secondary metric did. This is an opportunity to dig deeper
and form a new hypothesis.
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 Key Method: A/B Testing

A/B Testing
What it is:
A controlled experiment where you compare two versions (A = control, B = variation) to see which performs better on a specific metric.

Why PMs should care:

• Avoids “design by opinion” and lets data decide.

• Can be used for UI changes, pricing models, onboarding flows, or feature variations, but just one test variable at a time.

• Minimizes risk by testing on a subset of users before a full rollout.

Example:
You want to improve checkout completion on your e-commerce site.
• Hypothesis: A “Buy Now” button in the cart will reduce drop-offs by 10%.
• Test:
o Group A (Control): Regular checkout process.
o Group B (Variant): Cart page with “Buy Now” button.
• Result: Group B has a 14% higher completion rate → Roll it out to all users.
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 Reference: [Link]
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 Section 2

Tech Concepts

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Agile Methodology Tech Concepts

SDLC Framework – Why PMs should care

• SDLC keeps the product journey predictable and
efficient.
Required
• Understanding each stage helps you time the Analysis
decisions. You know when to involve which
stakeholders, how to manage timelines, and how to
prevent costly rework.
Maintenance Design
• As a PM, you’ll often decide when a feature is ready
to move to the next phase and balance speed vs.
SDLC
quality.
Framework

Example: If you’re building a new checkout flow, you Deployment Development

lock requirements early so developers aren’t guessing
mid-coding, which avoids costly rework.
There are two common methodologies for SDLC- Testing
Waterfall and Agile

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Agile Methodology Tech Concepts

Waterfall Model
The Waterfall model follows a linear, sequential process where each phase begins only after the previous one is
complete, with no overlap. Best suited for small, well-defined projects with minimal expected changes.
Linear flow: Requirement Analysis → Design → Implementation → Testing → Maintenance

Requirements
Design Implementation Testing Maintenance
Analysis

Limitations

• Low adaptability: Late-stage defects (e.g., in testing) require extensive rework and fallback to previous stages.
• Delayed delivery: Sequential phases can lead to late releases, reducing competitive advantage.
• Defect risk: Defects are identified during testing and it occurs at the end of SLDC, thus the risk of project failure is concentrated
at the end.

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Agile Methodology Tech Concepts

Agile
Agile is an iterative, time-boxed approach that delivers software in small increments, enabling rapid adaptation to
change. It prioritizes:
• Working software over comprehensive documentation
• Responding to change over following a fixed plan

Core Principles

• Deliver valuable software early and continuously.

• Embrace changing requirements, even late in development, to maintain competitive edge.
• Release working software frequently (every 2–8 weeks) to get rapid feedback and reduce defects.
• Focus on technical excellence and good design to enhance agility.
• Maximize work not done—avoid non-value-adding activities.
• Conduct regular retrospectives for continuous improvement.
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Agile Methodology Tech Concepts

Agile Development

Scrum Kanban

It is built around self-organizing, cross-functional teams Visualises task on a Kanban Board with columns like “To Do”,
working in short, fixed-length cycles called sprints (typically ”In Progress” and “Completed”.
1–4 weeks) while delivering incremental developments.

Roles: Product Owner (defines priorities), Development Team Facilities progress tracking, identifies bottlenecks, and adapt
(executes), Scrum Master (facilitates process) to changing requirements.

Events: Sprint Planning, Daily Scrum, Sprint Review, Sprint Ideal for environments with frequently shifting priorities.
Retrospective.

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Agile Methodology Tech Concepts

Waterfall vs Agile
Aspect Waterfall Agile
Process Flow Linear, sequential phases Iterative, incremental sprints

Flexibility Low – changes are costly and disruptive High – welcomes changes even late in
development

Delivery Single final release after all phases Frequent, small releases (every 2–8 weeks)

Customer Involvement Primarily at start and end Continuous feedback throughout

Risk Management High risk at end (defects found late) Risks addressed incrementally

Best Suited For Small, well-defined projects Dynamic, evolving requirements

Testing Performed after implementation is complete Continuous testing within each sprint

Team Collaboration Limited between business and developers Daily collaboration, cross-functional teams

Documentation Heavy, detailed documentation Lightweight, just enough for clarity

Examples of Frameworks N/A (Waterfall is itself a framework) Scrum, Kanban, XP

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User Experience Design Tech Concepts

User Experience Design is the process of fabricating products that provide purposeful and relevant experiences to
users.
To achieve this, designers follow the process of design thinking.
Design Thinking Process

Design Thinking is an iterative, user-centric problem-solving approach to create products with meaningful and relevant
experiences. It focuses on understanding user needs, redefining problems, and exploring alternative solutions.
The following are the five stages of Design Thinking Process:
1. Empathy
2. Define
3. Ideate
4. Prototype
5. Test

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User Experience Design Tech Concepts

Five Stages (EDIPT)

Empathy Define Ideate Prototype Test

Deeply understand Circumscribe the Brainstorming on Create a tangible Come back to the
the person for whom problem based ideas and representation people you are
you are designing for on emerging possible solutions of the possible designed for, to
institutions solution show prototype, test
ideas and gather 58
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User Experience Design Tech Concepts

Step 1: Empathize

❖ Conduct secondary research to understand context and current solutions.

❖ Perform competitive analysis to find market gaps.
❖ Gather primary data using ethnographic studies, focus groups, diary studies, cultural probes, surveys, interviews and expert
consultations

Step 2: Define

❖ Use affinity diagramming (KJ method) to organize research insights, identify pain points, and uncover patterns.
❖ Entire team participates in this and the aim is to identify the range of problems, and uncover similarities among problems from
multiple stakeholders.

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User Experience Design Tech Concepts

The KJ Method and Affinity Mapping

The KJ Method, developed by Jiro Kawakita, is a structured approach to affinity mapping.

Capture

Group

Label
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User Experience Design Tech Concepts

Step 2: Define Step 3: Ideate

Develop user personas—archetypes representing user goals
• Diverge to generate many solutions without judgment
and behaviours—based on behavioural variables (activities,
(brainstorming, brainwriting, SCAMPER, Crazy 8s).
attitudes, skills, motivations).
• Converge to select promising ideas using dot-voting,
Persona types: impact/effort matrices, or feasibility–viability–desirability
checks.
• Primary: Main target user
• Secondary: Minor additional needs
Step 4: Prototype
• Supplemental: Needs met via a combination of primary and
secondary personas • Start simple: Use sketches, paper models, or clickable
• Customer: Buyer, not necessarily the user wireframes before moving to more detailed designs.

• Served: Indirectly affected individuals • Show the main features: Focus on the key parts of the
product that matter most to the user’s experience.
• Negative: Users explicitly excluded
• Try different versions: Make several options to compare and
• Formulate a problem statement that captures user pain learn from.
points and business impact.
• Keep it quick: The goal is to learn fast, not to make it perfect.
E.g. “Company X’s customer satisfaction ratings are low and
market share has diminished by 10% over the past year • Aim of prototyping is to get something real in front of users so
because users don’t have adequate tools to perform A, B, and C you can see what works and what doesn’t before spending too
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User Experience Design Tech Concepts

Step 5: Test

The aim is to see how people use the prototype and learn what needs to change. You watch, listen, and ask questions while they interact with it.

Try it with See what Find the Ask for Make

users works problem feedback Changes

• Use A/B or multivariate tests when appropriate.

• Conduct heuristic evaluations using Nielsen’s 10 usability heuristics (used for testing usability of online products).

Visibility of System Status – Keep users informed with timely feedback Error Prevention – Avoid error-prone situations; confirm critical
(e.g., loading indicators). actions.
Match Between System & Real World – Use familiar terms, icons, and Recognition Over Recall – Reduce cognitive load with visible options
mental models. (e.g., autocomplete).
User Control & Freedom – If users get into an unwanted scenario by Flexibility & Efficiency – Support both novice and expert users (e.g.,
mistake, they should have an emergency exit. Allow undo/redo and shortcuts).
easy exits. Aesthetic & Minimalist Design – Show only relevant information
Consistency & Standards – Maintain consistent terminology and upfront.
design patterns. E.g. “add to cart” and “add to basket” should not be Error Recovery Support – Provide clear, actionable error messages.
used interchangeably. Help & Documentation – Offer concise, searchable, task-focused
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User Experience Design Tech Concepts

PM Takeaways

Empathy and research form Personas and problem statements

the foundation of align teams and
effective product design ensure business–user fit.

Usability heuristics serve as a Successful PMs integrate user needs, technical

quick evaluation checklist feasibility, and business goals throughout the design
before launch cycle

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Machine Learning & Artificial Intelligence Tech Concepts

Terminologies

Artificial Intelligence 1. Artificial Intelligence (AI): Broad field aiming to create machines that can sense,
Sense, reason, act & adapt reason, act, and adapt like humans.
2. Machine Learning (ML): A subset of AI where algorithms learn patterns from data to
make predictions or decisions without explicit rule-based programming.
Machine Learning
Algorithms whose performance 3. Deep Learning (DL): A subset of ML using multi-layered neural networks to handle
improve with more data complex tasks like image recognition, speech processing, and natural language
understanding.

Deep Learning
Algorithms to solve Why it matters for PMs
complex problems.
E.g. Neural networks
1. Enables data-driven product features (recommendations, personalization,
automation).
2. Shapes user experience and competitive advantage.
3. Requires balancing performance, data needs, cost, and ethics.

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Machine Learning & Artificial Intelligence Tech Concepts

Types of Machine Learning

Machine Learning
1. Supervised Learning: Learn from
labelled data.
a) Regression → Predict continuous
values (e.g., stock prices, weather).
Unsupervised Reinforcement Learning
Supervised Learning
Learning Through trial & error with
b) Classification → Assign to categories
Labeled data (e.g., fraud detection, spam filter).
Unlabeled data rewards & penalties

2. Unsupervised Learning: Find patterns

Regression Clustering
in unlabelled data.
Predict a continuous Finding similar a) Clustering → Group similar data (e.g.,
variable groups customer segments).
b) Dimensionality Reduction → Simplify
features while keeping patterns.
Dimensionality
Classification Reduction
Into a set of Reducing number of 3. Reinforcement Learning: Learn by
predefined classes features trial-and-error to maximize rewards (e.g.,
game AI, robotics).
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Machine Learning & Artificial Intelligence Tech Concepts

Model training basics

1. Labelled Data is split into:

• Training Set → Used to teach the

Model Training model patterns in the data and
adjust hyperparameters (settings
that control learning).
Supervised ML
Training Data • Testing Set → Used after training
Model
to measure accuracy and check
Hyperparameter
for overfitting (model memorizing
Labeled Data Optimization
rather than generalizing).

Testing Data 2. A well-trained model can then make

Model predictions on unseen data:
Evaluation • Classification → Predict discrete
categories.
• Regression → Predict continuous
values.

Once a model is trained, it can be fed

unseen data to predict outcomes.
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Machine Learning & Artificial Intelligence Tech Concepts

Recommender Systems
Core to products like Netflix, Amazon, YouTube, Spotify that help users discover things they didn’t know they wanted.

1. Content-Based → Recommend items similar in attributes to what the user liked.

• Pros: Simple, uses item features.
• Cons: Misses items without shared attributes.

2. Knowledge-Based → Ask users for preferences and recommend accordingly (e.g., Netflix asking for favourite shows).

3. Collaborative Filtering → Use ratings/behavior of similar users to make recommendations.

• Memory-Based: Find similar users/items and vote.
• Model-Based (e.g., Matrix Factorization with ALS): Learn hidden patterns (“latent factors”) from partially filled rating
matrices to predict missing ratings. Combines user preferences and item attributes.

Why it matters for PMs

Drives personalization → engagement → retention.

Choice of algorithm impacts user satisfaction, data needs, and scalability.
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Machine Learning & Artificial Intelligence Tech Concepts

Neural Networks
Inspired by how the human brain works,
neural networks take inputs, process them
through connected “neurons” with weights
(importance factors), and produce outputs.

1. Biological Analogy: In the brain, a neuron

fires when the input exceeds a threshold,
sending signals through axons. Similarly,
in an artificial neuron, inputs are
weighted, summed, passed through an
activation function (e.g., tanh), and
turned into outputs.

2. Feature Extraction:
• Classical ML: Humans manually
choose features from data. Why it matters for PMs
• Deep Learning (DL): Networks with
many hidden layers automatically DL powers cutting-edge applications (vision, speech, NLP) and
learn and extract complex, high-level reduces the need for manual feature engineering, but requires
features. large datasets and strong compute resources.
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Machine Learning & Artificial Intelligence Tech Concepts

AI/ML — Advantages for PMs AI/ML — Disadvantages/Challenges

1. Personalization at Scale → Tailor experiences for 1. Data Dependence → Needs large, high-quality
millions of users automatically and improve datasets.
customer service using virtual assistants.
2. High Costs → Computing, storage, and
2. Automation → Reduce manual work, speed up engineering talent are expensive.
processes.
3. Complexity → Harder to build, test, and explain
3. Better Decision-Making → Data-driven insights than rule-based systems.
and predictions.
• Helps in risk management and security 4. Bias & Ethics Risks → Can reinforce unfair
• Identify and target new customer segments patterns or invade privacy.

4. Competitive Edge → Differentiates product

features in crowded markets.

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Machine Learning & Artificial Intelligence Tech Concepts

Algorithm
Great For Ask Your Team Watch Out For (The PM's Concern)
Family

Establishing a simple "Is the relationship

Linear Oversimplification. May miss
baseline, predictable between our inputs and
Models complex patterns in user behavior.
outcomes. output likely linear?"

Tree- Explaining why a "How can we visualize Overfitting. The model might learn the
Based decision was made the decision rules for training data too well and fail on new
Models (high interpretability). the business team?" data.

Finding complex, non- "Do we have enough The "Black Box" Problem. It's very
Neural linear patterns in data and computing difficult to explain why the model
Networks massive datasets (e.g., power to train this made a specific prediction, which is a
image or speech). effectively?" risk for user trust and debugging.

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Machine Learning & Artificial Intelligence Tech Concepts

A Framework for Applying AI/ML

Before embarking on an AI/ML project, ask yourself and your team these critical questions:

1. Product Goal: 4. Benchmarking:

• What user problem are we solving? • How will you measure success?
• How does this ML feature align with the • What are the key performance indicators
overall product vision and goals? (KPIs) and benchmarks?
• What is our tolerance for false positives vs.
2. Integration: false negatives, and what is the user
• How will the ML component be integrated experience impact of each?
into the existing product?
5. User Interaction:
3. Starting Point: • How will users interact with and control
• What is the minimum viable product (MVP) the AI-driven features?
for this ML feature? • How will we know if the model's
• What data do we have, and what data do performance is degrading over time?
we need? • What is our rollback plan?
• Is this data representative of all our users? • What happens when the AI is wrong?

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Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality Tech Concepts

Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) are both technological experiences that change how
digital technology interacts with the physical world.

Augmented Reality Virtual Reality Why it matters for PMs

• AR refers to observing the real- • In VR, the user interacts with an • For product managers, AR
life environment with a digital entirely virtual world using a and VR offer powerful tools
augmentation overlaid. AR headset and a controller. to create immersive user
embeds video or images onto a • It creates a sensory experience experiences, from virtual
display of the physical world, product demos and
by stimulating the sensory interactive training to new
typically through a smartphone. organs into interacting with the forms of data collection
• The overlaid image/video virtual world as they would with and rapid prototyping.
creates an interaction between the physical world. • However, PMs must
the user, the digital, and the evaluate platform
physical worlds, allowing them compatibility, user
readiness, and content
to make connections or have strategy to design
new experiences. E.g. Pokémon impactful, accessible, and
Go future-ready products.

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Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality Tech Concepts

Augmented Reality Properties Virtual Reality Properties

Visualisation: AR enables users to see complex details Interaction: AR changes the way interaction between
with clarity by overlaying digital imagery onto the real world. humans and machines occurs by bypassing the need for
For instance, it can project the exact location of human veins physical controls in the future with virtual control panels.
to assist in blood draws or display how components fit
together in intricate mechanical assemblies.

Instruction: AR transforms learning and training by Interactivity: VR environments respond dynamically to user
delivering real-time, context-aware guidance. It can overlay inputs such as head movements, hand gestures, or controller
step-by-step instructions, diagrams, or videos directly onto actions. This real-time responsiveness allows users to
the user’s field of view, allowing them to follow procedures explore, manipulate, and engage with objects or scenarios
more accurately and efficiently. within the virtual world, increasing engagement and realism.

Interaction: AR changes the way interaction between Sensory Feedback: VR stimulates multiple senses to
humans and machines occurs by bypassing the need for enhance realism. Visual and audio cues are standard, while
physical controls in the future with virtual control panels. advanced systems add haptic feedback (vibrations, touch
sensations) or even motion platforms. This multisensory
approach strengthens the feeling of presence and helps users
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Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality Tech Concepts

Augmented Reality Working Virtual Reality Working

1. Computer Vision: 1. Content Source:

The system analyses the live camera The VR headset receives video input either from a connected PC via HDMI, a smartphone
feed to understand the surrounding placed inside the headset, or its own built-in graphics processor (in standalone headsets).
environment. It identifies objects,
surfaces, and spatial context, creating 2. Display Output:
a basic map of the real world from the The VR headset receives video input either from a connected PC via HDMI, a smartphone
user’s perspective. This can be marker- placed inside the headset, or its own built-in graphics processor (in standalone headsets).
based (identifying pre-programmed
objects) or marker-less (recognising
Feature Augmented Reality Virtual Reality
items on the go).
To enhance the real world with digital To replace the real world with a simulated
Goal
overlays. one
2. Rendering:
Environment A mix of real and virtual elements Fully digital and computer-generated
Based on this understanding, the system
selects relevant digital content and Primarily smartphones, tablets, and VR headsets and controllers (e.g., Meta
Hardware
overlays it precisely onto the real-world smart glasses Quest).
view. This content is aligned in size,
position, and perspective to blend 3. Optical Processing:
seamlessly with the physical Lenses positioned between the eyes and the screens adjust and distort the images so they
environment, enhancing the user’s align correctly for each eye. This creates a stereoscopic 3D effect, giving the user a realistic
experience. sense of depth and immersion.
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Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality Tech Concepts

Differences Between Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality

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Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality Tech Concepts

Applications of Augmented Reality

Smart Glasses Healthcare

Wearable, transparent devices like AR is used in healthcare for advanced
Google Glass Enterprise and Microsoft medical imaging and surgical planning,
HoloLens overlay digital information enabling doctors to visualise internal
directly onto the user’s field of view, anatomy (like tumours) in a 3D format
enhancing real-world scenes with 3D before and during procedures,
visuals, notifications, and contextual improving precision and patient safety.
data.

Lifestyle Entertainment
Smartphone apps such as measurement AR enhances experiences in gaming and
tools and decor visualizers use AR to social media through playful overlays
overlay digital content on real-life like Snapchat filters, lens effects, and
objects, enabling users to measure Pokémon GO-style interactive content AR use in navigation
dimensions or preview how furniture will that blends into the user’s real-world
look in their homes. surroundings

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Augmented Reality & Virtual Reality Tech Concepts

Applications of Virtual Reality

Entertainment Healthcare
VR creates ways to access VR allows surgeons and those
movies, places, and video games training in the medical field to
in 360 degrees. It allows users to watch surgery simulations, learn
look where they want in virtual about tools, and experience
environments, creating a new patient dynamics in a virtual
experience. setting before surgery.

Training Education AR use in navigation

VR can help with training for new VR brings students into other Know more:
drivers as the virtual environment is environments to get a clear picture of
1. [Link]
safer and more accessible than what they are learning about, making it
aware-ai-bringing-new-era-of-immersion-9e5e863d1a1c
more exciting. Additionally, it could
learning to drive in the physical make remote learning easier as students
2. [Link]

world. could participate in a virtual classroom.

virtual-reality
3. [Link]
applications-of-augmented-reality-ar/
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Cloud Computing Tech Concepts

What is Could Computing?

At its simplest, cloud computing is the on-demand Core Services Model

delivery of computing services—servers, storage,
databases, networking, software, and advanced
analytics—over the internet. Instead of owning and
maintaining costly data centres, you rent resources
from a provider like Amazon Web Services (AWS), SaaS
(Software as a Service)
Microsoft Azure, or Google Cloud Platform (GCP).

PaaS
(Platform as a Service)

Why is it important?
IaaS
The shift to the cloud is the most significant (Infrastructure as a
Service)
technological change since the client-server model.
It fundamentally alters business agility, financial
models, and the very architecture of products.

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Cloud Computing Tech Concepts

Core
IaaS PaaS SaaS
Services
(Infrastructure as a Service) (Platform as a Service) (Software as a Service)
Model
Renting the fundamental building blocks A platform for developers to build,
of computing: servers, storage, and deploy, and manage applications
Ready-to-use software delivered over
networking. It's like leasing a plot of land without worrying about the
What it is where you have maximum control but underlying infrastructure. It's like
the internet on a subscription basis. The
provider manages everything.
also maximum responsibility to build renting a fully equipped workshop
everything. with all the tools provided.
Ideal for increasing developer
Use IaaS for maximum flexibility and velocity. It abstracts away As a PM, you might be building a SaaS
control over the tech stack, especially for infrastructure complexity, allowing product for your customers or
The PM’s
complex or highly custom applications. It the team to focus purely on integrating with other SaaS products
view requires significant engineering application code and features. This (like Salesforce or Slack) to enhance
overhead. is the sweet spot for many agile your own offering.
product teams.

AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Google App Salesforce, Google Workspace,

Examples Amazon EC2, Google Compute Engine
Engine, Heroku. Dropbox.

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Cloud Computing Tech Concepts

Benefits of Cloud Computing Drawbacks of Cloud Computing

Security & Privacy Risks – Data on third-party

Cost Efficiency – Pay-as-you-go model, reduced
servers; misconfigurations can cause
CapEx, more flexible OpEx model.
breaches.

Scalability & Elasticity – Instantly scale

Vendor Lock-in – Hard to switch providers
resources up/down based on demand. Avoid
without high cost & complexity.
cost of idle infrastructure

Cost Spikes – Poor monitoring can lead to

Speed & Agility – Provision servers in minutes,
unexpectedly high bills due to Pay-as-you-go
accelerating development & deployment.
models

Global Reach – Deploy in multiple regions for Downtime Risks – Provider outages = your
lower latency & better UX. downtime.
Reliability & Disaster Recovery – Compliance Challenges – Varying regional data
Geo-distributed backups and failovers. laws add complexity.

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Cloud Computing Tech Concepts

When should a PM Consider Cloud Solutions?

Scenario Why Cloud Helps

New Product from Scratch Avoids high upfront costs; easy to scale while finding product–market fit.

Unpredictable / Spiky Traffic Elasticity handles sudden demand surges without overprovisioning.

Need Faster Development PaaS frees engineers from infra management to focus on features.

Global Expansion Deploy apps close to users worldwide for low latency.

Big Data / AI / ML Workloads On-demand, powerful compute & analytics without in-house build.

Aging On-Prem Infrastructure Opportunity to migrate instead of reinvesting in costly hardware.

Public Cloud Hybrid Cloud Private Cloud

Shared infrastructure, owned by Mix of private + public cloud; Exclusive infrastructure for one
third-party (AWS, Azure), data/apps move between them. org, on-prem or hosted.
accessed over the internet.

• Scalable & cost-effective • Security + scalability • High security & control

• Less control & potential • More complex to manage • Expensive & less scalable
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Cloud Computing Tech Concepts

Cost Pricing
How It Works PM’s View
Models
Max flexibility for unpredictable
Pay-As-You-Go Pay per hour/second, no
(On-Demand)
workloads & dev/test; highest per-unit
commitments.
cost.

Reserved Commit for 1–3 years for big Best for steady, predictable traffic;
Instances discounts (up to 75%). cost-optimization lever.

Buy unused capacity at steep Great for fault-tolerant, non-critical

Spot Instances discounts (up to 90%); can be jobs (batch/data processing); not for
reclaimed anytime. core user-facing services.

Freemium / Limited free usage each Strong user acquisition strategy; lets
Free Tier month. customers try before buying.

Multiple pricing tiers (Basic, Aligns pricing with features/usage for

Tiered Pricing
Pro, Enterprise). different customer segments.

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Cloud Computing Tech Concepts

Competitive
Differentiation:
don’t chase parity
– focus on unique
value.

Look for loose

Plan for data
coupling between
residency laws,
modules. Does
resource PM Lens latency, and local
compliance from
optimization
the start.
reduce costs?

Choose the
correct revenue
and cost model:
Subscription,
consumption-
based, etc.

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BlockChain Tech Concepts

Introduction: Working:
• A blockchain is a distributed database or ledger shared
across a computer network's nodes. Each transaction is stored as a “block”
• They maintain a secure and decentralized record of containing specific details along with a
transactions but are not limited to cryptocurrency uses. timestamp to preserve chronological
order.
• In an industry, blockchains can be used to make data industry
immutable, i.e., it cannot be altered.
• It is a form of a mathematical data structure and is
Each block is connected to the previous and
programmed to be immune to manipulation. subsequent blocks via cryptographic
hashes, making alterations virtually
Properties: impossible without changing all the
1. Open → Distributed ledger technology - All network participants can subsequent blocks.
access the distributed ledger. It records transactions only once,
eliminating the duplication effort typical of traditional business
networks. All validated blocks are added to the chain
permanently using consensus algorithms
2. Immutable → Immutable records - No participant can tamper with a like Proof of Work (PoW) or Proof of Stake
transaction after it’s been recorded in the shared ledger. If a (PoS), creating a tamper-proof ledger.
transaction record includes an error, a new transaction must be
added to reverse the error, and both transactions are then visible.
3. Secure → Public key cryptography - It secures transactions and data
The chain’s immutability builds a trusted,
on the blockchain by leveraging two cryptographic keys: a public key
transparent record accessible to all network
and a private key. The private key holder can authorize transactions, participants, preventing fraud and ensuring
provide security and verify ownership, while the public key allows accuracy.
others to send data to the correct address.
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Working of Blockchain Technology

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Types Further types based on permission

1. Public Permission-less → Anyone can join the network, read data, and
1. Public Blockchain → A fully open network where anyone can perform transactions without authorization. It operates on public servers
join, view, and validate transactions (e.g., Bitcoin, Ethereum). and ensures anonymity and decentralization, making it resilient and
It offers maximum decentralization but often has slower censorship-resistant. However, due to its consensus-heavy design, it
transaction speeds, higher energy use, and limited privacy. suffers from low scalability and slower transaction speeds. E.g., Bitcoin,
Litecoin and Polkadot.
2. Private Blockchain → A decentralized peer-to-peer network
controlled by a single organization. The governing entity 2. Public Permissioned → Anyone can access and read the blockchain
data, but only selected, authorized participants can write or validate
decides who can join, run the consensus process, and transactions. It balances openness with control, offering medium
maintain the ledger. scalability. It suits use cases where transparency is key, but data
integrity, such as government registries or regulated public services,
Permission Less Permissioned must be protected. E.g., Ripple (XRP Ledger)
Publicly hosted Anonymous can 3. Private Permission-less → Only authorized individuals can join the
servers where join and read network, and all participants can read, write, and commit data freely
Public

anyone can read, Only authorised within the network. Hosted on private servers, it ensures tighter access
write and commit personnel can control and better performance than public systems. It offers high
Anonymous and write
resilient scalability, which is ideal for internal enterprise applications requiring
Medium
Low Scalability Scalability
speed, privacy, and moderate decentralization. E.g., MultiChain
(configured in open-write mode)
4. Private Permissioned → Most restrictive and enterprise-friendly model
Only authorized Only authorized where only pre-approved participants can join, and even among them,
personnel can join personnel can join
writing rights are further limited to select users. Hosted privately and
Private

to read, write and More authorization

commit tightly governed, it ensures maximum control, security, and compliance.
needed to write
Hosted on private With very high scalability, it’s best suited for B2B settings like supply
Very highly
servers scalable (suitable chains, banking, and healthcare, where trust, speed, and confidentiality
High Scalability for B2B use cases) are critical. E.g., Hyperledger Fabric and R3 Corda
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BlockChain Tech Concepts

Business Value: Shortcomings:

1. Lower risk & compliance costs → Shared, blockchain-based 1. High Energy consumption → Computational power needed for mining results
KYC lets banks verify a customer once and reuse the verification in enormous energy consumption. This environmental cost poses a barrier to
sustainability and green innovation.
securely across institutions, cutting costs and improving
onboarding speed. 2. User adoption due to complexity → Despite its potential, blockchain is not
For e.g., In Oct 2017, OCBC, HSBC, and MUFG, with Singapore’s user-friendly. Wallets, private keys, and smart contracts are complicated for
the average user to navigate. Poor UX and technical jargon limit mainstream
IMDA, completed Southeast Asia’s first blockchain-based KYC adoption, especially outside tech-savvy communities.
POC. KPMG estimated 25–50% cost savings by removing
3. Regulatory & legal uncertainty → Blockchain faces inconsistent global
repeated checks and adding a clear audit trail.
regulations that hinder adoption.
2. Faster & cheaper transactions → Digitizing trade documents on
a blockchain eliminates paper handling and manual checks, Applications:
speeding up cross-border deals. 1. Cryptocurrency - Blockchain enables secure, peer-to-peer digital money
For e.g., in May 2018, HSBC and ING settled a soybean shipment transfers without banks or intermediaries.
from Argentina to Malaysia in 24 hours (vs. 5–10 days), the first 2. Supply Chain Tracking - It records every step of a product’s journey from
live commercial trade finance transaction using blockchain. source to customer in a tamper-proof ledger. This increases transparency and
3. Automated, secure contract fulfilment → Smart contracts helps verify authenticity.
execute automatically when conditions are met, reducing human 3. Smart Contracts - Blockchain can run coded agreements that automatically
errors and delays. execute when conditions are met. This removes the need for middlemen and
For e.g., in 2018, Walmart and IBM’s Food Trust traced mango speeds up transactions.
shipments in 2.2 seconds (vs. 7 days), improving food safety, 4. Digital Identity - It offers individuals and organizations secure, verifiable digital
recall speed, and transparency. IDs. This helps reduce fraud and simplifies online verification.
5. Voting Systems - Blockchain creates transparent, auditable voting records that
are hard to alter. This improves trust and reduces the risk of election fraud.
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How PMs decide when to use Blockchain References:

• [Link]
[Link]#toc-benefits-of-blockchains
Database required? • [Link]
• [Link]
insights/mckinsey-explainers/what-is-
Multiple users
blockchain
No Blockchain updating • [Link]
simultaneously technology-in-the-food-industry-ddf2d34cced6
• [Link]
components-platforms-use-cases/
Centralised Trust required • [Link]
Database between users? blockchain
• [Link]
er_Blockchain_WP.pdf
Multiple copies of Does centralised
centralised control cause
database issues?

Third-party Dependent
intermediary transactions?

Master-slave 88
BLOCKCHAIN
database

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Internet of Things (IoT) Tech Concepts

Introduction Properties
1. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical devices 1. Connectivity → IoT devices use wired or wireless connections to
embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity, enabling exchange data with other devices or platforms. This typically
them to collect, exchange, and act on data. These “smart” includes Wi-Fi for home automation, Bluetooth for wearables,
devices range from consumer gadgets like fitness trackers to Zigbee for low-power smart devices and 5G for high-speed
large-scale systems like smart cities, which result in improved industrial IoT.
efficiency, convenience, and decision-making.
2. Automation → Devices can execute actions automatically when
2. IoT will enable PMs to offer personalized experiences through triggered by certain conditions, reducing manual intervention.
real-time monitoring. It can further be coupled with AI to gather
actionable insights and perform predictive analytics, and 3. Scalability → IoT platforms are designed to handle thousands to
additional sources of revenue can be unlocked, thus providing a millions of connected devices simultaneously, with the ability to
competitive edge. add more without degrading performance.

4. Interoperability → IoT ensures devices from different

manufacturers can communicate and work together using
standard protocols or APIs.

5. Real-Time Insights → IoT allows for continuous data capture and

analytics for quick decisions and immediate action.

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Internet of Things (IoT) Tech Concepts

Working Sensing:
Physical devices capture
specific data (e.g.,
temperature, motion, light,
vibration, etc.) using sensors
which are embedded in them

Communication:
Feedback Loop: Data collected through sensor
travels from devices to
The systems learn and adjust
gateways or directly to cloud
continuously to improve
platforms via protocols like Wi-
performance and accuracy
Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, 5G or
MQTT.

Data Processing:
Action:
The information is analysed
Devices perform
locally through edge
automated actions or alert
computing for quick
users based on the insights
responses or in the cloud
generated.
for deeper insights.
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Internet of Things (IoT) Tech Concepts

Types
Type Consumer IoT Commercial IoT Industrial IoT Infrastructure IoT

• High security
• Convenience standards (sensitive • Predictive
• Sustainability
Focus • Lifestyle data) maintenance
• Safety
enhancement • Customer • Safety
experience

• Manufacturing
• Home • Healthcare • Smart cities
• Logistics
Sector • Fitness • Retail • Utilities
• Energy
• Entertainment • Hospitality • Transportation
• Infrastructure

• Smart homes (voice • Predictive

• Smart grids for energy
assistants, smart • Smart retail maintenance for
distribution
lighting, connected (personalized in-store machinery
Applications appliances) offers) • Smart water
• Remote equipment
management (leak
• Connected health • Asset tracking in monitoring in
detection, quality
devices (smart warehouses manufacturing
monitoring)
glucose monitors) plants
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Internet of Things (IoT) Tech Concepts

Business Value of IoT

Operational Efficiency Data-Driven Decision Making

IoT streamlines processes by automating tasks, reducing

Real-time data collection enables organizations to respond
delays, and optimizing resource allocation. This is especially
quickly to changing conditions and improve decision quality.
valuable in industries where downtime is expensive.
For example, Starbucks uses IoT-connected coffee machines to
For example, Amazon warehouses use IoT-enabled robots to
monitor drink quality and adjust recipes remotely based on
locate and transport items, speed up order fulfilment, and
performance analytics.
reduce labor costs.

Enhanced Customer Experience New Revenue Models

IoT enables personalization, convenience, and faster service, IoT provides subscription-based services, pay-per-use models,
increasing customer loyalty and satisfaction. and data monetization opportunities.
For example, Disney’s MagicBand allows park visitors to For example, John Deere offers precision farming subscriptions
seamlessly unlock hotel rooms, enter rides, and make cashless that use IoT data to optimize planting and harvesting
payments. schedules.
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Economics of Digital Platforms Tech Concepts

Economic Features of Digital Platforms –

Differentiability
Sustainable differentiation lives in the customer’s Two levers dominate in differentiation -
perception (not just internal process • Cost of convergence: Copying the core product is not difficult in digital
improvements). For example, if Uber creates a new platforms. Hence, businesses need to find ways to have a competitive edge over
algorithm that increases cab availability for competitors. Some ways include data moat, exclusive deals/partnerships,
customers, but the customers do not perceive any developing highly trusted and dense networks, and eventually creating a strong
significant difference between Ola and Uber, then and memorable brand.
Uber has not differentiated itself. There are two • Switching costs: For platforms, the aim is to raise the real cost of leaving (time,
kinds of differentiation – Uber has not differentiated money, convenience, lost benefits) without resorting to dark patterns. Practical
itself. There are two kinds of differentiation – levers include:
• Horizontal differentiation: Different • Reputation and history (ratings, reviews) that users don’t want to abandon
tastes/identities (e.g., Reddit communities, • Deep product/workflow integrations (APIs, catalogues, payments,
niche job boards, gamers vs professionals). logistics) that would be painful to rebuild elsewhere
• Loyalty and financial hooks (subscriptions, fast payouts/financing) that
• Vertical differentiation: Objectively “better” accrue over time
experience (lower search cost, higher • Social and community graphs (followers, groups, messaging) that users
trust/safety, better matches, faster delivery). value
• Personalisation and saved data (preferences, lists, models) that make your
Platforms typically win on vertical experience meaningfully better
(quality/governance/trust) and cement their position • Fair contractual/verification frictions (KYC, guarantees, insurance) that
with horizontal community/identity over time. improve trust while making switching non-trivial.

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Economics of Digital Platforms Tech Concepts

Economic Features of Digital Platforms – Network Effects

A network effect exists when a user’s value increases as more users join. There are various ways in which Network Effects can
kick in.

Side of network effects: Scale of network effects:

• Same-side: Value rises as more • Local: Effects confined to

peers join. For example, Instagram geographies/segments. Generally,
is more useful if your friends are on these are more competitive given the
the platform. increased investments required to
• Cross-side: Value rises across scale the platform across
sides. More Airbnb hosts geographies. For example, Uber
incentivise more guests to book on competes with local rivals in almost
the platform. every geography it plays in.

• Global: Inventory or interactions travel

globally. For example, the more hosts
Network Effects S-curve
there are on Airbnb, the more
attractive the platform becomes
worldwide.
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Economics of Digital Platforms Tech Concepts

Pricing and Competition in Multi-Sided Markets

Two-Sided Price Structure Competition, Multihoming, and Bottlenecks

Platforms set asymmetric prices to • Multihoming: If users/suppliers easily switch between multiple
internalise cross-side externalities. Typically, platforms, rivalry remains active, and mark-ups stay in check.
they subsidise the more price-sensitive or
network-generating side (e.g., free usage for • Competitive bottlenecks: When one side is locked in (exclusivity,
consumers) and monetise the other side high switching costs), the platform with privileged access can capture
(e.g., advertisers, merchants). The split outsized value. Example here is Apple App Store. Given the heavy lock
evolves over the lifecycle—heavy subsidies at in of users on the platform, Apple can charge 30% commissions to
launch to cross the cold start, then gradually developers, which is difficult to imagine if there were multiple App
tapering. stores.

• Expectations & tipping: User expectations about future participation

can stall launches or accelerate dominance once momentum builds.

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Economics of Digital Platforms Tech Concepts

Strategic Issues in Platform Management Demand – Supply, Surplus, and Value Capture
• Launching problem: Overcome cold start via In competitive markets, consumer and producer surplus
subsidies, exclusive/supply seeding, or a single- are split at equilibrium. Platforms frequently deploy price
player utility that’s useful before a network forms. discrimination (auctions, personalized ads, tiered fees),
Expect cash burn until critical mass. overcome cold enabling them to capture more surplus. Strong network
start via subsidies, exclusive/supply seeding, or effects also steepen effective demand (higher willingness
single-player utility that’s useful before a network to pay), increasing total surplus—of which a well-
forms. Expect cash burn until critical mass. governed, powerful platform can claim a large share.

• Marketplace vs Reseller: Marketplaces scale

breadth and take rates with low capital intensity; Conclusion
reseller/hybrid models offer tighter quality control
Digital platforms combine powerful economies of scale,
and margin on selected lines.
network effects, and differentiation to create self-reinforcing
advantages. These forces explain both rapid growth and a
• Platform leakage: Prevent off-platform tendency towards concentration. Strategy thus revolves around
transactions by making on-platform strictly crossing critical mass, choosing sound price structures and
safer/better (payments, escrow/insurance, dispute governance, and sustaining defensible differentiation—while
resolution, guarantees). policy safeguards competition and user welfare without dulling
innovation.
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LLMs & Prompt Engineering Tech Concepts

LLMs

❖ LLM refers to a special type of AI model called a Large Language Model. LLMs, as the name suggests, are trained with extensive
text data.
❖ With an input of text, they can respond with probabilistically possible next set of words or text based on the statistical patterns it
had learnt about the natural language of humans from the training data.

How LLMs Really Work: A Probabilistic Approach

❖ At its core, a Large Language Model is a sophisticated probabilistic engine.

❖ When you give an LLM a prompt like "The first person on the moon was...", it doesn't "know" the answer. Instead, it calculates the
statistical probability of every word in its vocabulary that could come next.
❖ "Neil" might have a 75% probability, "Buzz" a 15%, and "Mickey" a 0.001%.
❖ It chooses a word based on these probabilities and then repeats the process, predicting the next word after "Neil," and so on, to
generate a complete response.

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LLMs & Prompt Engineering Tech Concepts

Under the Hood: Encoding, Transformers, and Decoding

• To predict the next word, a model needs to understand the input you provide. This happens through a three-step process powered
by architecture called the Transformer.
• Encoding: Turning Words into Meaningful Numbers- Models don't read words, they process numbers. The first step, encoding,
converts your prompt into a series of numbers called "tokens." Each token represents a word or a piece of a word. These
numerical representations (vectors) capture the word's semantic meaning and relationship to other words.
• The Transformer: Understanding Context- This is the engine room. The Transformer architecture, introduced by Google in
2017, was a revolution because of its "attention mechanism." This allows the model to weigh the importance of different words in
the input sequence. When processing the sentence "The robot picked up the heavy box because it was strong," the attention
mechanism helps the model understand that "it" refers to the "robot," not the "box."
• Decoding: Turning Numbers Back into Words- After the Transformer processes the encoded input, the decoding phase begins.
The model generates a new token, a numerical representation of the most probable next word. This token is then converted back
into human-readable text. This process repeats, with each newly generated word being fed back into the model to help predict
the next one, until the full response is complete.
• This entire architecture is what the "GPT" in models like GPT-4 stands for: Generative Pre-trained Transformer. It's Generative
because it creates new text, is pre-trained on a massive dataset, and is built on the Transformer architecture.

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LLMs & Prompt Engineering Tech Concepts

Controlling the Output: Key Parameters

• You can influence an LLM's probabilistic choices using specific parameters. While the prompt is your primary tool, the standard
technical parameters controlling the model's creativity are Temperature, Top-P and Top-K.
• Temperature (Creativity vs. Coherence): Temperature controls the randomness of the output. A low temperature (e.g., 0.2)
makes the model more deterministic. It will try to choose the word with the highest probability. This is ideal for factual tasks like
summarisation or data extraction where you need predictable, coherent answers. On the other hand, a high temperature (e.g.,
0.9) increases randomness. The model might pick a less likely word, leading to more creative, diverse, or unexpected outputs.
This is useful for brainstorming, creative writing, or generating multiple different options.
• Top-K Sampling: This parameter instructs the model to create a shortlist of the 'K' most likely next words and then choose only
from that list. A low K (e.g., K=1) makes the model very safe and deterministic.
• Top-P (Nucleus Sampling): Top-P is another method to control randomness. It tells the model to consider only the most
probable words that comprise a certain cumulative percentage (the "nucleus").
• For most applications, you'll use a low temperature for predictable outputs. For creative tasks, you might increase it.

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LLMs & Prompt Engineering Tech Concepts

The AI Model Landscape: LLMs, SLMs, and Reasoning Models

The term "LLM" is often used as a catch-all, but the landscape is more nuanced. The following table captures the different models
that are in use today –

Model Type Key Characteristics PM Use Case

LLM Large, general-purpose text models (GPT-4, Gemini). Chatbots, content generation, research assistance
Versatile but costly
SLMs (Small Language) Small, efficient, task-specific models Ticket classification, quick text summarisation

Reasoning Model Optimized for multi-step problem-solving Strategic analysis, complex decision support

Multimodal Model Handle text, images, audio, and video together Generate UI from sketches, read & summarize reports.

Image Gen Model Create images from text prompts (DALL·E, Midjourney) Marketing creatives, product mock-ups

Speech Model Convert speech text, add voice to apps Voice assistants, meeting transcription

Domain Models Trained for one field (finance, law, medicine) Contract review, medical advice, market risk

AI Agents Use multiple models/tools to act autonomously Automated research, workflow execution
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LLMs & Prompt Engineering Tech Concepts

Prompt Engineering

Large language models use text prompts (sometimes with image prompts) to predict the output. Prompt Engineering is the practice
of strategically designing your input to guide a model toward a specific, high-quality, and relevant output. If an LLM is a brilliant,
improvisational actor, the prompt is your script and direction. Your word choice, style and tone, structure, context, training data,
model configurations, and the model itself all have a role in how effective your prompt is. Some basic and popular prompt
engineering methods are -

Technique Explanation Use Case Example

Zero / One / Few-Shot Give the model zero, one, or a few Classify user feedback into Bug, "Here are 3 labelled reviews. Now, label
examples so it learns the pattern instantly. Feature Request, or UI/UX Issue these 20 new ones the same way."
Zero-shot = just instructions, few-shot =
multiple examples.

Role Prompting Tell the model to act in a specific role so Create different outputs for "Act as a Product Manager. Summarise
tone and style match that persona. engineers vs. leadership this idea for the CEO."

Chain-of-Thought (CoT) Ask the model to think step-by-step before Break down a market entry "Should we launch in Southeast Asia?
answering, ensuring logical reasoning. decision logically Think step-by-step: market size →
competition → costs."
ReAct (Reason + Act) Alternate between reasoning and using Gather competitor data and "Search for current iPhone prices in
tools (e.g., web search) to get fresh info prepare analysis India, compare with Samsung, then
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before final answer. suggest positioning."

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LLMs & Prompt Engineering Tech Concepts

Other vital guidelines to craft an effective prompt include

• Start Simple – Give a short, explicit instruction first. Add details only if needed.
• Be Clear – Say exactly what format, length, and tone you want.
• Use Positive Language – Tell the model what to do, not what to avoid.
• Show Examples – Give correct, well-formatted samples to copy.
• Test & Save – Try your prompt, note what works, and keep a record.

Reference
[Link]
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Customer Funnel & Brand Lift Tech Concepts

Introduction

As a product manager, understanding the impact of your

marketing efforts on a feature improvement or new product
development is crucial. A brand lift study is a powerful tool
to measure how well your campaign has changed people's
awareness and perception of your product. Awareness
improves conversion at the top end of the customer funnel,
while perception helps with the bottom end.

A brand lift study helps you measure the effectiveness of

your marketing campaigns in improving how people
perceive and are aware of your new feature or product. It's Brand Lift Studies probe brand parameters amongst
like taking a before-and-after snapshot to see how your control and exposed audience sets, to measure the
campaign has influenced people's opinions and behavior. impact (delta) of any feature improvement. It is similar
to the RCT (Randomized Controlled Trials) method.
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What questions can you see to get answers to?

Awareness Are more people aware of the new feature or product after the campaign?

Perception Do people have a better opinion of the new feature or product?

Intent Are more people interested in using or buying the new feature or product?

Engagement Are people more engaged with the new feature or product (e.g., increased usage, positive feedback)?

Benefits of a Brand Lift Study

Understand Impact Make Data Driven Decisions
Observe how well your marketing efforts for the new Use the insights to improve future campaigns and
feature or product are working. product strategies.

Optimize Budget Prove ROI

Allocate resources more effectively by knowing what Demonstrate the return on investment (ROI) of your
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How does a Brand Lift Study work?

Setting Up the Study Collecting Data

1 Determine what you want to measure, such as 2 Split your audience into two groups. One
awareness, favorability, or usage intent for the new group sees the marketing campaign
feature or product. Develop questions to ask people (exposed group), and the other doesn't
about their awareness and perceptions of the (control group). Ask both groups about their
feature or product before and after the campaign. awareness and perception of the feature or
product before the campaign starts.

Running the Campaign Post-Campaign Survey

3 Promote the new feature or product as planned. 4 After the campaign ends, ask both groups
the same questions again to see if there are
any changes in their awareness and
perception.
Analyzing Results
Look at the differences in responses between the control and exposed groups before and after the
5 campaign. Calculate the "lift," which is the improvement in awareness, perception, or intent caused by the
campaign. For example, if 20% of people in the control group knew about the feature before the campaign
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and 40% in the exposed group knew about it after, the brand lift in awareness would be 20%.
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Customer Funnel & Brand Lift Tech Concepts

Real-world problem statements

YouTube

We're rolling out YouTube Shorts globally. Are our campaigns making people
aware that Shorts exists as a competitor to TikTok, and do they see it as fun and
engaging enough to use? They would track awareness & perception here.

WhatsApp
We introduced disappearing messages and new encryption features. Do users
feel WhatsApp is safer after our awareness campaign, and are they more likely to
trust us with private conversations? This would focus on perception lift (safety,
trust) and intent (are people using WhatsApp more for sensitive chats?),
especially after Facebook's history with privacy concerns.

AirBnB
We introduced 'I'm Flexible' search to help users explore new destinations and
dates. Did our ads and in-app nudges make travelers aware of this tool, and has
it changed their perception of Airbnb from being just a booking site to a discovery
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platform? This tracks engagement and awareness.
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MCP & RAG Tech Concepts

What is RAG?

Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG) is a feature in modern LLMs that allows them to fetch updated information on questions
asked by the users. It allows LLM models to access external knowledge to update its output, rather than being dependent only on
the knowledge present in its training data. This has made models more useful for general QnA, as LLMs before RAG (like the initial
versions of ChatGPT) were restricted in their knowledge base to the timestamp of its training data, which was till 2021.

What are these external sources?

External sources of data may be results generated by search engines or 3rd party knowledge graphs. They also may be
updated company documents for internal LLMs used for reporting or summarization purposes.

Applications

Personalized Recommendations: In
Business Intelligence: For LLMs being used to
Search Queries: For search queries on LLMs recommendation systems looking to generate
summarize daily competitor analysis reports
like ChatGPT related to very recent instances, product lists for users, RAG can be used to
and daily updates of internal company
RAG may be used to search for updated web access user’s search and purchase history, their
performance, RAG can be used to access the
pages covering the instance and using their comments on other products etc. to improve
updated reports and generate summaries in an
knowledge to improve the LLM output the recommendations and provide personalized
instance
results
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MCP & RAG Tech Concepts

How does RAG improve an LLM System?

Base LLMs, disconnected from external sources 2. Query

of information, can suffer from Search Relevant
Information
• Hallucination: generating false information
with confidence 3. Relevant
• Generic Responses: LLMs provide generic Information Knowledge
answers to specific questions due to lack of 1. for Enhanced Source
knowledge Prompt Context
+
• RAG helps update LLM knowledge without re- Query
training the whole model, which provides a
cost-effective alternative and faster way of 5. Generated Text
using LLMs for a variety of purposes. Response

4. Prompt
+ Query
Large Language
+ Enhanced
Model EndPoint
Context

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MCP & RAG Tech Concepts

What is MCP?

❖ Model Context Protocol (MCP) is an open standard developed by Anthropic that standardizes how applications provide
information to LLM models.
❖ This enables the building of agents and workflows on top of LLMs without worrying about data transfer formats and focusing only
on functionality.
❖ MCP is not just restricted to data retrieval but can also expose endpoints for automating functionality in external software
through LLM-assisted agentic interventions.

What happened before MCP?

❖ Before MCP, all actions in an external service required a unique API and customized logic for implementation.
❖ Through MCP integration, AI agents can now send read/write/modify requests to external sources without needing to know the
specifics of their implementation.

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MCP & RAG Tech Concepts

MCP Architecture
An MCP architecture includes
MCP Client: usually residing inside an AI assistant ( like Claude, ChatGPT), the MCP client is used by the AI to communicate with
external tools and data sources. When The AI wants to use a tool, it goes through the MCP client to talk to the matching server
MCP Server: an MCP server is the translating entity in the architecture. It takes a text-based request from the MCP client (e.g.:
modify the latest excel file with today’s data) and translates it into commands that the external tool/data source understands.
MCP Protocol: it is the communication protocol that defines how the client and server communicate. It defines how the messages
look like, how actions are described and how results are shown.

Google Drive

Servicenow
Jira
Box
LLM MCP client
MCP Server NetSuite
MCP

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MCP & RAG Tech Concepts

RAG vs MCP

Feature RAG (Retrieval-Augmented Generation) MCP (Model Context Protocol)

Purpose To enhance the knowledge and accuracy of an LLM by To extend the capabilities of an LLM to perform
providing external data. actions in other systems.

Function Retrieves information from documents, databases, or Connects to tools and APIs to execute a task or
APIs to inform a response. workflow.

Use Case Type Best for enterprise AI search, chatbots that answer Best for "agentic AI" use cases where the AI needs to
questions, or summarizing documents. take a specific action.

Retrieves relevant documents, augments the LLM Uses a client-server protocol to access and use
How it works prompt with that data, and then generates an output. "tools" that expose data or functionality from other
applications.

In the world of AI, RAG and MCP are not competitors but are often seen as complementary technologies that can
work together to create more sophisticated AI systems.5 For example, an MCP-powered system could use RAG as
a tool to first retrieve information and then use other MCP tools to act on that information.
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Agentic AI Tech Concepts

Agentic AI refers to autonomous AI systems that can act towards predetermined goals without human
intervention. They differ from existing ML models in that they are adaptive to different use cases and can exhibit
autonomy in actions.
How is Agentic AI different from Gen AI
GenAI refers to recent AI capabilities for generating content. Given a certain input by a human user, GenAI uses LLM
models to generate output. It requires human intervention for manual input and cannot function independently.
However, an AI agent can act independently and orchestrate with other GenAI platforms to achieve pre-set goals.

Feature Generative AI Agentic AI

Core Function Responds to specific, human-given prompts for generating Autonomously pursues pre-defined goals.
an output
Initiative Reactive. It waits for instructions. Proactive. It plans and initiates actions on its own
Process One-shot execution Continuous loop
(Input -> Output) (Perceive -> Reason -> Act -> Feedback -> Learn)
Example If a human asks Google Gemini to “generate a meal recipe However, if given an AI agent with the goal of managing your
using tomatoes”, it will generate a recipe in text-format food inventory and meal planning, it will check for the
using pre-determined knowledge. available food-stuffs in your inventory and then automatically
suggest you a recipe for the day, alongside creating a to-do
list of refreshing your food inventory (or maybe even
requesting an order on an online food app if it has permission
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to do so).

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Agentic AI Tech Concepts

AI Agent Characteristics AI Agents & Automated workflows

Proactive: Agents can function on complex inputs and take actions on
their own to achieve pre-determined goals. They don’t need to be pre-
set for different conditions and can take actions without human • Workflows are rule-based, pre-determined sequential actions
approval. that are triggered given a certain stimulus. They follow a
restricted set of actions and cannot function outside their
Adaptable: Agents learn from their experiences and take feedback on programmed domain. For example: receiving a notification
its actions and responses, much like traditional ML systems. whenever your e-mail inbox size exceeds 10,000 is an
Multiagent systems can over time increase the scope of their coverage automated workflow.
through proper feedback loops
• An agent combines the decision-taking capability of
workflows with complex logic understanding to take actions
Specialized: While there are hopes of achieving AGI, most agents
perform specialized tasks. They are given a restricted set of goals to that may not have been coded before.
achieve and the permissions to execute tasks to move toward that • For example, if a workflow is triggered to send a notification
goal. Multi-agent architectures can specialize in a range of tasks; when inbox size exceeds 10,000, an agent may further
however, at their core, they constitute individual agent systems that
analyze the inbox and segregate the e-mails on basis of
work toward a defined goal.
relevance, alongside sending you a summary of all the mails.
• Since it is impossible to pre-define workflows for every
Acting: The ability to take actions is the core identity of an agentic scenario, AI agents will help in such cases of open-ended
system. This includes interacting with other systems and/or generating
problems.
data to achieve a desired outcome.
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Agentic AI Tech Concepts

When should AI agents be used?

Is there a clear feedback loop?: There

Is the cost of being wrong
must be a feedback mechanism to improve
low?: Autonomous systems can make
Is the task open-ended and complex?: agent’s actions. For example: using AI
mistakes, especially while learning. If the
Agents increase latency and cost whereas agents in medical diagnosis can have huge
cost of the model being wrong is high (such
close-ended or simpler tasks can be repercussions if the diagnosis is wrong.
as in financial or healthcare related tasks)
cheaply automated using rule-based Having human intervention is best advised
it is best to use LLMs in an advisory
alternatives in these scenarios. Rather, developing
capacity rather than giving it decision
workflows to summarize patient history
making powers
would be a more suitable use case.

AI agents may be used in cases of

Increasing complexity: AI Agents are
documents handling. For example:
massively complex systems, and designing
maintaining file systems. When a new file Increased Latency time: Since agents
them involved defining proper goal
is added to a file system, the agent can interact with LLM systems for context
alignment, otherwise there are risks of the
determine where it should best be stored. understanding, they can take time in
agent going “off the rails”. E.g. A vaguely
In this case, the cost of being wrong is deciding actions and may not be suited for
defined goal like "maximize sales" could
lower and the agent can learn from human low latency situations.
lead an agent to spam customers with
intervention of moving the file to a more
discounts, damaging brand reputation.
suitable location.
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Agentic AI Tech Concepts

Importance of Agentic AI for a PM

Modernizing application functionality Improving their PM workflow

• With the growing demand for intelligent functionality in all

applications, it is imperative for product managers to understand
how AI Agents work and how they can be integrated into their current PMs must communicate with multiple stakeholders every day and interact
software. Knowledge of AI agents can help a product manager with a variety of applications to ensure product success. Needless to say,
ideate intelligent automation of many such tasks will reduce their workload
• How existing workflows in the customer journey can be automated
to improve customer satisfaction and help them explore product
functionalities For example, AI agents can

• Develop interfaces to allow their application to communicate with • Automatically update their calendars based on new invites and past
other 3rd party apps without development of customized protocols user interactions with similar events
for inter-app communication • Changes made in one document can automatically be updated across
• For example, Myntra can develop an AI agent that updates a user’s all related documents without manual intervention to keep all
buying list residing in another application (like Google Keep) stakeholders updated
whenever their wishlisted product comes back in stock • Agents can provide recommendations on improving product KPIs
• Explore new product categories: AI agents and their smart through updated news articles, company documents etc., providing
functionality opens avenues for multi-step, cross-tool tasks without A/B test recommendations, new product functionality, integration
constant user input (e.g.: booking applications that automate travel strategies etc.
planning and recommendations through constant updating of user’s
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current journey)

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Low Code Platforms Tech Concepts

Concept Note: Low-Code & The AI-

Powered Development Stack Category Analogy Use Case Key Tools

Imagine you need to build a house. You could spend You need to track user feedback.
years learning to make bricks, mix mortar, and frame You use Airtable to create a form
Using a pre-
walls from scratch. and a database. Then, you use n8n
made LEGO kit Bubble, Airtable,
OR you could use a set of high-quality, pre-made LEGO No-Code or Zapier to automatically send a
with n8n, Shopify
blocks to build a great-looking house in a single Slack message to your team every
instructions
afternoon. time a new piece of feedback is
submitted
This is the core idea behind Low-Code/No-Code (LCNC) Your sales team needs a custom
platforms. They provide the building blocks for software, Using a LEGO
dashboard to see which customers
allowing you to create functional applications visually, kit, but also
use a new feature. You use Retool Retool,
drastically reducing the need for traditional, line-by-line having custom
Low-Code to build a dashboard that pulls live OutSystems, MS
coding. For a Product Manager, it's a strategic lever for 3D-printed
data from the company's internal Power Apps
speed. pieces for
database, something a simple
special parts
spreadsheet can't do
The New Development Stack: A PM's
Your engineering team is building a
Toolkit Having a master
new, complex feature. They use
AI-Assisted builder robot GitHub Copilot,
Pro-Code GitHub Copilot, an AI "pair
The following table summarizes the commonly used that builds what Replit AI
programmer," writing routine code
tools by PMs, each suited for a different job. Choosing you describe
for them.
which tool to pick is a key skill.
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Low Code Platforms Tech Concepts

English is the New Programming Language

The evolution of this trend is the direct use of generative AI, where your instructions in plain English become the code
itself.
Conversational Coding (Vibe Coding) AI Agent & Workflow Builders

Coined by AI researcher Andrej Karpathy, it describes a workflow where a

PM can guide an AI to build an application through a conversation.
The newest frontier is platforms that allow you to build and deploy
How it Works in Practice: autonomous AI agents.
1. You start with a simple prompt → "I need a Python script that
scrapes Twitter for mentions of our competitor." • Tools in Action → You could use a platform like [Link] or [Link]
2. The AI (like Claude or ChatGPT) generates the code. to build a sophisticated customer support agent that can access a
knowledge base, interact with APIs to check order statuses, and
3. You test and refine with more English → "That's good but modify it
escalate issues to a human—all configured through a visual,
to analyze the sentiment of each tweet and save the negative ones
workflow-based interface.
to a Google Sheet." This iterative, conversational process allows to
create powerful tools and prototypes without writing a single line of
code.

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Low Code Platforms Tech Concepts

Analysis for using these tools Advantages Potential Risks & Limitations
Adopting these platforms is a strategic decision with
significant trade-offs. While they improve productivity, they
Accelerated Time-to-Market: Vendor Lock-In: Migrating an
also have some challenges, as discussed in the table below. Drastically reduce development application off a proprietary platform
cycles for MVPs, internal tools, can be difficult and costly, sometimes
As Andrew Ng states, and AI-powered features requiring a complete rebuild

"Engineers are 10x faster. Product managers haven't sped up

Reduced Development Costs: Scalability & Performance Ceilings:
at the same rate. Now they're the bottleneck."
Lower reliance on engineering Pure no-code platforms may struggle
As engineering execution accelerates, the critical constraint talent for many typical with the demands of large-scale,
shifts to the speed and quality of product strategy and applications and automation enterprise-grade applications
decision-making.
"Black Box" & Debugging Issues:
So, a new challenge for PMs is using these AI and LCNC tools Increased Agility & Iteration: PMs When AI-generated code fails,
to accelerate their workflows, from user research synthesis can build and modify prototypes debugging can be complex if the team
to prototyping. and internal tools directly doesn't fully understand the underlying
logic

Reference: Democratized Innovation: Security & Governance Risks: The

Business users can solve their proliferation of "shadow IT" built by
Watch Andrew Ng discuss building faster with AI problems, freeing up core citizen developers can create security
engineering teams vulnerabilities
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Building Trust in Products Tech Concepts

The New Currency of Trust

In today’s world, products compete not just on features or price, but on something deeper: trust. A decade ago,
consumers often accepted trade-offs; convenience at the cost of privacy, or speed at the cost of reliability. Today, the
balance has shifted. Users are more aware, regulators are more watchful, and competitive landscapes are
unforgiving. Security, resilience, and governance are no longer “back-end concerns.” They are the front-line tests of
whether a product deserves to exist.
Building Blocks

Security Resilience Governance

The PMs Takeaway

Security, resilience, and governance may sound like technical or abstract terms, but at their heart, they are human.
They answer the question: Can I trust this product with my time, my data, my money, or even my beliefs? For aspiring
product managers, especially in interviews, it helps to see these themes not as checkboxes but as lenses. They show
how to think about product decisions beyond features — to ask not just “will it work?” but “will it be safe, will it
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Building Trust in Products Tech Concepts

Security Resilience Governance

If security is about keeping promises,

When users share data, make a payment, resilience is about keeping them As products grow powerful, especially
or sign in with their identity, they extend consistently. In a world of sudden traffic with AI, new questions emerge:
trust. Breaches are not just technical spikes, malicious attacks, and “Should we build this? Who could be
failures; they are broken promises. unpredictable failures, resilience harmed?”
becomes the silent foundation of trust. Governance is about guiding products
For product managers, thinking about
security means asking: Users rarely notice when systems are with a moral compass, ensuring
resilient — but they immediately feel decisions don’t just chase growth but
“What are we promising our users when
when they are not. Latency spikes, respect fairness, transparency, and
they interact with us, and can we keep
outages, or fraud attacks don’t just accountability. This is not a far-removed
that promise under stress? “
frustrate; they erode credibility. concern for lawyers or ethicists; it sits
A secure product is not only about squarely with PMs, who decide what gets
For PMs, resilience means asking:
encryption or compliance; it is about built, how it is measured, and how it is
designing experiences that make users “Can my product absorb shocks and still
explained to the world.
feel safe without friction. deliver its core value?”
Good governance is not about saying
The PM’s role is to champion this balance It also means prioritizing fault-tolerance “no” to innovation; it is about ensuring
— building in safeguards while and recovery as much as shiny new that innovation sustains trust over
preserving usability. features. time.
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System Design Tech Concepts

As a Product Manager, you won't be expected to write the code, but Microservices - Specialised Kitchens
you will be expected to work with the team that does. System design Instead of one giant kitchen cooking everything, Zomato has different
is fundamentally about creating robust, scalable, and reliable "kitchens" for specific tasks — payments, restaurant search, order
applications that can handle millions of users and massive amounts tracking, and delivery partner matching.
of data.
Each kitchen (microservice) operates independently, forming the
Imagine you're the product manager for Zomato. Your job is to ensure complete service together. The payment microservice processes your
that when millions of people across India open the app, they can UPI transaction while the delivery microservice finds a rider.
browse menus, place orders, and get their food on time, all without Message Queues - The Order Dispatch System
the system crashing.
Sometimes, tasks can't be handled immediately and need to be
Database – The Digital Storehouse queued. Like a restaurant's dispatch counter holds completed orders
Think of the database as Zomato's massive storehouse of until delivery boys pick them up, message queues hold tasks until the
next service is ready. Once the payment is processed, the order
information, restaurant details, menus, prices, user profiles, ratings,
request sits in a queue until a delivery partner is available.
and order history.
Security - The ID Check
Just like warehouses store goods in an organized way, a database
stores data so that it can be quickly retrieved and updated. When you Before giving access, Zomato checks who you are and what you can
search "Biryani," the database is where Zomato pulls all restaurants do — just like a gated community guard checking IDs.
serving Biryani in your city. Key Security Measures include
API – The Waiter Who Takes Your Order • Authentication → Verifying user identity
The API (Application Programming Interface) is like the waiter who • Authorization → Checking user permissions
listens to your order and takes it to the kitchen. It's the middleman • Encryption → HTTPS/TLS for data in transit, encryption for data at
between the user (you) and the backend system. rest
When you tap "Order Now," the API takes that request to the correct • DDoS Protection → Preventing malicious traffic overloads
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discuss APIs more in later sections. • Rate Limiting → Preventing API abuse

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System Design Tech Concepts

Relational Databases (SQL) Non-Relational Databases (NoSQL) PM Tip

Choosing the right
• Organize data into tables • Designed for flexibility and scalability, often database affects
• Use SQL (Structured Query Language) for data
sacrificing some consistency development speed,
manipulation • Schema-less → Do not enforce rigid costs, and user
schemas or foreign key relationships experience.
• Known for strong consistency, transactions,
and integrity • Types include key-value stores (e.g., Redis),
document stores (e.g., MongoDB), and
• Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL
graph databases (e.g., Neo4j) SQL databases are
ACID Properties
• Ideal for unstructured or semi-structured great for structured
• Atomicity → Transactions are "all or nothing"; data and quick iteration
they either complete entirely or don't happen data and complex
at all relationships, while
• Consistency → Ensures that after a In- Memory Databases NoSQL databases excel
transaction, the database remains in a valid at rapid iteration and
state, enforcing defined rules and constraints handling diverse data
• Isolation → Concurrent transactions do not Store data primarily in RAM for fast types.
interfere with each other retrieval, often used for caching and
• Durability → Once a transaction is committed, session storage (e.g., Redis,
the data is permanently stored and will survive Memcached).
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System Design Tech Concepts

Scaling and Performance Load Balancers - Smart Traffic Managers

When an application gains more users, a single server might become Returning to the Zomato analogy, imagine multiple kitchens inside a
overwhelmed. To handle increased demand, systems need to scale. food court. A load balancer decides which kitchen should take the
• Vertical Scaling (Scaling Up) → Increase the resources of a single next order to keep things moving efficiently. If one server is
server, such as adding more RAM or upgrading the CPU. It's simple overloaded, the load balancer sends the request to a less busy one.
to implement but has limited potential because there's a Load Balancers are essential components (often acting as reverse
maximum capacity for a single machine. proxies) that direct incoming requests to the appropriate server in a
• Horizontal Scaling (Scaling Out) → Add more servers (replicas) to pool. Their primary goal is to even out traffic, maintain a smooth user
handle a subset of requests, distributing the load across multiple experience, and prevent bottlenecks.
machines. This approach is more powerful because it allows
almost infinite scalability and doesn't require high-end individual
machines. It also inherently provides redundancy and fault Content Delivery Networks (CDNs)
tolerance, as other servers can continue to fulfil requests if one CDNs are a specific type of reverse proxy network consisting of
goes down, eliminating a single point of failure. servers distributed worldwide. They are primarily used to serve static
files like images, videos, HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
CDNs copy content from your origin server onto their globally
distributed servers. When a user requests content, the CDN delivers it
from the nearest CDN server, significantly reducing latency.

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System Design Tech Concepts

Networking Fundamentals Other Important Terms

IP Address → A unique identifier assigned to each device on a
• Availability → Measures how much time a system is up and
network, allowing devices to locate each other. IPv4 and IPv6 are running when users need it, often expressed as a percentage (e.g.,
different versions of IP addresses. "five nines" or 99.999% availability).
TCP/IP (Internet Protocol Suite) → These rules define how data is • Reliability: Ensures a system works correctly and consistently.
sentover the Internet. Data is broken into packets, sent across the
network, and reassembled at the destination. • Fault Tolerance → How a system handles unexpected failures or
attacks.
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) → Ensures reliable
• Redundancy → Having backups to ensure continued operation if
communication. It guarantees the complete and correct delivery
one part fails.
of data packets, managing connection setup and retransmitting
missing packets. Many other protocols, like HTTP and • Throughput → Measures how much data a system can handle
WebSockets, are built on TCP. over time (e.g., requests per second, queries per second, bytes
per second)
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol) → Faster but less reliable than
TCP. It doesn't establish a connection or guarantee delivery/order, • Latency → Measures how long it takes to handle a single request
(time for a request to get a response)
making it suitable for time-sensitive communications where some
data loss is acceptable (e.g., video calls).
DNS (Domain Name System) → Acts as the Internet's "phone book,"
translating human-friendly domain names (e.g., [Link]) into
their corresponding IP addresses.
Ports → Within a device, specific processes or services are identified
by ports (e.g., port 80 for HTTP).
Firewalls → Monitor and control network traffic to protect networks.
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System Design Tech Concepts

API Patterns and Protocols

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) REST (Representational State Transfer)

Built on TCP/IP, it's the standard for web browsing, following a client-
server model.
• Request/Response → A client initiates a request (with header and A popular API pattern that standardizes HTTP APIs.
body), and the server sends a response (with header and body) • It's stateless and uses standard HTTP methods
• Stateless → Each HTTP interaction is separate, with no memory of • Often uses JSON for data exchange
past requests • Can sometimes lead to over-fetching or under-fetching data
• Status Codes → Provide feedback on the result of a request (e.g., 200 REST APIs are widely understood and easy to debug, making
for success, 400 for client error, 500 for server error) them suitable for most applications.
• Methods → Common methods include GET (fetching data), POST
(creating data), PUT/PATCH (updating), and DELETE (removing)

gRPC (Google Remote Procedure Call) WebSockets

A framework released by Google, considered an improvement over REST They provide a two-way (bi-directional) communication channel over a
APIs, is mainly used for server-to-server communication. single, long-lived connection.
• It leverages HTTP/2 and Protocol Buffers (a binary format for • Crucial for real-time updates, unlike HTTP's one-way
serializing data) request/response model
• Very efficient in terms of bandwidth and resources • Commonly used in chat applications, for real-time features like live
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• Less human-readable than JSON chat, collaborative editing, or live updates

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System Design Tech Concepts

The Layered View of a Modern Software Product

Layer Core question Typical components Tools /Tech

Experience How do users interact? Web & mobile UI, API clients React/[Link], Swift/Kotlin

Application logic What business rules run? Services, controllers, workflows Spring Boot, Express/Fastify, Django

Integration How do parts talk cleanly? REST/GraphQL/gRPC APIs, gateways OpenAPI/Swagger, Postman, Kong, Apigee
(Swagger, OpenAPI Initiative)

Data Where is truth stored and read SQL/NoSQL DBs, caches, search PostgreSQL, MySQL, MongoDB, Redis,
fast? Elasticsearch

Async & real-time How are spikes and events Queues, streams, WebSockets Kafka, RabbitMQ, SQS; [Link]
handled?

Delivery & runtime Where does code run and Containers, functions, autoscale Docker, Kubernetes, AWS Lambda; CNCF
scale? ecosystem (CNCF, Cloud Native Now)

Reliability How is health measured and SLOs/SLIs, error budgets, alerts Google SRE practices, Prometheus, Grafana,
protected? Datadog (Google SRE)

Security & access Who can do what? AuthN/Z, secrets, WAF, IAM OAuth 2.0, JWT, Vault, Cloudflare, AWS IAM

Edge & delivery How is content made CDN, edge compute, caching Cloudflare/Akamai, Fastly; Redis
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 Section 3

Know Your Sector

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Quick Commerce Know Your Sector

Key Players Common Characteristics

India: Blinkit (Zomato), Swiggy

Instamart, Zepto; (legacy/on-watch: 8%
Dark stores within 1-3 km of dense demand; 4-8k SKUs; micro-
Dunzo) 11%
fulfilment pick/pack in 2-6 minutes
41%

Global: Gopuff (US; retail media & 13% Promise windows: 10-20 minute “instant” or 30-45 minute rapid
owned dark stores), Getir (exited delivery; surge/slotless
US/UK/EU; focusing on Turkey), 20% Assortment mix: everyday groceries + “urgent” items (ice
Flink (Germany; multi-category cream, beverages, snacks), growing into beauty, home, pharma-
grocery products) Zomato Swiggy Blinkit lite, and seasonal
Zepto Bigbasket
Reference: Tracxn

Use Cases

• Top-up and Emergencies: Missed ingredients, baby products, Over-the-Counter (OTC) products
• Occasion-driven: Festivals, party supplies, live-sports spikes
• Segments: Urban singles/roommates, young families, premium convenience seekers, office micro-kitchens top-up, students in
coaching hubs
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Reference: [Link]

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Quick Commerce Know Your Sector

Business Model Canvas User Journey

Value Proposition:
• Consumers: instant convenience, reliable ETAs, curated • Consumer: Browse → add to cart → promo/fees visibility → pay
essentials, late-night availability → live ETA → doorstep handoff → rate/support
• Brands: high-visibility placements on platform; rapid trials & • Dark Store (Ops):
promos based on data, benefits from impulse-led sales • Supply-Chain: Forecast → receive → storage → inventory
• Last-Mile Delivery Partners: predictable zones of dense control and cycle counting → quality control →
demand replenishment
Revenue Streams: fees (platform, delivery, surge), • Order Management: Order prioritization → locate and
subscription, listed on-site ads, product margins pick → quality checks and pack → dispatch
Costs: Dark store and rentals, technology, rider payouts, • Delivery Partner: Accept → navigate → deliver → issue
pick/pack, spoilage/shrinkage, discounts, marketing and CAC resolution
Channels: Mobile apps, super-app entry points (Zomato → • Brand: Onboard → list SKU data (cataloguing of products) →
Blinkit; Swiggy → Instamart), web, affiliate links (via offers in run promos/ads → track metrics like return on ad spends,
Pluxee, Cred), CRM (push notifications), brand collaborations price demand elasticities
(seasonal campaigns)
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Quick Commerce Know Your Sector

Key PM Metrics Macro Trends and Opportunities

• Emerging and Futuristic Trends: Drones for last-mile

delivery, warehouse robotics, eco-friendly alternatives like
electric vehicles for delivery
• Growth: Total Orders, Average Order Value (AOV), Monthly
Active Users (MAU), retail-media revenue % (ads on app), • New Business Models and Experiences: Subscription-
membership subscriptions/renewals based ordering, gamified rewards (scratch card, push lever to
win cashbacks), better privacy control (hiding sensitive order
• Ops and Quality: On-time %, speed promise accuracy, fill history with user consent), ONDC apps, nudge economics
rate (% orders fulfilled without stockouts), cancellations and (opting users for eco-friendly packaging, donation to
returns % charities), move towards profitability
• Unit Economics: Contribution margin per order, Customer • Category and Geography Expansion / Consolidation: non-
Acquisition Cost (CAC), payback period (CAC recovery via grocery items (electronics, gold), festival specific offerings,
margins) cooked meals delivered in 10-15 minutes (Zepto Cafe); Tier-2
• Trust: Complaint rate, cold-chain breach rate, fraud/promo and Tier-3 cities expansion in India, Global players
abuse %. retrenching to home markets (Getir → Turkey)
• Investor Lens: Gross Order Value (GOV) growth vs. adjusted • AI and Hyper-Personalization: personalized discounts,
EBITDA data-driven recommendations, customer support
• Retail Media: On-site ads and sponsored brand and SKU
placements on the platform 131

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Quick Commerce Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

• Dissect unit economics live (whiteboarding): Given AOV

• Unit Economics Myopia: Deep discounts lead to ₹500, delivery cost ₹70, pick/pack ₹20, discounts 8%, ads
unsustainable burn revenue ₹5/order - what is the contribution margin?
• Scaling Too Wide, Too Fast: Expanding into low-density • Design for density: Choose where to open the next five dark
geographies dilutes utilization (orders/hour) stores; trade off coverage vs. cannibalization
• Overpromising ETAs: Optimistic promises → missed SLAs → • Raise AOV without killing speed: Smart bundles (“chips +
churn soda” during cricket matches), free-delivery thresholds,
• Ops Complexity: Mismanaged dark store inventory, cold- cross-sell at checkout
chain breaks, packing errors, address/entry issues • Reliability over raw speed: Promise accuracy, dynamic
• Limited Assortment Trap: Ignoring adjacent high-margin SLAs, proactive delay communications
categories (beauty, home, private label) limits profitability • Measure what matters: On-time %, fill rate, delivery
• Ad Monetization Pitfalls: Retail media promises high utilization, retail-media Return on Ad Spends (ROAS)
margins, but poor targeting or cluttered UX can alienate • Ethics and safety: Cold-chain quality checks, fair fees and
users and reduce purchase intent wages, transparent surge, customer support availability
Recruiters look for balanced thinking, not just optimization
132

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

FinTech Know Your Sector

Sector Evolution Timeline

2021-23
Pre-2016 Formation of Super
Digital Wallets Apps & BNPL craze

2016-20 2024-25
UPI & Demonetisation Embedded Finance,
Boom Regulations & Focus
on profitability

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FinTech Know Your Sector

B2C B2B

Focus on frictionless UX, building engagement loops, and establishing Focus on robust APIs, developer experience, reliability (SLAs), &
trust. compliance.
o Digital Payments (UPI & Wallets) → PhonePe, Google Pay, Paytm, o Payment Gateways & Merchant Solutions → Razorpay, PayU,
CRED UPI. The NPCI is a key enabler with its UPI infrastructure. CCAvenue, Pine Labs
o Wealthtech & Broking → Zerodha, Groww, Upstox. o SME Lending & Supply Chain Finance → KredX, M1xchange,
o Lending & Credit (incl. BNPL – Buy Now and Pay Later): CRED CredAble.
Cash, LendingKart, DMI Finance, Simpl, LazyPay. o Banking & Financial Infrastructure (Fintech SaaS) → They provide
o InsurTech → PolicyBazaar, Acko, Digit Insurance. APIs and software for tasks like KYC, fraud detection, and more. E.g.
o Neobanks & Personal Finance → Digital-only banks that offer Perfios, Zeta, M2P Fintech, Setu
modern, user-friendly banking experiences. E.g. Jupiter, Fi, Niyo.

Common Characteristics
• Frictionless UX → Fast, intuitive onboarding (under 2-3 mins) to • Integration Speed → API-first, plug-and-play onboarding for rapid
minimize user drop-offs. enterprise client integration.
• Trust & Compliance → Visible security cues and RBI/SEBI-aligned • SLA & Reliability → Guaranteed high reliability with Service Level
messaging to build user trust. Agreements (SLAs) promising 99.95%+ uptime.
• Engagement Loops → Gamification and rewards to drive DAU/MAU • Compliance-by-Design → Built-in modules for KYC, AML, and PCI-
and create habit-forming usage. DSS for out-of-the-box regulatory compliance.
• Tier-2/3 Inclusivity → Multilingual UX and low-data optimization for • Data Security & Privacy → Enterprise-grade encryption, 134
the broader Indian market. comprehensive audit trails, and SOC2 readiness are standard.

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

FinTech Know Your Sector

Business Model Canvas Use Case & Pain Points

Use Case Pain Point Opportunity
Value Propositions → Instant low-cost payments, seamless access to
Retail Build a sub-2-minute
credit, hyper-personalization, 24/7 access, and richer data for Consumers Complex onboarding/KYC, onboarding flow, provide clear
underwriting. (Payments, transaction failures, hidden failure-state messaging, and
Lending, fees, fear of fraud. design transparent, trust-
Channels → Direct B2C apps (PLG), B2B enterprise sales, embedded Investing) building user interfaces.
finance partnerships (e.g., on e-commerce sites), and API platforms for
developers. Offer faster settlements (e.g.,
SMBs / Slow settlement times (T+2),
Revenue Streams → T+1), build low-code/no-code
Merchants high integration complexity,
integration plugins, and provide
(Payments, managing chargebacks and
• Payments → Merchant Discount Rate (MDR), transaction fees. Working Capital) disputes.
an automated dispute
resolution dashboard.
• Lending → Net Interest Margin (NIM), processing fees.
• Wealth → Brokerage fees, subscription fees (SaaS). Create best-in-class developer
Poor documentation,
Developers documentation, offer a reliable
• Infrastructure → API call fees, SaaS licensing. (using Fintech
inconsistent API performance,
sandbox environment, and
high costs, complex
Key Partnerships → Banks & NBFCs (for credit lines, accounts), card APIs) provide compliance-as-a-
compliance requirements.
service features.
networks (Visa, Mastercard), data providers, and channel partners (e-
commerce platforms). High foreign exchange (forex) Build a secure, low-cost
markups, opaque transfer remittance platform with real-
Cost Structure → Dominated by technology & talent costs, followed by NRIs / Expats
fees, fear of fraud during time tracking and a simplified,
(Remittances,
Customer Acquisition Cost (CAC), compliance & legal overhead, and cross-border transfers, and compliant interface for
Global Investing)
complex regulatory hurdles accessing global investment
fraud losses. products.
135
for investing abroad.

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

FinTech Know Your Sector

User Journey
Payments (Customer) Payments (Merchant)

App download → Account creation → KYC → Account linking → First Account creation → KYC → Technical integration → Configuration → Go-live →
transaction → Issue resolution Operations
Account creation → High competition and security fears create user mistrust. KYC verification → Slow, manual verification delays the merchant’s ability to
accept payments.
• Opportunity → Emphasize security to build immediate trust.
• Opportunity → Automate document analysis & send reminders to speed up
KYC verification → Complex, lengthy KYC causes high user drop-offs. activation.
• Opportunity → Aim for a sub-2-minute KYC using India Stack APIs to Technical integration → Inconsistent APIs and poor documentation create
reduce friction. integration challenges.
• Opportunity → Provide best-in-class developer documentation and reliable
Account linking → Technical failures and confusing errors cause frustration.
testing tools.
• Opportunity → Provide clear error messages & guided flows to ensure a Platform configuration → Complex dashboards are often confusing for
high success rate. business owners to use.
First transaction → User inertia and no clear incentive to transact. • Opportunity → Create intuitive UI with guided setups and smart defaults.
Go-live → Anxiety about potential failures impacting customers and revenue.
• Opportunity → Drive activation with gamified rewards for the first payment.
• Opportunity → Offer a "Go-Live" checklist and proactive support for a
Issue resolution → Opaque processes and fear of losing money break user smooth launch.
trust. Compliance & reporting → High overhead of managing chargebacks and
• Opportunity → Design a transparent, self-serve resolution center with real- complex reports.
• 136 tools.
Opportunity → Build an automated dispute dashboard and analytics
time tracking

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

FinTech Know Your Sector

Key PM Metrics Macro Trends and Opportunities

Growth & Adoption →

Credit on UPI → Unifying payments and credit into a single, seamless flow.
• MAU/WAU → Monthly/Weekly Active Users
• Opportunity → Build innovative credit products (e.g., small-ticket
• TPV/GTV → Total/Gross Transaction Volume loans) delivered instantly at the point of sale via UPI.
Unit Economics → Open Finance (Account Aggregator) → Shift towards consent-based data
• LTV/CAC Ratio → Target >3 sharing for a holistic financial view.
• Contribution Margin → Revenue per transaction minus variable • Opportunity → Create automated personal finance managers or build
costs. superior underwriting models using real-time cash flow data.
Risk & Quality → AI Agents → Moving from simple chatbots to autonomous agents for
financial management.
• Authorization Rate → % of transactions successfully approved.
Target >95%. • Opportunity → Design AI agents that can monitor finances, detect
fraud, and execute investment strategies on behalf of the user.
• Chargeback Rate → % of transactions disputed by customers.
Embedded Finance → Financial services are becoming invisible
• Platform Uptime → Target >99.95%.
infrastructure, forming superapps.
Engagement & Trust →
• Opportunity → Develop vertical-specific B2B2C solutions, like
• Onboarding Drop-off Rate → % of users who start but don't "Lending-as-a-Service" for SaaS platforms.
complete KYC.
• NPS → Net Promoter Score.
137

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FinTech Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

• Onboarding Friction → A lengthy or confusing KYC process

• Think Compliance-First → Start your product design by
leading to high user drop-offs.
addressing the regulatory guardrails (RBI, SEBI, NPCI). It
• Ignoring the "Money Flow" → Not deeply understanding the shows maturity.
entire transaction lifecycle, leading to settlement and
reconciliation failures. • Anchor on Trust, Not Just Growth → For every feature,
• Compliance as an Afterthought → Treating RBI/SEBI explain how you would build and measure user trust, even if
regulations as a final check-box, leading to product it means sacrificing short-term metrics.
rollbacks or fines. • Map the Full Money Flow → Be able to whiteboard the end-
• Shallow Fraud Detection → Relying on simple rules instead to-end journey of a transaction—from user action to
of a multi-layered fraud defense & data security (AI models, settlement and reconciliation.
velocity checks, manual review), leading to high losses. • Know Your Revenue Levers → Speak the language of
• Negative Unit Economics → Burning cash on unsustainable finance. Discuss impact in terms of basis points (BPS) on
rewards or discounts without a clear path to profitability MDR or Net Interest Margin (NIM).
(LTV<CAC).
• Design for Failure → What is the fallback flow when a UPI
• Feature Bloat → Cluttering the interface of a simple
payment fails? How do you communicate errors? A great PM
payments app with too many non-core services, harming
plans for exceptions.
the primary user experience. 138

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Travel Tech Know Your Sector

Key Players Common Characteristics

Online Travel Agencies (OTAs) / Digital Marketplaces
Marketplace / aggregator model → Connects and partners with
• Global: Booking Holdings ([Link], Priceline, Agoda), travel suppliers (airlines, hotels, tours) and consumers
Expedia Group (Expedia, [Link]), [Link] (Ctrip)
Low-margin, high-volume nature → Monetization via
• India: MakeMyTrip, Yatra, Cleartrip (Flipkart-owned), commissions & ancillary (cab pickup, holiday packages, forex
EaseMyTrip card) sales, dynamic pricing
Discovery and Reviews → Google Flights, Skyscanner, Trivago Fragmented supply → Especially hotels in India → aggregation
New Models → Airbnb (home-sharing), Hopper (AI-powered adds value. Heavy reliance on trust, reviews (user generated
price prediction and multi-category bookings), Zostel (hostels content), and seamless UX
and curated group travel packages), PickYourTrail (personalized Seasonal & cyclical demand → Holidays, events
Holiday packages)

Use Cases

Budget vs Premium and

Business Travelers → Corporate Experiential → Price-sensitive Hosts/Hotels → Listing on OTAs for
Leisure Travelers → Families,
booking via TMCs (Travel backpackers or students vs high- reach
couples, solo trips
Management Companies) end curated stays
139

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Travel Tech Know Your Sector

Business Model Canvas User Journey

Value Proposition → Convenience, price comparison,

discovery, reviews, flexible booking/cancellations, loyalty perks
Revenue Streams → • Traveler
• Commissions Discover → compare → book → pay → travel → review
• Service fees, ads, white-label SaaS (example: ‘powered by • Supplier (hotel/airline)
Expedia’) Onboard → manage inventory → set pricing → receive bookings
• Fintech add-ons: insurance, buy-now-pay-later, → service traveler → settlement/payout
cancellation protection • OTA
Costs → Tech and infra, supplier integrations (example: via Acquire user → aggregate supply → optimize search & pricing →
APIs), customer acquisition (marketing, discounts), enable booking & payment → upsell ancillaries → resolve
support/refunds operations, loyalty & rewards support
Channels → Mobile apps, websites, super-app tie-ins (Paytm,
Flipkart), affiliate sites, meta-search (Google, Kayak)

140

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Travel Tech Know Your Sector

Key PM Metrics Macro Trends and Opportunities

• AI-assisted Bookings and Insights → Bookings shift from apps to

chat-first platforms (Google Gemini), personalized itineraries,
consumer trends prediction (example: shift towards colder
destinations as a result of climate change)
• Growth → Monthly Active Users (MAU), search-to-book
• Real-Time Translation → AI translation removes language barriers,
conversion %, Average Order Value (AOV) per booking,
opening remote markets
repeat percentage / stickiness
• Bleisure and Experiential Travel → Work trips increasingly extend into
• Ops and Quality → cancellation rates, refund turnaround
leisure; Event Travel (Taylor Swift Eras Tour, Wimbledon)
time (TAT), review ratings
• Digital Detox and Well-being Tourism → Rising demand for wellness
• Unit Economics → commissions retained by OTA, customer retreats and unplugged experiences
acquisition cost (CAC), payback period, contribution margin
• Self-Guided Tours, Augmented Reality (AR) → Self-guided audio
• Trust → fraud rate/chargebacks, fake review detection, on- tours, AR layer for immersive experience (you are standing at the
platform dispute resolution Colosseum → AR shows gladiators fighting)
• Investor Lens → Gross Booking Value (GBV) v/s adjusted • Fintech Layer → Pay-later, insurance, cancellation protection, FX
EBITDA wallets bundled with travel

Reference: [Link]
trends-2025/#topicOverview
141

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Travel Tech Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

• Traveler Journey Gaps → Redesign booking flow to cut drop-

• Commoditization → OTAs fight in red ocean → differentiation
offs; think search filters, payment friction, refund
is hard transparency
• Thin Margins: Especially for flights; over-reliance on • Supplier retention → A hotel chain wants to give fewer OTA
discounts commissions - how would you retain them? (Ads, featured
• Refund/Support Nightmares → Delays and cancellations placement, dynamic pricing tools)
result in poor customer experience if not timely resolved • Measure what matters → Stress on conversion %, measure
• Supplier Conflict → Hotels/airlines push direct bookings NPS against industry benchmarks, fraud prevention and loss
resulting in reduced margins for OTAs savings
• Trust Issues → Fake reviews, hidden fees, bait-and-switch • Strategic Trade-offs → Speed of market expansion v/s deep
listings local supply integration (curated inventory); top skimming v/s
mass penetration
• Over-expansion → Launching too many verticals (tours,
• Ethics angle → Transparent fees, fair cancellations, reliable
activities, forex) without focus → diluted UX
refunds handling

142

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Food Tech Know Your Sector

Key Players Common Characteristics

• Two-sided or three-sided marketplace: Restaurants

(and/or cloud kitchens) diners; and at times a third
• Aggregators: Swiggy, Zomato, Uber Eats, DoorDash
side (couriers)
• Cloud Kitchens: Rebel Foods (Faasos, Behrouz • Thin margins, high frequency: Profit comes from
Biryani), Swiggy Access, Ghost Kitchens International scale plus operational discipline
• Restaurant SaaS: POSist, PetPooja, Toast • Local density and ETAs: Unit economics hinge on
short distances, batching, reliable prep times
• Meal Kits/D2C: FreshMenu, HelloFresh, iD Fresh
• Ops and trust heavy: Food safety, order accuracy,
• Quick Commerce (adjacent): Blinkit, Swiggy complaint resolution and refund speed matter
Instamart, Zepto, BigBasket • Demand peaks: Mealtimes, weekends, rain events →
load balancing & incentives

143

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Food Tech Know Your Sector

Business Model Canvas Use Cases

Value Proposition:
• Diners: Convenience, variety, reliable ETAs, offers, tracking
• Restaurants: Incremental demand, logistics, payments,
discovery, insights
• Last-Mile Delivery Partners: Predictable zones of dense • Diners: Everyday meals, late-night orders, group/family
demand dining, health/diet-specific needs, celebrations
Revenue Streams: Commissions on orders, delivery and surge • Enterprises: Corporate meal programs, office micro-kitchen
fees, subscriptions (example: Swiggy One), retail-media/ads supplies, meal vouchers, team events
and sponsored listings, B2B supply margins (Zomato • Restaurants: Independents (reach new customers via
Hyperpure, Swiggy Access), SaaS/POS fees (POSist, PetPooja), platforms), cloud kitchens (online-only brands, virtual
network effects further help onboard more restaurants, riders, menus)
and consumers. • Delivery Partners: Flexible earning, area-based routing,
Costs: Delivery rider payouts, discounts/offers, restaurant peak-time incentives
commissions/subsidies, tech and infra, support/refunds,
marketing and loyalty spends
Channels: Mobile apps, web, CRM (push/WhatsApp), brand
tie-ups, corporate portals (Pluxee) 144

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Food Tech Know Your Sector

User Journey Macro Trends and Opportunities

Diner: Discover → customize → checkout/pay → track → receive → rate → Profitability over Blitz-scaling: Tighter discounts, fees rationalization,
re-order ops efficiency, ads as margin lever
Restaurant: Onboard → menu/catalogue & pricing → accept → prep → Retail-media Rise: Brands move ad spend into food apps (sponsored
handoff → settlement → analytics/ads listings, search ads) for high-intent visibility.
Delivery Partner: Log in → accept/stack batch (multiple orders in one Cloud-kitchens: Fewer but better-utilized kitchens, virtual brands based
trip, or next order queued before finishing current) → pick up → navigate → on data
deliver → earnings/feedback Regulation and Workforce: Transparency on fees, gig-worker standards,
Platform: Acquire users/merchants → match & dispatch → collect hygiene compliance
payments → support/refunds → monetize (commission, fees, ads) → AI Everywhere: Demand forecasting, dynamic ETAs, menu intelligence,
retain (loyalty/CRM) fraud detection, delivery routing

Key PM Metrics
Growth & Mix: Ops and Quality: Unit Economics: Trust and Safety: Investor Lens:
Active users, total orders, On-time delivery, accurate Commission rate (take Complaint rate, food safety Gross Order Value (GOV)
Average Order Value (AOV), ETAs, prep/fulfillment rate), delivery cost per issues, fraud/promo abuse growth, adjusted EBITDA,
repeat vs new users, speed, order, contribution margin customer retention
membership uptake cancellations/returns, order per order, Customer
accuracy, delivery Acquisition Cost (CAC),
efficiency (utilization & ad/retail-media share
batching) 145

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Food Tech Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

Dissect unit economics live (whiteboarding): Given AOV ₹400,

• Discount Addiction → Bad unit economics commission 20%, delivery ₹65, payment 1.5%, ads + ₹5/order,
• Prep-time Blindness: Great dispatch but slow kitchens = discounts 8% - what’s contribution? Which levers move fastest
missed ETAs (AOV, batching, distance, ads, fees)?
• Low Density Expansion: Long trips, poor batching, high Design for density: Choose next 5 zones; trade off demand
cost/order hotspots vs cannibalization; target orders/hr and average trip
distance
• Menu/Catalog Debt: Bad images, tags, or availability →
drop-offs & cancellations Speed vs reliability: Dynamic ETAs, prep-time SLAs with
restaurants, proactive delay credits
• Support Black Holes: Slow refunds and canned replies kill
trust Raise AOV without slowing: Smart bundles, fee-free thresholds,
time-of-day upsell, occasion packs
• Ad Overload: Retail-media that hurts discovery →
conversion drops Reduce cancellations: Real-time inventory sync, auto-reroute
to nearest branch, smart throttling
• Quality/safety lapses: Food incidents outweigh months of
growth Measure what matters: On-time %, prep time p95,
cancellation/return %, refund TAT, cohort retention, ads ROAS.
146

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

E-Commerce Know Your Sector

Key Players Common Characteristics

Global

• Alibaba • [Link] • Supply chain: centralized warehouses (hub and spoke

• Amazon • Coupang model); logistics follows Inbound to FC → Mid Mile
• Pinduoduo • Rakuten (Line haul, Sortation, Cross-dock) → Last mile hub →
reverse logistics
• Promise windows: 1-3 days/ scheduled slots/ same
day delivery timelines; faster delivery for premium plan
India subscribers (e.g. Amazon Prime); free reverse logistics
• Assortment mix: 50K-100M SKUs covering most
categories
• Flipkart-Myntra (48%) • Trust Signals: product reviews and ratings driving
• Amazon (31%) customer confidence
• Meesho (8%)
• Jiomart-Ajio (8%)
147

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

E-Commerce Know Your Sector

Business Model Canvas Use Cases

Urban mass-market consumers: convenience driven shoppers
Value Proposition: seeking competitive prices and home delivery, brand-loyal
• Consumers: Wide product assortment, reliable delivery ETAs, consumers.
personalized recommendations, attractive discounts & Deal/Discount driven: Shoppers responding to festive offers,
cashbacks, hassle-free refunds/returns. trending products, or seasonal events (e.g., Prime Day, Big Billion
• Brands/Sellers: National/global reach; high-visibility ad Day).
placements; targeted recommendations to buyers; data-driven Tier 2/Emerging city shoppers: price sensitive consumers, first-
trials and promotions; uplift from impulse-led sales; cost- time users, prioritizing reliable delivery
efficient last-mile delivery. Marketplace sellers: D2C, SMBs seeking wider market reach.
Key Partners: Payment gateways (stripe, razorpay), Delivery
partners (Delhivery, Ecom Express, DHL)
User Journey
Revenue Streams: Marketplace commissions, advertisement
charges, premium subscriptions, fulfilment/storage fees, and Consumer: browse → add to cart → promo/fees visibility → pay →
product margins (private labels) track order → doorstep delivery → rate/support
Business Models: Inventory-led, Marketplace Delivery partner: Assigned to route → pick up from last mile hub
Delivery Models: Platform fulfilled, Merchant fulfilled, Drop → deliver to customer → report issues / handle exceptions
shipping: Warehouse lease, platform maintenance & upgrade,
Brand: onboard → list SKUs → update online catalogues → run
discounts, delivery partner payouts, unsold inventory, customer
promos/ads → fulfill orders → track performance metrics (return
support, payment gateway fees, packaging, returns handling. 148
on ad spends, gross monthly sales, return rates)

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

E-Commerce Know Your Sector

Key PM Metrics Macro Trends and Opportunities

Futuristic technology trends:
• Drones for last-mile delivery
• Warehouse robotics
• Augmented reality for product visualization and trial
• Growth & Mix: Gross merchandise value (GMV), Average
order value (AOV), Cart abandonment rate (CAR), Category • Voice shopping using Alexa/Google Assistant.
mix
New Consumer Experiences:
Ops & Quality: OTD rate, Perfect order rate, Order picking
• Social commerce (Integration of shopping directly within social media
accuracy, Return rate, Cancellation rate, Sell-Through rate
platforms. Ex - Instagram, TikTok)
• Unit Economics: Contribution margin per order, Take rate, • Livestream shopping (Real-time product demonstrations by
Customer lifetime value (CLV), Average cost per order influencers/hosts with instant buying)
Ad Performance: Click Through Rate (CTR), Cost per Click • Buy now pay later (Flexible credit at checkout, allowing deferred or
(CPC), Return on Ad Spends (ROAS), Ad conversion rate split payments)
• Trust: Complaint rate, Fraud/promo abuse %, Counterfeit • Micro subscriptions (Small recurring payments for curated/niche
products)
complaint rate
• Investor Lens: Marketplace penetration, Adjusted EBITDA Emerging Business Models:
• Vertical marketplaces (Nykaa)
• Super apps (Grab, Tata Neu, GoTo)
• Cross-border sales (Amazon Global Sales) 149

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

E-Commerce Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

• Conversion Drop-offs: If you diagnose a 30% cart

abandonment in beauty– is it due to poor quality of product
• Listing Quality Gap: Misclassified categories, inconsistent
display page, trust gap, checkout friction, or poor
images, and broken variation mapping reduce product
discoverability and conversions. recommendations? Propose fixes to lift conversion.

• Price Blindspots: Inefficient competitor tracking leads to • Returns at Scale: Redesign the returns flow for apparel (E.g.
uncompetitive pricing and lost transactions. 40% return rate). Balance customer satisfaction with lower
• Trust Gaps: Counterfeit/restricted/unsafe products and fake reverse logistics cost.
reviews erode customer confidence and lead to compliance • Counterfeit Detection: Build a proactive system to catch
issues. fake items before they reach customers – think workflows +
• Ad Waste: Poor targeting and cluttered placements reduce tech levers.
ad ROI and purchase intent. • Ad Slot Prioritization: During peak events (Prime Day, Black
• Supply Chain Inefficiencies: Forecasting errors, incorrect Friday), design a system that allocates limited ad slots to
stock displays, suboptimal routes, and inefficient order maximize ROI without hurting UX.
aggregation increase costs and delays
Ground your answers in customer experience, articulate trade-
offs clearly and show your awareness of unit economics.
150

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

OTT Know Your Sector

Key Players Common Characteristics

Global

• Netflix (260M+ subscribers)

• Amazon Prime Video (200M+) Digital supply chain: Content creation/Acquisition →
• Disney+ (149M) Capture & Transcoding → Metadata entry (adding title,
• Tencent Video (115M+) description) → Digital rights management (encrypting
• iQIYI (101M+) content, licensing, access controls) → Ingest (uploading
content to platform) → Content distribution
Promise windows: Accessibility across devices,
India
personalized recommendations, access to global
National Regional content, buffer-free streaming, multi-language audio
• JioHotstar • Sun NXT Assortment mix: On-demand content, live streaming,
• Amazon Prime • Hoichoi music, Binge watching, D2C
• Netflix • aha
• MX Player
Zee5 151
• SonyLiv
ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26
OTT Know Your Sector

Business Model Canvas Use Cases

Value Proposition:
• Consumers: Content diversity, control over viewing
experience, synchronization across devices, customized
watchlists, price differentiation.
Urban digital natives: Young professionals and students with
• Content owners: Low distribution costs, global audiences,
demand for global content. Typically looking for single screen
viewer analytics insights, experimental content funding,
options.
flexible revenue options.
Family households: Looking for bundled plans for the family.
Revenue Streams: Subscription revenue, advertising revenue,
Favours regional content and popular local shows.
rental/pay-per-view revenue, merchandise, licensing content
Sports fans: Key growth driver in the OTT segment. Subscribes to
Business Models:
OTTs based on streaming rights of IPL/EPL/Olympics/World cup.
• SVOD (subscription video on demand | example - Netflix)
Content creators & owners: Sell licenses of movies, shows,
• AVOD (advertising video on demand | example - MX player) streaming rights of sports for wider audience reach at low
• TVOD (transactional video on demand | example - Apple TV) distribution costs. E.g. TVF, BCCI.
• Freemium (YouTube, Spotify)
• Others include: Studios & creators (licensing fees), app
stores (platform fees), Smart TV OEMs (integration),
payment gateways, cloud & CDN providers 152

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

OTT Know Your Sector

Stakeholder Journey Macro Trends and Opportunities

Growth & Mix: Subscriber acquisition rate, churn rate, monthly recurring
revenue (MRR), content/genre mix
Engagement: Monthly active users (MAU), watch time, session duration, Emerging Content Formats:
content completion rate, binge rate
Live watching sports/games (e.g Twitch), Short form videos, Non-linear
Technical Performance: Buffering rate, video startup time (VST), storytelling (e.g. Black Mirror: Bandersnatch)
streaming performance index (SPI), bitrate, latency & load time
Unit Economics: Average revenue per user (ARPU), Content spend
efficiency, Content Cost per Hour/Title Futuristic Technology Trends:
Conversational search, Spatial Audio/Adaptive Sound (Netflix-Sennheiser
partnership) , NFT-based collectibles and access tokens, VR watch
parties, AR overlays
Key PM Metrics
New Business Models:
Consumer: subscription → content discovery → add to watchlist → view
Shoppable streaming/commerce-enabled OTT (Shop with Max), OTT
content → pause/replay → feedback/rating → renew subscription
bundling with telecom plans , FAST Channels, Gamified content models
Content creator or owner: Pitch for acquisition or production of (Hotstar’s cricket prediction contests)
originals → contract on licensing rights → content delivery → content
promotion → analyze engagement data → monetization → contract
renewal 153

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OTT Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

Content Discovery Gap: Poor metadata tagging and weak In this sector, you can look out to the following:
recommendations reduce engagement, while narrow
personalization traps users in repetitive viewing loops, leading Engagement Drop-offs: If new users stream <1 hour after week
to content fatigue. one, it signals churn risk. Diagnose causes and propose levers to
boost early engagement.
Subpar Streaming Quality: Poor video resolution, frequent
buffering, latency issues in livestreaming and insufficient Personalization Gaps: If users scroll endlessly but don’t watch,
infrastructure to handle traffic spikes degrade the viewing refine recommendation engines to drive higher play conversion
experience. and watch time.
Security Vulnerabilities: Poor DRM (Digital Rights Ad Experience Design: For peak shows/events, optimize limited
Management) and anti-piracy measures can lead to content ad slots for yield while preserving immersion through smart
theft and revenue loss. placement and timing.
Ad Experience Breakdown: Irrelevant targeting, repetitive Content Navigation Design: A cluttered homepage reduces
spots, and intrusive formats reduce user satisfaction and ad discovery. Redesign layout and categorization (genres, moods,
ROI. trending, personalized rows) to improve relevance without
overwhelming users.
Fragmented User Journeys: Lack of device sync and limited
offline access disrupt continuity and lower customer Ground your answers in real user experiences and showcase
satisfaction. your analytical strengths.
154

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Ride Hailing Tech Know Your Sector

Key Players Common Characteristics

Global Ride Workflow: Driver onboarding (verification, vehicle checks)-
-> User onboarding → Ride request → Matching & dynamic pricing
→ Navigation (route optimization) → Payment & settlements (in-
• Uber (28M rides daily), app payments, driver payouts) → Feedback loop (ratings,
• Didi Chuxing (30M rides) complaints)
• Grab (9M rides) Corporate Ride-Hailing Workflow: Corporate onboarding →
• Ola (4M) Employee onboarding (registration with company credentials) →
• Lyft (2M) Ride scheduling (on-demand or pre-scheduled) → Route
optimization (multi-stop pickups/drops) → Ride execution →
Payment & settlements → Feedback & analytics
India Promise windows (passengers): Proximity-based matching, low
wait times, transparent fares, safety features (SOS, ride tracking,
verified drivers), personalization (saved location, preferred
B2C B2B vehicles), well-maintained vehicles
• Ola • Uber for
Promise windows (drivers): Efficient vehicle utilization,
• Uber Business
incentive structures, use of real-time GPS data for navigation
• Namma • Ola Corporate
Assortment mix: Multi-modal options (auto, bike, car, EV),
Yatri • Shuttl
carpooling, premium/luxury (e.g. Uber Black), scheduled rides,
• Rapido • Move in Sync outstation trips, multi-stop trips
155

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Ride Hailing Tech Know Your Sector

Business Model Canvas Use Cases

Value Proposition:
• Passengers: Seamless travel through easy booking, reliable
availability, fair pricing, and trusted drivers
Urban commuters: Office-goers, students, and city dwellers
• Drivers: Higher earning potential through efficient
needing frequent/daily rides for commutes and social outings.
matching, surge pricing benefits, seamless payment
Value cost efficiency, quick pickups, and minimal cancellations.
settlements
Tourists & leisure travellers: Travelers seeking airport transfers,
Revenue Streams: Trip-based commission, subscription fees,
sightseeing, and outstation rides. Prefer reliable service,
corporate contracts, in-app advertising, ancillary services
comfortable or luxury cars, and transparent pricing.
(rentals)
Corporate users: Companies and business travelers using rides
Cost Structure: Driver payouts, platform development,
for employee commutes, client meetings, and airport transfers.
customer support, driver incentives (e.g. underserved location,
Expect time-efficient aggregation, billing integration, and strong
peak hour service), vehicle financing, insurance,
customer support.
mapping/navigation software purchase
Vehicle/Fleet owners: Drivers and operators leveraging the
Business Models: Commission-based model,
platform to maximize earnings with reduced idle time and fuel
Subscription/Membership model, B2B model (corporate
waste. Look for analytics-driven insights to optimize vehicle
partnerships)
placement and quick payment cycles.
Key Partnerships: Payment Gateways, map and technology
providers, charging station networks, insurance providers 156
(passenger & driver safety coverage)
ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26
Ride Hailing Tech Know Your Sector

Stakeholder Journey Macro Trends and Opportunities

Emerging and Futuristic Trends:
Rider: Registration → ride search/request → driver matching & ETA → ride
• Autonomous vehicles (Baidu Apollo Go partnership with Uber) - Self-
execution (pickup → trip → drop) → payment (in-app/cash) →
driving fleets enabling cost-efficient and round-the-clock ride
feedback/rating → repeat usage
services.
Driver/Fleet Partner: Onboarding & verification → vehicle check → • Sustainable mobility (Ola electric, Uber green) - EV adoption and
receive ride request → navigate & complete ride → receive green ride options reducing carbon footprint
payment/payout → performance feedback → continued engagement /
• AI driven optimization (Didi’s Gaia platform) - AI-based systems
retention
improving route planning, demand forecasting, and fleet utilization
Corporate Client: Company onboarding → policy setup (ride limits,
billing rules) → employee onboarding → ride scheduling & tracking → New Business Models and Experiences:
consolidated billing & reporting → contract renewal
• Mobility as a service (MaaS) - Integrated transport solutions combining
ride-hailing with public and shared mobility
Key PM Metrics • Subscription rides (Lyft Pink, Uber One) - Membership models offering
discounted fares and loyalty benefits
• Event & Tourism mobility (Uber Events) - Tailored rides for concerts,
Growth & Mix: Gross booking value (GBV), ride volume, active users,
weddings, and tourist hotspots
average daily rides, geographic coverage
Tech & Operations: Ride completion rate, ride cancellation rate, match • Micro-mobility (Rapido, Bounce) - Affordable short-distance travel via
time, driver utilization rate, driver acceptance rate, ETA accuracy bikes, scooters, auto-rickshaws and self-drive options
Trust: Safety incidents per million rides • In-car Advertisement (GrabAds) - Showing targeted ads to passengers
during rides
Unit Economics: Contribution margin per trip, average revenue per user
(ARPU), Take rate, driver earnings per hour, cost per ride • Hyperlocalization (Namma Yatri in Bengaluru) - Platforms adapting
157 to
local cultures and pricing, often driver-cooperative owned

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Ride Hailing Tech Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

Demand–Supply Imbalance: Rapid growth near Bangalore

Real-time Matching Failure: Latency in the matching algorithm airport has increased rider demand, but driver reluctance to
can result in slow driver-rider connections, leading to increased serve the area creates long wait times. Diagnose root causes and
wait times and missed ride opportunities. design levers. Think targeted incentives or pooled routing.
Inefficient Driver Dispatch: Weak forecasting and routing Driver Multi-App Switching: Surge-zone cancellations rise as
create driver shortages in some areas and oversupply in others, drivers shift to rival apps offering better fares. Build loyalty
increasing wait times and reducing earnings. mechanisms, earning parity, and reduce idle-time inefficiency to
Navigation & Routing Gaps: Inaccurate GPS, outdated maps, retain supply.
or weak route optimization increase ETAs, cause detours, and No-Show Costs: In corporate fleets, 20–30% employee no-
impact rider experience. shows inflate per-head trip cost and reduce utilization. Redesign
Driver Quality & Safety Concerns: Inconsistent driver with real-time confirmations, waitlist allocation, and automated
onboarding, lack of background verification, or weak in-ride rerouting.
safety features erode user confidence. Passenger Safety: Low SOS adoption and delayed response
Pricing Opacity & Surge Shock: Opaque surge pricing weaken trust. Reimagine the safety workflow with proactive
calculations erodes trust and drives rider churn. nudges, live tracking, and faster escalation.
Cancellation Handling Gaps: Unrestricted driver cancellations Keep your answers rooted in real rider and driver issues.
reduce reliability, delay trips, and frustrate passengers. Interviewers want to see clarity in identifying problems and
actionable solutions. 158

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

SaaS Know Your Sector

Sector Evolution Timeline

The SaaS Stack & Key Players

L1: Horizontal SaaS (Function-Specific) L2: Vertical SaaS (Industry-Specific) L3: DevTools & Infrastructure SaaS

Focus on best-in-class user experience, deep Focus on deep domain expertise, industry- Focus on superior developer experience (DX),
integrations, and clear differentiation in specific workflows, and becoming the "system robust documentation, performance, and
crowded markets. of record" for a particular vertical. building a strong user community.
Key Players: Freshworks (Customer Support), Key Players: Lentra (BFSI), Innovaccer Key Players: Postman (API Platform),
Zoho (Business Suite), Darwinbox (HRTech), (Healthcare), Zenoti (Wellness), UrbanPiper BrowserStack (Testing), Hasura (GraphQL).
WebEngage (MarTech), Chargebee (Billing). (Restaurants).
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SaaS Know Your Sector

Common Features Business Model Canvas

• PLG (Product-Led-Growth) / Self-Serve Focused • Value Propositions: Lower Total Cost of Ownership (TCO),
faster time-to-value, scalability on demand, and continuous,
• Frictionless Onboarding: Quick, self-serve sign-up and automatic updates.
in-app guided tours to drive user activation.
• Channels: Product-Led Growth (PLG) through freemium/trials,
• Freemium/Trial Models: Offering a free tier or a time- Sales-Led Growth (SLG) with inside and field sales teams, and
bound trial is the default to lower the barrier to entry. content marketing.
• Community & Docs: Public documentation and a strong • Revenue Streams:
user community are key for support and engagement.
• Recurring Revenue: Annual/Monthly Recurring Revenue
• B2B / Enterprise-Focused (ARR/MRR) through tiered subscriptions (based on
• Security & Compliance: SOC2, GDPR, and ISO features, users, or usage).
certifications are non-negotiable table stakes. • Other: One-time implementation fees and premium
• Enterprise-Grade Features: Single Sign-On (SSO), role- support packages.
based access control (RBAC), and audit logs are • Key Partnerships: Cloud providers (AWS, Azure, GCP),
mandatory. technology partners for integrations, and channel resellers.
• Integrations & APIs: A robust integration marketplace • Cost Structure: Dominated by Talent Costs (R&D) and
and well-documented APIs are critical for fitting into a Customer Acquisition Cost (S&M), followed by cloud
customer's existing tech stack. infrastructure expenses. 160

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SaaS Know Your Sector

User Cases and Pain Points User Journey

Use Case Pain Point Opportunity PLG User Journey
Discovery → Free Trial/Sign-up → Activation → Conversion → Expansion
High costs of traditional Offer affordable, easy-to-
software, lack of use products with a • Activation: Steep learning curve and poor first-time user experience.
SMBs (Self-
technical expertise, need freemium model and → Design a seamless onboarding flow to a quick "win."
Serve Users)
for simple, all-in-one excellent self-serve • Conversion: Unclear value proposition of paid plans. → Clearly gate
tools. support. high-value features and demonstrate ROI to encourage upgrades.
• Expansion: Product lacks features for growing needs. → Build modular
Complex procurement Provide clear ROI features that users can adopt as they scale.
Enterprise cycles, data security & calculators, enterprise-
Enterprise Buyer Journey
Buyers compliance risks, grade security features, a
Problem Awareness → Evaluation → Procurement & Legal →
(Decision- unclear ROI, and robust integration
Implementation → Renewal
Makers) integration challenges marketplace, and
with legacy systems. dedicated support.
• Evaluation: Inability to properly test the product for security and
integration. → Offer guided proof-of-concept (POC) trials and a robust
sandbox.
Create a superior
Poor documentation, • Procurement & Legal: Long negotiation cycles and inflexible contract
developer experience (DX)
Developers unreliable API terms. → Standardize contracts and empower sales teams with clear
with clear documentation,
(Using SaaS performance, opaque guidelines.
a reliable sandbox, and
APIs) pricing, and restrictive • Implementation: Difficult data migration and a lack of user training. →
transparent, usage-based
rate limits. Provide dedicated implementation support and comprehensive 161
pricing.
onboarding for teams.

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SaaS Know Your Sector

Key PM Metrics Macro Trends and Opportunities

Growth: AI as a Co-pilot: Generative AI is being embedded to automate

tasks and act as an intelligent assistant within workflows.
• ARR/MRR: Annual/Monthly Recurring Revenue
• Opportunity: Move beyond simple features to create AI-
Unit Economics: native products that fundamentally change how work is
• LTV/CAC Ratio: Target > 3 done.
• Payback Period: Target < 12-18 months Vertical SaaS Deepening: Companies are building deep,
industry-specific platforms that become a business's central
Retention: operating system.
• Net Revenue Retention (NRR): Target > 120% for best- • Opportunity: Identify an underserved niche and build a
in-class "system of record" with tailored workflows and domain
• Gross Revenue Retention: Target > 90% expertise.
Focus on Net Revenue Retention (NRR): The most efficient
Engagement & Value:
growth comes from the existing customer base.
• Activation Rate: % of users completing a key action • Opportunity: Design products for modular adoption,
• NPS: Net Promoter Score enabling clear paths for upselling and cross-selling.
162

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SaaS Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

• Building a "Vitamin, not a Painkiller": Creating a • Speak the Language of SaaS: Always frame your
nice-to-have product that doesn't solve a critical answers using core metrics like ARR, NRR, LTV/CAC,
business problem, leading to high churn. and Churn.
• Ignoring Go-To-Market (GTM) Fit: Building a complex • Clarify the GTM Motion: Start by asking, "Is this a
product but expecting a simple self-serve model to Product-Led Growth (PLG) or Sales-Led Growth (SLG)
work, or vice versa. model?"
• Underestimating Enterprise Needs: Trying to sell to • Distinguish Between Personas: Clarify if you are
large companies without mandatory features like SSO, solving for the Buyer (focused on ROI) or the End User
audit logs, and SOC2 compliance. (focused on workflow efficiency).
• Technical Debt: Prioritizing new features over platform • Think in Workflows, Not Just Features: Frame your
stability, resulting in a slow, buggy product. ideas around improving a user's end-to-end workflow.
• Poor User Onboarding: Failing to guide new users to • Anchor on Expansion Revenue: When asked how to
the "aha!" moment quickly, leading to low activation grow a product, focus on increasing Net Revenue
and abandonment. Retention (NRR) through upselling and cross-selling.
163

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DevTools Know Your Sector

Sector Evolution Timeline

The DevTools Stack & Key Players

L1: Code & Collaboration L2: Build, Test & Deploy L3: API Platforms & Infra L4: Observability & Monitor

Focus on speed, reliability, and Focus on best-in-class Focus on reducing noise, providing
Focus on performance, seamless
providing insightful analytics to documentation, API reliability, and a actionable alerts, and helping
collaboration features, and deep
debug failures quickly. simple, predictable pricing model. developers correlate data from
integrations into the developer's
Key Players (India-born): Key Players (India-born): Postman, different sources (logs, metrics,
editor (IDE).
BrowserStack, LambdaTest. Hasura. traces).
Key Players: GitHub, GitLab,
Global Players: Jenkins (Open Global Players: Stripe, Twilio, Key Players: Datadog, New Relic,
Atlassian (Bitbucket), JetBrains.
Source), CircleCI, Harness, Vercel. Docker, HashiCorp. Grafana (Open Source), Dynatrace.
164

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DevTools Know Your Sector

Common Features Business Model Canvas

Value Propositions: Increased developer productivity, faster
Developer Experience (DevEx) Focused time-to-market for new features, improved software quality and
• CLI & API Access: A powerful Command-Line Interface (CLI) reliability, and enhanced collaboration.
and a well-documented API are non-negotiable. Channels: Product-Led Growth (PLG) driven by individual
• Stellar Documentation: Documentation is treated as a core developers, open-source adoption, content marketing (technical
part of the product, not an afterthought. blogs, tutorials), and a sales-led motion for enterprise accounts.
• Community is Key: A thriving community (on Discord, Slack, Revenue Streams:
etc.) for support and feedback is a critical feature. • Freemium & PLG: A generous free tier for individuals and
Team & Enterprise Focused small teams is standard.
• Collaboration Features: Real-time sharing, commenting, • Usage-Based Pricing: Charging based on consumption (e.g.,
and multiplayer modes are becoming standard. build minutes, API calls, data storage).
• Governance & Security: Role-based access control (RBAC), • Per-Seat Pricing: Tiered subscriptions based on the number of
audit logs, and security features (DevSecOps) are mandatory developer seats.
for enterprise adoption. Key Partnerships: Cloud providers (AWS, Azure, GCP), IDE
• Performance Analytics: Dashboards showing build times, makers (Microsoft for VS Code), and open-source foundations.
deployment frequency, and failure rates (DORA metrics) are Cost Structure: Dominated by Talent Costs (R&D) for highly
crucial for engineering leaders. skilled engineers, followed by community management and
165
cloud infrastructure costs.

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

DevTools Know Your Sector

User Cases and Pain Points User Journey

Use Case Pain Point Opportunity PLG Developer Journey
Discover (e.g., on Twitter/Blog) → Sign-up (often via GitHub) → Activation → Community
Time wasted on setting Engagement → Expansion
Offer a zero-config setup,
up local environments,
build intelligent code- • Activation: The tool is complex to set up and the "aha!" moment is unclear. →
Individual repetitive boilerplate
generation tools, and Provide a "Getting Started" guide that leads to a meaningful outcome in under 5
Developers tasks, and a steep
provide interactive minutes.
learning curve for new • Community Engagement: The developer gets stuck and has no one to ask for help.
tutorials.
tools. → Build an active Discord/Slack community for peer-to-peer support.
• Expansion: The developer loves the tool but can't convince their team to adopt it. →
Build collaborative features that are easy to share and demonstrate value to the
Slow CI/CD pipelines,
Build high-performance entire team.
inconsistent
Engineering testing platforms, offer
development
Teams (Team cloud-based development Enterprise Team Journey
environments across the
Leads & environments, and create Bottom-up Adoption → Team Evaluation (POC) → Security & Compliance Review →
team, and difficulty in
Managers) powerful code review and Procurement → Team-wide Rollout
reviewing and debugging
collaboration tools.
complex code. • Evaluation (POC): Difficult to prove the tool's value and ROI over existing solutions.
→ Offer a guided Proof-of-Concept with clear success metrics and dedicated
Lack of visibility into Provide comprehensive support.
• Security & Compliance: The tool doesn't meet the company's strict security
developer productivity, analytics dashboards
Enterprise standards. → Achieve SOC2 compliance and build enterprise-grade features like
ensuring security and (DORA metrics), build SSO and audit logs.
Buyers (VPs of
compliance across the DevSecOps features, and • Rollout: Lack of training and integration makes team-wide adoption a challenge. →
Eng, CTOs)
SDLC, and managing tool offer an integrated Provide detailed migration guides and offer onboarding sessions for 166 the entire
sprawl. platform solution. team.

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DevTools Know Your Sector

Key PM Metrics Macro Trends and Opportunities

Adoption & Growth:

• Weekly Active Users/Teams: Measures recurring usage. AI in the SDLC: AI is moving from being a code assistant to an
autonomous agent that can write, test, and even deploy code.
• Stars/Forks (for Open Source): Indicates community
interest. • Opportunity: Build AI-native tools that automate entire
workflows, not just individual tasks.
Unit Economics:
Platform Engineering: Enterprises are building internal
• LTV/CAC Ratio: Target > 3, often higher due to low-touch
developer platforms (IDPs) to standardize tools and improve
sales.
DevEx.
Retention:
• Opportunity: Create modular, API-first tools that can be
• Net Revenue Retention (NRR): Target > 130% for best-in- easily integrated into these internal platforms.
class DevTools.
DevSecOps is Mainstream: Security is shifting left and
Engagement & Value: becoming an integral part of the developer's workflow.
• Activation Rate: % of users who successfully complete a • Opportunity: Build tools that embed security checks
core workflow (e.g., run their first build). and vulnerability scanning directly into the CI/CD
• Time to Value (TTV): How quickly a new user finds the "aha!" pipeline and the developer's IDE.
moment.
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DevTools Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls Interview Tips

• Poor Developer Experience (DX): A slow, buggy, or

• Be the User: Demonstrate genuine empathy and a deep
unintuitive tool will be quickly abandoned by
understanding of developer pain points, workflows, and
developers.
the tools they use daily.
• Ignoring the Open-Source Community: Treating the
• Think in Ecosystems: Frame your answer around how
community as a marketing channel instead of a core
your product would integrate with the broader DevTools
part of the product development process.
ecosystem (e.g., GitHub, VS Code, Slack).
• Failing to Bridge the PLG-to-Enterprise Gap: Not
• Community-First Mindset: When asked about GTM, a
building the necessary security, compliance, and
great answer is to start with building a strong open-
governance features required to sell to large
source or user community.
companies.
• Developer Experience is Everything: Anchor your
• "Leaky Bucket" Funnel: Focusing on top-of-funnel
product decisions on what will create the most
sign-ups without a clear strategy for activating and
seamless and delightful experience for the developer.
retaining those users.
• Articulate the PLG Flywheel: Be able to explain how a
• Solving a Niche Problem: Building a tool for a
great product with a strong community can lead to a
workflow that only a very small subset of developers
powerful, low-cost acquisition and expansion loop.
has, limiting the total addressable market. 168

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Health Tech Know Your Sector

Key Players Common Characteristics

Global Promise windows (Patients/Users)
• Verified doctors, nutritionists and fitness coaches
Consultation - Teladoc Health, • Remote consultations, workouts, home diagnostics
Amwell, Doctor on Demand • Continuous health monitoring and progress tracking
Hospital SaaS & EMR - Epic
Systems, Oracle Cerner, Meditech Promise windows (Providers)
Fitness Tracking - MyFitnessPal,
Strava, Fitbit • Smart scheduling with integrated insurance, billing
• Wider patient pool through digital platforms
• Analytical insights from digitized health records
India
Assortment mix: Telehealth, enterprise solutions (EHR,
Consultation - Practo, Tata 1mg, hospital management), diagnostics and monitoring,
MFine medicine & nutrition delivery, wellness, lifestyle platforms
Hospital SaaS & EMR - Practo Ray, Key Bottlenecks
HealthPlix, MediBuddy
• Regulatory and compliance hurdles (HIPAA, GDPR, NDHM)
Fitness Tracking - [Link], • Strict oversight of health claims & outcomes
HealthifyMe, Fittr •
169
Tight controls on e-prescriptions & online medicine sales

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Health Tech Know Your Sector

Business Model Canvas Use Cases / Customer Segments

Value Proposition
• Care seekers: Looking for quick and reliable access to
• Patients/Users: Accessible healthcare & fitness, doctors, medicines, and diagnostics. Value
supported by expert consultants, healthcare services
convenience, trust, and affordability.
• Providers: Simplified appointment, follow-up management,
integrated patient/user records, expanded reach through • Health & fitness enthusiasts: Focused on fitness,
discovery, add-on services diet, sleep, and stress management. Engage with
trackers, workout videos, and habit-building programs.
Revenue Streams
• Chronic condition patients: Looking for continuous
Consultation commissions, Diagnostic fees, Subscription
monitoring, specialist support, and personalized care
plans (chronic care, wellness), SaaS licensing (EMR/EHR for
hospitals/doctors), Corporate employee packages plans.
• Enterprise-linked users: Access healthcare through
Business Models corporate or insurance tie-ups. Seek preventive care,
Pay-per-service (Practo, Tata 1mg), Freemium (HealthifyMe), mental wellness, and subsidized consultations.
Enterprise solutions (Practo Ray), Subscription models • Providers: Healthcare/wellness providers and
Key Partnerships hospitals adopting digital tools for practice
management, teleconsultation, EMR/EHR, and patient
Doctors, hospital networks, pharmaceutical companies,
engagement. 170
diagnostic labs, technology and cloud providers

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Health Tech Know Your Sector

Stakeholder Journey Metrics and KPIs

Patient: User onboarding → identify need → discover provider →

book consultation/test → pay → consult/diagnosis → medicine
delivery → follow-up → review Growth & Mix: New user acquisition rate, Churn rate,
Conversion rate (free to paid), CLV, CAC payback, GMV,
Provider: Registration and KYC → list offerings → setup profile ARPU
and slots → deliver services (consult/therapy/training) → share
plan/prescription/report → track performance/analytics Ops & Engagement: Monthly active users (MAU), session
frequency and duration, appointment wait time,
Healthcare SaaS subscribers: Organization onboarding →
appointment no show rate, diagnostic turnaround time
workflow setup (services, slots, billing) → record digitization and
data management → billing & settlements → analytics & Functional Performance: Care plan adherence rate,
reporting → subscription renewal/upgrade clinical outcomes improvement, consultation completion
rate
Chronic Care/Fitness: User onboarding → profile setup → need
assessment → program discovery → subscription/payment → Technical Performance: Feature adoption rate, user
periodic consult/coaching → continuous monitoring → progress feedback score, System downtime
review
171

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Health Tech Know Your Sector

Macro Trends Common Product Pitfalls

Consumer Experience: • Subpar Device Connectivity: Video drops, buffering,

• AI powered personalized health journeys device pairing issues, and slow data updates
• VR/AR enabled healthcare training (e.g. Osso VR) undermine remote care and real-time monitoring.
• Wearables + Healthcare Integration (e.g. Apple Health • Poor UX/UI Design - Complex navigation, confusing
- aggregates health data with option to share with workflows, and lack of intuitive design reduce user
healthcare provider) adoption and engagement, especially among elderly or
less tech-savvy patients.
Futuristic Technology Trends:
• Gen AI in Diagnostics • Privacy, Security & Compliance Risks: Inadequate
• Blockchain for securing health data (e.g. BurstIQ) data protection, access control issues, and missing
• Remote patient monitoring (e.g. Medtronic) consent tracking put patient trust and regulatory
compliance at risk.
New Business Models: • Engagement Drop-off and Retention Issues: Many
• Subscription based consultation users download wellness apps but show high churn
• Heath super apps (GrabHealth) after initial use due to lack of sustained motivation or
• Niche wellness platforms (Flo, Wysa) personalization.
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Health Tech Know Your Sector

Interview Prep Tips

In this sector, you can look out to the following:

• Engagement Drop-offs: Wellness apps see steep usage decline after the first month. Diagnose friction points
(complex flows, fatigue) and propose product levers. Think gamification and habit-building nudges.
• Monetization Barriers: High consult volumes on Practo aren’t converting into medicine orders. Diagnose drop-off
points and design levers to capture downstream revenue.
• Elderly Adoption Gap: Senior citizens are most in need of digital health support but often can’t use the apps.
Solve with simplified UI, voice support, and caregiver-linked accounts.
• Data Fragmentation & Interoperability: Patients juggle multiple apps (consults, fitness, chronic care) while
providers manage siloed systems (labs, wearables, EHRs), leading to broken journeys and app fatigue. Diagnose
integration gaps and propose unified health hub with interoperable standards to deliver seamless, continuous
care.

Prioritize accessibility, reduce friction, and connect fragmented experiences to scale health tech products beyond a
simple aggregator model. 173

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EdTech Know Your Sector

Sector Evolution Timeline

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EdTech Know Your Sector

Key Players Common Features and Product Norms

Global

1. Coursera • Pricing Models: Freemium, Subscription, One-time

2. Udemy Cohort Pricing
3. Duolingo • Delivery Format: Hybrid Learning is the norm (Live
Classes + Recorded Content + Offline Centers).
• Engagement Levers: Gamification (leaderboards,
India points), Community (peer groups), and 24/7 Doubt-
Solving (AI + Human TAs).
• Tech Enablers: AI Tutors, Adaptive Testing, Vernacular-
1. PhysicsWallah (PW) First UI/UX and Scalable architecture.
2. upGrad
• Product Focus: A shift from content delivery to
3. Unacademy
measurable learning outcomes and career success
4. Vedantu
5. Simplilearn
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Business Model Canvas Key Use Cases

• Value Propositions: Affordability for Tier-2/3, tangible

career outcomes, AI-powered personalization, and
trust via hybrid models.
• Channels: Digital marketing (SEO, YouTube), direct
sales teams, offline centers, and organic referrals. • K-12 Supplementary Learning: After-school tutoring
• Revenue Streams: B2C subscriptions & course fees, and concept clarification.
B2B SaaS licenses, and outcome-linked models
• Test Preparation: Coaching for competitive exams
(Income Share Agreements - students pay as a %age
(JEE, NEET, UPSC).
of their future income after they get a job).
• Professional Upskilling: Acquiring new skills for
• Key Resources: Brand & star educators, proprietary
career growth (e.g., Data Science, Digital Marketing).
tech, content library, and physical offline network.
• Key Partnerships: Universities (for accreditation), • Higher Education: Pursuing accredited online degrees
corporates (for upskilling), and schools (for and certifications.
distribution).
• Cost Structure: Dominated by Customer Acquisition
Cost (CAC), followed by employee salaries, content
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development, and tech infrastructure.

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EdTech Know Your Sector

User Journey and Pain Points Macro Trends & Opportunities (2025)
User Journey: 1. Discovery → 2. Evaluation→ 3. Enrollment → 4. Learning → 5.
Outcome • Tier-2/3 Market Explosion: India is the fastest-growing market, fueled
Journey Pain Point Opportunity by demand from tier-2/3 cities.
Discovery - Information overload, Build a trustworthy brand • Opportunity: Build affordable, vernacular-first products that
Learner/parent sees ads, aggressive marketing, and via organic content and solve local needs and aspirations.
gets referrals, or searches lack of trust. testimonials. • Profitability is King: Focus is on sustainable unit economics
online. (LTV/CAC > 3).
Evaluation - Compares Unclear pricing, poor Offer impactful demos • Opportunity: Design products with strong organic growth loops.
platforms, attends demos, and confusing and maintain simple,
• AI as a Co-pilot: GenAI is being used for personalization and
demos, and checks refund policies. transparent policies.
pricing/reviews. automation.
• Opportunity: Create AI-native learning tools.
Onboarding - Pays, gets Clunky payments and a Design a seamless
platform access, and poor first-time user onboarding flow to a • B2B Upskilling Booms: Corporations are major EdTech spenders.
starts the first session. experience (FTUE). quick first "win." • Opportunity: Build enterprise platforms with clear ROI analytics.
• The Vernacular Wave: The next 100M users need content in their
Engagement - Attends Low motivation, digital Build engagement loops language.
classes, solves problems, fatigue, and slow doubt- (gamification,
and interacts with solving. community) & use AI for • Opportunity: Develop contextual, not just translated, vernacular
peers/mentors. instant support. products.
Outcome - Completes Lack of career support Provide robust career
• Unbundling of Degrees & Micro-Credentials: Shift from degrees to
the course, gets a and certificates with low services and transparent short, skill-focused certifications.
certificate, and seeks a industry value. outcome dashboards. • Opportunity: Offer flexible, affordable modules for learners to
job or score gain specific, job-ready skills. 177
improvement.

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EdTech Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls (with Examples) Key Metrics

• B2C EdTech KPIs:
• Unsustainable CAC: Burning cash on marketing without
retention (e.g., Byju’s aggressive sponsorships). Byju’s case • Engagement: DAU/MAU, Avg. Time Spent, Course
shows that overreliance on sales is also not a healthy path in Completion Rate.
the long term. • Retention: D1/D7/D30 Retention, Cohort Completion
%.
• Ignoring Pedagogy: Focusing on tech over actual learning
outcomes (e.g., early MOOCs with <10% completion). • Monetization: Conversion Rate (Free to Paid), CAC / LTV
Ratio (must be < 1:3), Avg. Revenue Per User (ARPU).
• Scaling Operations Poorly: Acquiring users faster than
• Advocacy: Net Promoter Score (NPS).
support can handle (e.g., Byju’s refund backlash).
• B2B EdTech KPIs:
• Missing Vernacular Needs: Building English-first products
• Adoption: % of Licensed Seats Activated, Learner
and alienating the Tier-2/3 market.
Engagement Rate.
• Ignoring Learner Engagement: Focusing on content
• Retention: Net Revenue Retention (NRR), Renewal
acquisition while failing to solve for low motivation and high
Rate.
course drop-off rates.
• Value: Customer Satisfaction (CSAT), ROI metrics for
• Poor Hybrid Execution: Failing to seamlessly integrate the the client.
online and offline user experience, creating operational
• Sample Interview Frames:
chaos.
• "How would you increase course completion rates from 15%
• Breaking User Trust: Replicating aggressive, opaque sales to 50%?" 178
and support tactics that led to the downfall of older players.
• "Design an AI-powered personal tutor for JEE aspirants."
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AI Know Your Sector

Sector Evolution Timeline, Drivers & Challenges

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AI Know Your Sector

The AI Technology Stack & Key Players

L1: Infrastructure L4: Applications

Providers of core compute power, resources for AI to work.

PM Lens: Balance cost vs. performance. The end-user products (Haptik, Vertical SaaS).
Key Players: PM Lens: Focus on UX and solving a specific user pain point.
Chipmakers - NVIDIA, AMD, Google, Intel Key Players:
Cloud Providers - AWS, Azure, GCP, Shakti Cloud (Indian) Conversational AI: Haptik (a Jio company), [Link].
L2: Foundational Models Enterprise AI & Analytics: Fractal Analytics, Mu Sigma.
AI-native SaaS (Global): Microsoft (Copilot), Adobe (Firefly),
The general-purpose models. GitHub (Copilot), Notion.
PM Lens: Build vs. Model Fine-tune vs. Open-source.
Key Players:
Global - OpenAI, Gemini, Meta, Anthropic, Mistral L5: Integrations & Consulting
Indian - Sarvam, Krutrim (Ola), Project Indus (Tech Mahindra)
The service layer driving large-scale AI adoption.
L3: Data & Middleware
PM Lens: Focus on GTM partnerships to scale enterprise sales.
PM Lens: Where trade-offs (latency, cost) are made. Key Players:
Key Players: Indian IT Services Giants: TCS, Infosys, Wipro, HCLTech.
Vector Databases: Pinecone, Milvus, Chroma DB. Global Consulting Firms: Accenture, Deloitte, PwC, EY.
Orchestration & Tooling: LangChain, LlamaIndex, HF. 180
MLOps & Data Platforms: Databricks, Snowflake.
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AI Know Your Sector

Common Features & Product Norms Business Model Canvas - Indian AI Sector
• Customer Segments: Large enterprises (seeking efficiency), tech
startups (building AI-native products), SMEs (adopting AI tools),
government, and individual developers/consumers.
• Data and Computation Intensive: AI models, • Value Propositions: Automation of complex tasks, hyper-
especially deep learning models, require massive personalization at scale, predictive insights for decision-making, and
amounts of data and computation power for training. creation of novel content/media.
• Channels: Direct enterprise sales, product-led growth (PLG) for SaaS
• Delivery: APIs & SDKs are standard. tools, APIs for developers, and cloud marketplaces (AWS, Google
• Interface: "Co-pilot" assistants embedded in existing Cloud).
software. • Revenue Streams: API calls (pay-as-you-go), SaaS subscriptions
(tiered), enterprise licensing, and consulting/implementation fees for
• Customization: Fine-tuning & RAG (Retrieval- custom solutions.
Augmented Generation) tools. • Key Resources: AI/ML talent (engineers, researchers), high-quality
proprietary datasets, massive compute infrastructure (GPUs), and
• Enterprise-Grade: Evals dashboards, audit logs, and strong research partnerships.
red-teaming are now table stakes.
• Key Partnerships: Cloud providers (for infrastructure), data suppliers,
• Pricing: Usage-based (pay-per-token/API call) is the academic institutions (for research), and industry-specific channel
dominant model. partners.
• Cost Structure: Dominated by compute costs (GPU clusters) and
talent costs (high salaries for AI engineers), followed by R&D181
and data
acquisition.

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AI Know Your Sector

Use Cases & Pain Points Key Metrics

• Developers: High API costs, rate limits/quotas,

model switching costs, poor documentation.
• Opportunity: Build better, cheaper developer tools.
• Model Performance: Groundedness/Hallucination
• Enterprises (B2B): Data residency/DPDP Rate, p95 Latency, Accuracy, F1 Score, Eval Coverage.
compliance, integration complexity, TCO modeling &
ROI proof. • User Engagement: Task Success Rate, Feature
Adoption Rate.
• Opportunity: Offer enterprise-grade security and
clear ROI dashboards. • Business Metrics: Cost-Per-Resolved-Task, API
Uptime, ROI for customers.
• SMEs: Lack of expertise & high costs.
• Opportunity: Create simple, no-code AI tools for
specific business functions.

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AI Know Your Sector

Macro Trends & Opportunities (2025) Ethical & Regulatory Landscape

• AI Agents: Moving from assistants to autonomous task

completion.
• Opportunity: Build agentic workflows for specific
industries.
• Edge AI: Running smaller models on-device. • Core Challenge: Balancing innovation with
• Opportunity: Build privacy-first, low-latency apps. responsible development.
• Multimodality: Models understanding text, image, audio & • Key PM Concerns: Model bias, hallucinations, data
video. privacy, and job displacement.
• Opportunity: Create novel content generation tools. • Regulatory Outlook: Governed by DPDP Act 2023 +
• Verticalization: Fine-tuning models for specific domains. draft Rules. India's BHASHINI program is a key case
• Opportunity: Build a "GPT for Doctors" or "GPT for study for AI-driven inclusion. Opportunity: Build
Lawyers". "Responsible AI" features from day one.
• Public Datasets: IndiaAI datasets platform will unlock new
product ideas for startups.
• Opportunity: Build hyper-localized AI products for
uniquely Indian problems. 183

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AI Know Your Sector

Common Product Pitfalls AI PM Interview Tips

• Tech in Search of a Problem: Building a cool feature

that solves no real user need. • Think in Layers: Structure your answer around the AI
• Ignoring the "Last Mile": A powerful model with a stack.
poor, unusable UI. • Anchor on User Problems: Start with the "why," not
• Negative Unit Economics: High inference costs the "what" (tech).
leading to losses on every user action. • Address Ethics Proactively: Discuss risks and
• Shallow Evals: AI models have probabilistic outputs, mitigations before being asked.
not testing for real-world failures, can lead to • Know Your Trade-offs: Discuss RAG vs. Fine-tuning,
untrustworthy products. compute budgets vs. latency targets.
• Single-Vendor Lock-in: Over-reliance on one model • Design for Trust: Talk about your "eval harness
provider, risking high switching costs. design"—how you'd test for accuracy and safety.
• Scalability: A model that works well may fail in a real- • Ensuring data quality/privacy - Sourcing clean,
world production environment due to issues with unbiased data while adhering to DPDP Act.
latency, or cost.
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 Section 4

Tackling Cases

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Guesstimate Tips Tackling Cases

Introduction

In Product Management interviews, guesstimates are used to assess a candidate’s skills in….

➢ Problem Solving ➢ Reasoning

This is vital because, in real-world A strong PM must…

scenarios, precise data on
Make quick, logical estimates to seize opportunities
• market sizes
• consumer preferences Allocate resources
• adoption rates

Validate business cases

….is often unavailable.

What should a strong ….Thus, enabling faster, data-driven

PM do then? decisions even amid uncertainty.
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Guesstimate Tips Tackling Cases

Basic Tips in Guesstimates

Clarify Assumptions Ask Relevant Questions

1 Always confirm your assumptions with 2 Gather as much clarity as possible on
the interviewer before proceeding. scope, timeframe, definitions, and
constraints before starting calculations.
Frame the Problem
Use Simple Numbers
3 Look at it from multiple angles (e.g., supply 4 Stick to whole numbers for ease of
side vs. demand side) and pick the one which is
calculation and cleaner logic.
simpler and with more reliable assumptions.
Top-down Bottom-up
This can include:
approach approach

Segment the Population Keep Calculations Neat

5 Break down the problem using filters such as 6 Maintain clear step-by-step working for
Gender, Rural/Urban, Age Groups and Income. transparency and error reduction.

Triangulate your Answer

7 Sanity-check the number using alternative methods or 187
rough benchmarks to see if it makes sense.
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Guesstimate Tips Tackling Cases

Key Reference Data for Guesstimates (Specific to India only)

You can refer to the below figures that are updated rough estimates which are rounded for ease
of solving calculations during guesstimates:

Population and Area Gender Split Rural Urban Split

• Total Population – 1.4 billion

• Total Area – 3.3 Mn sq. km • Male – 50% • Rural – 60%
• Avg. people/ household – 4 • Female – 50% • Urban – 40%

Age Split Income Split Major Cities (Population)

• 0-20 – 40% • Low – 50% • Delhi – 2% • Kolkata – 1%

• 21-40 – 30% • Middle – 30% • Mumbai – 1.5% • Hyderabad – 0.9%
• 41-60 – 20% • Upper Middle – 15% • Bangalore – 0.9%
• 60+ – 10% • High – 5% 188

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Product Design: Do's & Don'ts Tackling Cases

Approach Tips

Product Design interviews are generally asked in two ways….

➢ Designing a new product ➢ Improving an existing product

Both of these questions can be answered using the CIRCLES framework. CIRCLES is a very powerful way to structure
your approach. Do not mention it explicitly, but rather direct the interview accordingly.

Importance of a Customer Journey

✓ Always ensure to come up with ✓ This helps structure the interview ✓ Be very minute in the steps that
the Customer Journey and verify better, but it requires some user the user is taking and then come
with the interviewer. POV thinking. up with a Journey.

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The CIRCLES Framework

Context Identify User Personas

C I
❖ Identify 2-3 user personas which could
use your product. You should try to
make the persona as relatable as
❖ The first should be to understand more possible. Talk about the persona's
about the product, the company, what their demographics, their psychographics etc.
objectives are etc.
❖ Give the persona a name as well. For
❖ Ask 3-4 questions to the interviewer. Also, if example, Aditya, a Sports enthusiast,
the product is well known, give a brief about looks for new sports gear online and
your understanding of the product and then wants the best quality products.
ask for clarification from the interviewer.
❖ Select a persona you would like to build
your product for. Give your reasons for
selecting this persona to the interviewer.
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The CIRCLES Framework

Context Identify User Personas

R C

❖ You need to identify the needs and pain ❖ You would likely find a lot of needs and
points for your selected persona. pain points across the user journey.

❖ This is the step where you would build the ❖ Prioritize a few needs and pain points
user journey for the selected user persona. you would like to solve right now.
Talk about the exact points in the journey
where we see maximum friction/issues for ❖ Give your reasoning to the interviewer.
the customer. You can evaluate the pain points in the
lens of impact (business or customer
❖ In the end, you should have 3 crisp problems experience), resources required to build
that you see for the user. and the complexity of solution.

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The CIRCLES Framework

List Solutions Evaluate Tradeoffs

L E
❖ Talk about why a certain solution is
❖ Try to be detailed with your solution. The better than all others. You can use
more specific you are, the more relatable the similar lens as Cut Through Prioritization
solution becomes. to substantiate your solution.

❖ Do not focus on the technical details too Summarize using KPIs

much. Focus on the product story and how S
the solution fixes issues for the customer. ❖ Come up with metrics to measure your
Clearly articulate each use case that would solution. There should be one north star
be solved. metric to measure the overall objective
of the product and a few metrics to
❖ Come up with 2-3 solutions for the measure the success of your features.
selected problem. Always specify the most You can also evaluate trade-offs by
obvious solution and then talk about fancier thinking of metrics that might go down
options. Do not over engineer at this stage. due to this and whether the new feature
is still worth it. 192

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Product Design: Do's & Don'ts Tackling Cases

The CIRCLES Framework

Summarizing the CIRCLES Framework

1. Comprehend situation (What? Who? Why? And How?)

2. Identify customer (different personas)
3. Report customer needs (as a customer, I want to..., so that I can ...)
4. Cut through prioritization
5. List solutions
6. Evaluate trade-offs
7. Summarize recommendations
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Product Design: Do's & Don'ts Tackling Cases

The Do’s in Product Design

Laying down the structure Naming personas based on attributes

Giving the interviewer a broad overview of how you plan Giving your persona a proper name, e.g. Rahul, is
to approach finding solutions to the given problem can common as it makes referring to the persona easier.
be beneficial. It helps the interviewer follow your answer However, a better approach would be to name the
better and helps them understand the rationale behind persona by their defining attribute (which is key to your
each step in the approach. solution), e.g. Rahul, our Sports Enthusiast.

Map the customer journey Reporting needs as stories

A simple way to approach brainstorming user needs is to ✓ User stories are a concise way of defining a user’s needs.
first think about the series of actions the intended Format: As a (user persona), I want to (need), so that (rationale).
customer would perform in the context of the question.
For example, if the question is based on e-commerce, Example 1: As a rider on Uber, I want to see prices before
booking, so that I can decide if Uber is the best option for me.
write down the list of actions a user performs to buy a
product on an e-commerce platform. The needs and Example 2: As a shopper, I want to filter products by delivery
problems at each step can then be listed down. date, so that I can buy only items that arrive before my event
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Product Design: Do's & Don'ts Tackling Cases

The Don’ts in Product Design

Jumping to Solutions/Features Spelling out the framework

You will be judged more on the approach to the Frameworks are meant to structure your approach.
solution and the logic behind the various decisions you Avoid mentioning the name of the framework or being
take to find the solution. Hence, it is critical to walk the too obvious in your application of it. A good practice
interviewers through your approach. would be to add some variations to the framework.

Reporting only the unique solution Being married to your first solution

One always feels the pressure to come up with a unique

solution with advanced application of AI/ML/AR/VR,
leaving out the most obvious solutions. While it is It is recommended to come up with multiple
important to come up with creative solutions, it is also features to provide alternative strategies.
necessary to show that you can identify the obvious
solutions that satisfy important customer needs. 195

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Introduction to Go to Market Strategies Tackling Cases

What is GTM?

❖ GTM strategies are action plans for a company to launch a new product/functionality in areas where the product
is currently not present. These may be regions where the company is already operating with a different set of
products, or it might be an untapped region for the company.

❖ GTM strategies entail that the product reaches the intended audience at the right time through the proper
channels and solves the right use cases to fulfill the company expectations for that product.

❖ The aim of a GTM case is to ensure success for a product launched by a company. It requires devising plans to
support customer awareness, acquisition and retention both before and after the product is launched.

❖ Customers should be made clear of the value proposition of the product, and the right marketing should be done
to capture the intended target audience.

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Introduction to Go to Market Strategies Tackling Cases

Why is GTM important?

❖ As Product Managers, you are responsible for the success of your product. This includes creating the strategy for
product targeting and communication, ensuring that the intended target audience is attracted to your product
and will be retained as users, ensuring product success.

❖ GTM cases may especially be asked in PMM (Product Marketing Manager) roles, where the job responsibility has a
large overlap with the kind of strategic thinking required for GTM cases. GTM may also be asked as follow-ups to
Product Design questions, testing whether you have developed a comprehensive outlook over your product
functionalities and whether it will be useful to the target audience.

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Introduction to Go to Market Strategies Tackling Cases

Approaching GTM Questions

Define the WHAT

Define the Product Define the Company

❖ To start a GTM case, you can ask clarifying ❖ Get an overview of the company, what it specializes in and
questions regarding the product to be what are its aims from the product launch
launched. More specifically, gather
information about… • Are there other products launched in the same market?
• Are there any possible product synergies from other
Product functionalities products?
1 • What does the product do and how does
it deliver value to customers? Define the Market Landscape
• Any features that need to be highlighted?
• Is there a unique value proposition that • Are there other competitors operating in the same space
separates us from competitors? we are trying to enter?
Product History • What kind of a market is this? Is this a D2C market or a B2B
2 • Has the product been launched in other space?
regions? • What is the market size and distribution of market share by
• Where does the product sit in the competitors? 198
company portfolio?
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Introduction to Go to Market Strategies Tackling Cases

Approaching GTM Questions

Define the WHY

Why is the company launching this product? What are their expectations from the product launch?

Define the WHO

Understand the customers

Understanding the customer persona is • Who is our target segment that we want to sell the product to?
extremely important for product cases. • What are the dimensions of their demographic data (age,
gender, working/students etc.)
Spend a good amount of time clarifying the • What are the major pain points in the product
customer pain points, the market gaps and marketplace that we can possibly solve?
exploring potential opportunities to create • What value proposition is delivered to customers through the
a value differentiation for customers. usage of our product
Customer persona can be understood • What are the customer sentiments associated with the
through exploring these dimensions. company’s image and products? 199

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Introduction to Go to Market Strategies Tackling Cases

Approaching GTM Questions

Define the HOW
Deliver a Clear Value Proposition for our Customers

On understanding the customer pain points and the features of the product, clearly strategize what product features
you would like to highlight when promoting the product. These features can be:

• Novel offerings not present in the market that solve a unique customer pain point

• An improvement over similar functionalities delivered by existing products in the market

A common way of delivering a value proposition follows the below format:

“For (target customer) who (statement of need or opportunity), our (product name) is a
(product category) that (key benefit, compelling reason to buy). Unlike (primary
competitive alternative), our product (key differentiator).” 200

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Introduction to Go to Market Strategies Tackling Cases

Approaching GTM Questions

Define the HOW
Develop a Pricing Strategy
Design a pricing model to attract customers and help the company turn a profit. Common pricing strategies include:
1. Value-Based Pricing

This is commonly used when offering a novel functionality or solving a previously unaddressed pain point. Price
should be set close to the perceived value of the functionality for customers. Value-Based Pricing can be calculated
as:

Value of the utility that customers gained by using the product + %age premium

OR

Cost paid by customers to solve the problem through alternate means + %age premium
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Approaching GTM Questions

Define the HOW
Develop a Pricing Strategy
2. Competitor Based Pricing

Used in price-sensitive markets, competitive pricing is used to gain market share while balancing profitability for the
company. This is used when our product is similar to other competitive products in the markets in the eyes of a
customer.

To calculate a competitor-based price:

1. Calculate the average of price of similar competitors in the market

2. Price a %age above or below the average price, depending on whether you want to prioritize market share or
margins
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Approaching GTM Questions

Define the HOW
Develop a Pricing Strategy
3. Cost-Plus Pricing

Usually used when you are trying to offload a product in the market that is not selling well.

Cost-plus pricing should generally be avoided in GTM cases.

To calculate a cost-plus price:

cost-plus price = Total cost of product development*(1+markup %age)

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Introduction to Go to Market Strategies Tackling Cases

Approaching GTM Questions

Define the HOW
Develop a Pricing Strategy
4. Dynamic Pricing

Dynamic Pricing is primarily used for services offered online where the prices are declared on customer
request.

It balances customer demand and competitor pricing to maximize profit for the company.

It uses technologies like machine learning to find the optimal price for a given situation.

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Approaching GTM Questions

Define the HOW
Develop a Marketing Strategy

Awareness: Publicize the product to

Discuss marketing tactics that expose the reach high customer awareness. Eg:
intended target audience to the appropriate paid ads, social media marketing etc
product functionalities.
Interest: Develop strategies to build
This involved choosing the marketing themes customer incentive in using the
and choosing the appropriate channels where product and increasing first time
the concentration of our target audience is users. Eg: e-mail campaigns
high.
Decision: use insights to target likely
Appropriate marketing strategies can be buyers. Eg: sales enablement tools
developed by choosing the right channels at
each stage of the marketing funnel. Adoption: Develop after-sales
service, onboarding tutorials etc to
ensure customer satisfaction205

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Introduction to Go to Market Strategies Tackling Cases

Approaching GTM Questions

Define the HOW
Develop a Launch Strategy
Pre-Launch Choose the right Metrics
• Develop a pre-launch strategy, choosing the Adopt the right set of metrics that are aligned with the
appropriate pricing and marketing options to ensure product launch business goals. For example:
customer exposure to the launched product.
• Your main goal here should be to increase customer Customer Product Daily Customer
awareness in the target audience at the lowest cost satisfaction Adoption Active Acquisition
possible, by utilizing the right marketing channels score Rates Users Costs

Post-Launch Evaluate Risk Factors

• After customer adoption and product launch, focus on Address the risks that may be associated with the
developing strategies to ensure customer retention product launch and adoption. These risks may be:
and customer satisfaction. Switching
• Develop the appropriate strategy to ensure customer External Use Product
costs, Exit
redressals and reduce drop out rates. Risk Factors PESTEL Related Risks 206
costs, etc.
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Introduction to Product Metrics Tackling Cases

"If you can't measure it, you can't improve it." - Peter Drucker
Why Product Metrics?

Metrics are the objective truth that transform opinions into facts, guiding every decision you make from feature
prioritization to strategic pivots. From a recruiter’s perspective, metrics test a candidate’s skill at

• Connecting product changes to quantitative metrics

• Understanding the impact that metrics have on one another
• Prioritizing based on data.

❖ Start here: You can watch this video ([Link] to get familiar with
some common metrics.
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Introduction to Product Metrics Tackling Cases

The Measurement Hierarchy: OKRs, KPIs, and Metrics

It's easy to get lost in the jargon. We can break these down, as if you were a taxi driver.

OKRs (Objectives & Key Results) KPIs (Key Performance Indicators): Metrics:

• Objective: Drive from Mumbai to These are the critical dials on your These are all the quantifiable,
Goa for a vacation. dashboard you must watch to ensure measurable data points available to
• Key Results: you reach your destination you.
• Arrive before 8 PM. successfully. Examples: Current RPM, tire
• Keep fuel costs under pressure, outside temperature,
₹5,000. Examples: Fuel Level, Average odometer reading. They provide
• Get a 5-star rating from your Speed context but aren't all key indicators
passengers. for this specific trip's success.

As a PM, you set ambitious OKRs, track your most critical KPIs, and monitor a
broader set of metrics to understand the full picture. 208

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Introduction to Product Metrics Tackling Cases

Finding Your North Star Metric (NSM)

A PM may track many metrics, but the North Star Metric is the single most important one. It best captures the core
value your product delivers. An ideal North Star metric should:

• Lead to revenue
• Reflect customer value
• Measure progress.

Examples – Spotify (“Time Spent Listening”), Airbnb (“Nights Booked”)

Must Reads

NSMs used by growth-stage companies – Real-world NSM examples across industries.

Shreyas Doshi on Basic Product Metrics – Fundamental metrics every PM should know.
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Introduction to Product Metrics Tackling Cases

How to Ace Any Product Metrics Interview Question

The chances of an interviewer asking a metrics-based question are low. However, knowing the process can help you
to improve your product design, RCA skills. That being said, a structural way to tackle a product metric question
could be:
When asked to define success metrics for a product (e.g., "What are the success metrics for Instagram Reels?")

1. Clarify the Goal & Context 2. Map the User Journey 3. Analyze Metrics for Each Stage
First, ask clarifying questions.
• Briefly outline the key user actions List potential metrics for each step of
"What is the primary objective of this
from discovery to becoming a power the journey
product? Are we focused on growth,
user. (Acquisition, Activation, etc.).
engagement, or revenue? Who are the
• Use frameworks like AARRR here.
target users?"

4. Prioritize & Define the North Star 5. Discuss Counter-Metrics: Trade-off Awareness
E.g. "As a product manager at YouTube, you may want to
• Pick the 3-4 most critical KPIs.
increase the number of ads shown to drive Revenue (KPI), but
• Commit to 1-2 North Star Metrics that best capture the
you must monitor the Churn Rate (counter-metric) to ensure
core value of the product.
that it's not hurting the user experience and long-term210
• Justify your choice.
Retention."

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Introduction to Pricing Tackling Cases

As a PM, your goal is to move your thinking up the strategic ladder. The three core strategies represent an evolution in
strategic thinking.
Level 1: Cost-Plus Pricing Level 2: Competitor-Based Pricing Level 3: Value-Based Pricing
(The Foundation) (The Market) (The Goal)
• The "How": You price based on the
quantifiable economic value your
• The "How": You calculate your costs product delivers to a specific
• The "How": You anchor your price to
(development, marketing, support) customer segment.
what your competitors are charging.
and add a markup. • The PM's Reality: This is your north
• The PM's Reality: This is table
• The PM's Reality: This is your floor. star. It forces you to answer : "How
stakes.
much better, faster, or cheaper does
• You must know your costs to ensure • You must know your competitors' my product make my customer's
profitability. But pricing based only on pricing to position your product life?"
your internal costs is lazy. It effectively. However, this assumes
completely ignores the customer's • It decouples your price from your
your competitors have priced
perspective and the market costs and your competitors,
correctly and that your product is
dynamics. anchoring it instead to the value you
directly comparable. Relying on this is
create. This is the hardest strategy to
• Never stop here. a reactive strategy that leads to "me-
execute, but the most profitable and
too" pricing and price wars.
defensible. Hence, we see companies
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moving towards Dynamic Pricing.

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Introduction to Pricing Tackling Cases

Section Key Questions Why It Matters for a PM

Business Why are we pricing this? Are we aiming for market This sets the strategic direction for every subsequent
Objective share, profit maximization, or user acquisition? decision.

Target Customer Who is the specific group of users we are creating You cannot determine value until you know who
Segment the most value for? What are their you're delivering it to. Be ruthlessly specific.
characteristics?

Quantifiable What is the next best alternative for our customer? This is the heart of value-based pricing. You must
Value What is our unique differentiation? What is the translate features into dollars (e.g., "$X saved per
dollar value of that differentiation? month," "Y% increase in revenue").

Willingness to Pay What is the customer's perceived value and ability This is the psychological ceiling. Your price must be
(WTP) to pay? How does this change based on their less than or equal to the customer's WTP to drive a
urgency or the opportunity cost of doing nothing? purchase.

Pricing Model & How will we charge? (Subscription, Usage-Based, This is the implementation. The model should align
Tactic etc.) What tactics will we use? (Freemium, Tiered, with how your customer gets value over time. 2 1 2
etc.)

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Introduction to Pricing Tackling Cases

Pricing Tactics

Model When a PM Should Use This Key PM Considerations & Risks

When your product has low marginal costs and The Conversion Trap: The free version must be good
benefits from network effects or a "try-before-you- enough to attract users but "painful" enough to drive
Freemium
buy" experience. upgrades. You risk cannibalizing your paid product if the
free offering is too generous.

When you have distinct customer segments with The "Right" Features: The biggest challenge is correctly
different needs and WTP (e.g., Individual, Team, assigning features to tiers. Your goal is to make each tier
Tiered (Feature Enterprise). a compelling upgrade, not a frustrating limitation.
Bundling) This can also be used for decoy pricing. E.g. introduce
a third option to make one of your other options look Too many choices can overwhelm users and lead to no
much more attractive. decision at all.

When a customer's consumption of your product Predictability vs. Value: Customers love the fairness
directly correlates with the value they receive (e.g., but hate unpredictable bills. Consider hybrid models (a
Usage-Based
cloud computing, SMS APIs). base subscription + overage charges) to offer the best of
both worlds.
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Introduction to Pricing Tackling Cases

Pricing Tactics

Model When a PM Should Use This Key PM Considerations & Risks

The standard SaaS model. It's simple to The Collaboration Penalty: This model can
understand and forecast. discourage adoption within a company (e.g., "I don't
Per-User want to add my colleague because it will cost
more"). Consider "active user" pricing or team-
based bundles.

When launching a highly anticipated, innovative Brand & Differentiation are Crucial: This only works
product with brand equity. The strategy is to set a if your product is perceived as highly desirable and
high initial price to "skim" the maximum revenue unique. Without strong brand loyalty, customers will
Market Skimming
from early adopters, and then gradually lower the simply wait for a cheaper alternative.
(Based on Product
price over time to attract more price-sensitive The Alienation Risk: Early adopters who paid a
Lifecycle)
customer segments. premium can feel cheated if the price falls too
quickly, potentially damaging brand loyalty for future
launches.

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Introduction to RCA Tackling Cases

Step 1: Frame the Problem & Validate

Step 2: Investigate Internal Factors Step 3: Investigate External Factors
the Data (Ask Clarifying Questions)

Before RCA, Know the Product: Understand what 1. Trace the User Journey
• Map the whole user flow in the app. (If internal causes are ruled out, widen the lens)
the product does
• Identify the exact funnel stage where the 1. Competitive Landscape
1. Reiterate & Define the Metric
drop/change occurs (e.g., sign-up, checkout, • Identify new entrants or competitive moves.
• Clarify what the metric means and how it’s key feature use). • Check for price cuts, promotions, or better
calculated. 2. Product & Technology Changes offers from competitors.
• Check if calculation or reporting methods • Check for recent UI/UX releases that could • Look for cheaper substitutes entering the
have changed recently. cause confusion or friction. market.
• Verify data integrity — confirm BI tools and • Investigate technical issues — bugs, glitches, 2. Market & Environment
data pipelines are working correctly. latency, crashes. • Review regulatory or legal changes affecting
2. Isolate the “Blast Radius” 3. Business & Offering Changes the product.
• Time Period: Identify if it’s a sudden drop or • Demand-Side: Review changes to pricing, • Consider environmental events (pandemics,
gradual decline, check for seasonality, and subscription tiers, and free trials. disasters) that could shift user behavior.
pinpoint when it started. • Supply-Side: Check for salary shifts, service • Spot shifts in consumer psychology or
quality, or cannibalizing products pulling buying patterns.
• Geography: Is the impact global or specific to
users away. 3. Public Perception
certain regions?
4. Qualitative User Feedback • Scan PR coverage and social media
• User Segment: Determine if all users are
• Analyze app store reviews, NPS scores, and sentiment.
affected or specific personas — e.g., new vs. support tickets. • Investigate any trust or brand reputation
existing users, or by platform (Android vs.
• Look for patterns or complaints that align with issues.
iOS). the timing of the change. 215

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Introduction to RCA Tackling Cases

Tips for Aspiring PMs (Interview Execution)

1. Think Out Loud, Skip the

Jargon 2. State Assumptions Clearly 3. Be a Collaborative Partner
Walk through your logic step-by- Acknowledge data gaps. Frame your investigation as
step. Example: “I’ll assume this affects questions + hypotheses.
Example: say “First, I’d clarify the all platforms equally, but I’d verify Let the interviewer guide where
metric…” instead of naming the with the data analyst.” needed.
framework.

4. Link to Product Lifecycle

5. Prepare for the “What’s
Adapt your approach based on Next?”
stage (Launch, Growth, Maturity).
After RCA, propose a solution.
Example: “Since we’re in Maturity,
Outline how to test it and how to
I’d focus on competitor actions
measure success.
and retention.”
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 Section 5

Practice Cases

217
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 Section 5.1

Guesstimates

218
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Instagram Daily Uploads in India Guesstimates

Estimate the number of Instagram uploads occurring in India. What do you think?
I’d like to ask some clarifying questions. Do you want me to estimate the number of uploads per Instagram is one of the most popular apps on the Play Store with over a billion downloads, so I
day or per year? And should these uploads include posts, stories or both? assume that 50% of these users have Instagram.
Consider only posts and estimate uploads per day. Sure, good point. For simplicity, assume 50% penetration among smartphone users and feel free to
make reasonable assumptions.
Should I consider both personal and business accounts?
Thanks, assuming 50% of these people use Instagram:
Personal accounts only for now. 980M × 50% = 490M accounts
Can I assume this estimate is for a typical day, not a festival or a holiday?
I’ll assume that 80% of these accounts are active personal accounts:
You can assume a typical day and start working on your approach. 490M × 80% = 400M
Thanks, I will approach this problem by breaking it down as: So, we have around 400 M active personal users.
Sounds reasonable.
# of Instagram uploads per day = Active Personal Instagram Users × Average Posts per User per
Day Now, I’ll estimate the average number of uploads per person per day. We can divide the monthly
active users into three categories, with rough estimates for the percentage of users in each
First, I shall estimate the number of active personal users on Instagram in India. Then, I’ll segment category from my own experience on the app as follows:
these users into groups based on their posting frequency to get the average posts. Can I proceed
with this approach? 1. Light users: 60% of users, posting one post every month = 0.6 * 400 = 240 M users
2. Moderate users: 35% of users, posting one post every week = 0.35 * 400 = 140M users
Yes, please go ahead. 3. Heavy users: 5% of users, posting one post every 2 days = 0.5 *400 = 20M users
First, I shall estimate the number of personal users as
Therefore, the number of posts per day = 240M × (1/30) + 140M × (1/10) + 20M × (1/2)
[# of active users on Instagram] = [population of India] * [% population with smartphone and = 8M + 14M+ 10M
internet access] * [% of people on Instagram] * [% of monthly active users] = 32 M

The Population of India is approximately 1.4 billion. Due to an all-time high penetration of mobile That sounds good. Anything else? I think Instagram has around 100 million daily posts.
services, assuming 70% smartphone and internet penetration, we have around :
Ok, let's see if my estimate makes sense. If Instagram globally has around 100 million posts per day,
India contributing around 32 million posts (32%) seems plausible given our high population, and
1.4B × 80% = 980M smartphone users with internet
Instagram is banned in China. 219
Can I assume the Instagram penetration percentage is across smartphone users, or should I
segment it according to app usage? Great, thank you. We can close this interview.

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YouTube Daily Revenue Guesstimates

Estimate the revenue that YouTube makes in a day. Estimated total views – 2B
Sure! I’ll focus on estimating YouTube’s daily ad revenue. YouTube has multiple revenue streams—
Not all views are monetized:
Ads, YouTube Premium, Music, TV, and even SuperChats for livestreams—but since ads
1. Some users have YouTube Premium (assume ~20% in US)
contribute the majority, I’ll zoom into YouTube Ads as the core. Would you like me to estimate
2. Some creators don’t monetize
this globally or for a specific market?
3. Some content has skippable or no ads
Let's estimate YouTube’s daily ad revenue specifically in the United States.
So, I’ll assume 50% of views are monetized with ads.
Perfect. Here’s the approach I’ll take:
YouTube Ad Revenue (Daily) = Ad Views × Revenue per Ad View, where: Ad Views per Day ≈ 2B × 50% = 1B ad views
Ad Views = Total Video Views × % Videos with Ads
Revenue per Ad View = CPM / 1000 That sounds good, lets move forward.
YouTube charges advertisers via CPM (Cost per 1000 Impressions).
For estimating the total number of ad views, there are two ways we can go about it:
1. Estimating from the demand side as to how many YouTube videos people watch daily.
In the US, CPM varies by content and targeting. For this case, lets assume a CPM of $20/1000
2. Estimating the supply side by looking at YouTube’s video views service capacity.
impressions.
Since, in this case capacity will not be a problem as YouTube can easily scale up its infra to serve
the demand, we should go via demand estimation. Does this sound fair?
Revenue per ad view = $0.02/ad view.
Alright, that does sound like a plan. Let’s go ahead. Hence, daily revenue = 0.02 * 1B = $20M.
Let’s start with a US population of ~330M (2025 est.). I’ll segment by age and assume an average For the year, we have $20M * 365 = $7.3 B
daily YouTube watch behavior based on age group.
Anything else you would like to add?
% of Viewership Daily Users Avg. Videos Daily Views
Age Group
Population rate (Million) per day (Million) Google’s annual ad revenue = $200B. Assuming YT gives 10-15% of that, we have global YouTube
revenues to be around $20-30B. Hence, assuming USA gives $7.3B is a fair estimate.
0-5 10% 0% 0 0 0
Okay, we can close the interview.
6-12 10% 50% 15 5 75
13-24 20% 90% 54 20 1080
24-44 20% 85% 51 10 510
45-64 20% 60% 36 5 180 220
65+ 20% 40% 24 3 72

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Zoom Daily Server Usage Guesstimates

Estimate Zoom’s daily server usage To estimate the number of people using video conferencing, I will take the share of the working
population in India (predominantly aged between 20-60 years), which is 60%. I assume that VC is
I’d like to ask some clarifying questions. My understanding is that Zoom’s server usage would
mostly used by white collared employees in India, whose share in the working population is around
comprise the following:
10%.
1. Storing information about its users and their call logs
To estimate the proportion of the white-collar workforce using VC, I will break down the jobs into
2. Streaming the data (audio, video and text) to and from participants in a zoom call
client-facing and traditional roles:
3. Miscellaneous processing tasks (backend)
1. About 40% are in tech, consulting, or client-facing roles where VC is essential (90% adoption).
Since most usage spikes are likely tied to live calls, especially video streams, I'll focus on streaming
2. The other 60% are in support of traditional roles with less need (let's say 40% adoption).
for now, the most significant driver of infra load. Shall I proceed with this assumption?
Yes, that sounds reasonable. This gives us a blended average of (0.4*0.9) + (0.6*0.4) = 0.36 + 0.24 = 60%. The number of people
using VC in India comes out as:
Do you want me to account for global usage or be constrained to a particular geography, such as India’s population * Share of working population * Share of white collared employees * Share of
India? employees requiring VC services
Consider the usage for India. = 140 Cr * 60% * 10% * 60%
= 5 Cr (approx.)
There are three broad categories of users for video conferencing.
1. Personal Sounds reasonable. Please go ahead.
2. Student In the video conferencing market, there are three major players that I can think of: Zoom, Google
3. Business Meet and Microsoft Teams. Exact market share might fluctuate by region, but I’ll take 50% as a
Out of them, business accounts should be the most prominent users of Zoom due to higher working estimate for India. To estimate the average time spent on VC services, I will break down
average usage time, as many of the jobs after COVID have an important remote work component the users as follows:
to them, leading to a higher proportion of their time in office being spent on video conferences. 1. Heavy users (VC usage of more than 4 hours): 20% - This set will comprise executives,
You can go ahead with business accounts for now. managers
2. Medium users (VC usage of around 2 hours): 40% - This set will comprise engineering managers,
Among business accounts, should I account for event streaming, professional calls between marketing and brand teams
employees or both? If we were to include webinars or events, the calculation would change, as 3. Light users (VC usage of around 30 mins): 40% - This set will comprise core engineering teams,
the data pattern is one-to-many, which is a different kind of server load. finance teams
We can proceed with professional calls for now. The average usage comes out as: 20%*4hrs + 40%*2hrs + 40%*0.5hrs = 1.8hrs
Further, I will assume that the data requirement of a VC is 1Mbps, which makes it 3600 Mb per hour
I will break down this problem as follows: or 450 MB. Hence, Zoom’s daily server usage comes out as 5 Cr * 1.8 * 450 MB = ~ 40,000 TB/day

Zoom’s daily server usage (on a weekday) = # of people using VC in India * Zoom’s Market Share 221 However, for
Note: The data requirement can also be a weighted average based on video quality and usage.
* Average time spent on VC (in mins) * Data requirements per minute simplicity it has been taken as 1 Mbps

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Zoom Daily Server Usage Guesstimates

Before we end, I have one more question for you. If Zoom observes rising VC usage in Tier 2/3
cities or heavy mobile participation, what should it do?
In the event of higher participation from Tier 2/3 cities or mobiles, there is a high chance that the
users coming in from this background will not have access to very high-quality, reliable internet. In
this case, Zoom should consider launching a lite version wherein the data requirements are
lowered from the current version, which requires a bandwidth of more than 1Mbps.
Okay, we can end here, thank you.

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Number of Daily WhatsApp Chats Guesstimates

Estimate the number of WhatsApp chats occurring in a day. Please spare me a moment to segment our users.
I’d like to firstly classify our users on their age into 15-29, 30-49 and 50+. The usage and affinity
Sure. I’d like to understand the context a little better. Are we trying to gauge this for a particular varies across these age groups. Then for each of the age group, I would break the users into heavy
geography? users, medium users and light users. Does this approach sound good?
Yes, let‘s focus on messages in India. Yes, I think this is fair.
Okay. I‘d further like to know which user types should we focus on: WhatsApp for business users Okay. I would distribute 60% of WhatsApp users in the first age category of 15-29, 30% in 30-49
or casual users? and 10% in 50+.
Good point. Let‘s discuss about the casual users.
Further, for the category 15-29, 60% would be heavy users with ~80 chats sent a day, 20% medium
Thanks. To approach this problem, I‘d like to first estimate the number of WhatsApp users in users with ~ 40 chats a day and the final 20% of light users with ~10 chats a day. This would lead
India. Then I‘d like to segment this population and find out the average number of chats per to an average chats per day for the 15-29 age group as 60%*80 + 20%*40 + 20%*10, or ~60 chats
segment to arrive at our larger question. Does this approach sound good? per day.
Yes! Please go ahead.
I would similarly compute average number of chats for the other age groups. Should I continue
Firstly, the number of WhatsApp users in India can be broken down as, with this approach and arrive at our final answer?
(Ensure to check-in with the interviewer in middle of large computations.)
# of WA users = Population of India * internet penetration % * % having smartphones * % having
The approach looks good to me. I have some data for you, the average number of chats for the
WhatsApp installed.
middle and old age group are 25 chats and 5 chats a day.
Sounds right, please go ahead.
Thank you! With all the data bits now ready, I can build-up to our final solution.
Great! So I’ll make a quick estimate of our multipliers. India’s population is roughly 1.4 Billion
people. About 50% of India has internet penetration with regular access. The majority of people # of chats per day in WA = Total WA Users* [(% of user 15-29 * avg. chats per day of 15-29) + (%
use internet on smartphones these days, and hence, the percentage of people with internet access of user 30-49 * avg. chats per day of 30-49) + (% of users older than 50 * avg. chats per day of
who have smartphones would be close to 70%. users older than 50) ]

Finally, as WhatsApp is one of the core apps on smartphones, I will assume that 80% of people This computes as:
have it and use it regularly. # of chats per day in WA = 400 Million * [(60% * 60)+(30% * 25)+(10% * 5)]
# of chats per day in WA = 17.6 Billion or ~18 Billion
This leads to number of WhatsApp users in India as:
Hence, we have approximated the number of WhatsApp chats per day in India is close to 18
1.4 Billion*0.5*0.7*0.8, or ~400 Million. Billion. 223
Perfect! That’s a very good estimate. How will you go about the number of messages in a day? Thank you! We can close this interview.

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Fantasy Football Platform Users Guesstimates

Estimate the users for a fantasy football platform For incorporating age as a factor, I would bucket the age groups into 3: 18-25, 26-40 and 40+. I
have purposefully kept under 18 users out of my analysis since it is not legal for them to engage in
Sure, I have a couple of preliminary questions. What is the scope of the product that we are
fantasy sports. The differing split points for the factors can be assumed as thus:
looking to design, in terms of geographical span, and the target users?
The platform is envisioned to be launched in a European country with a population of 200 million.
What do you think can be the target users? Age 18-25 (25%) 26-40 (25%) 40+ (25%)
I think that depends on the current position of the platform in its lifecycle. However, assuming the
Male Female Male Female Male Female
platform has already been launched, it makes more sense that the target market would be the Gender
(50%) (50%) (50%) (50%) (50%) (50%)
urban consumers which have a higher propensity to pay, than the rural customers.
% who watch
Seems logical. You can proceed with this assumption. 60% 40% 50% 30% 40% 20%
sports
Before I begin with the estimation, I would like to highlight some factors for segmentation that I
% who watch
intend to use. The first level of segmentation could be based on age and gender, as they have 70% 70% 70% 70% 70% 70%
football
differing receptiveness to sports.
% who use
80% 80% 70% 70% 60% 60%
Then, the second level of segmentation could be done on the percentage of people who watch digital payment
sports, which itself could be segmented into the percentage of sports viewers that watch football.
% who play
Here, I assume that most of the platform users would be football viewers. 20% 15% 15% 10% 5% 0%
fantasy sports
Further, since fantasy sports require financial transactions, it is necessary for the users to be
comfortable with using digital payments. This again can form the third level of segmentation, i.e., Do the split-off percentages seem fair? I’ll proceed with the actual calculation hereafter.
the percentage of users who use digital payments. Finally, the last segmentation can be done based
on the propensity to play fantasy sports. The percentages seem fair. Can you explain the trends in the segmentation basis for those who
use digital payments and engagement in fantasy sports?
Do let me know if the approach seems fair, and if there is any other factor that you would want For the digital payments adoption factor, I have assumed decreasing trends with rising age as I
me to consider? Also, do we have some data on the slicing thresholds for some of the industry- understand that the digital literacy and comfort level with using digital solutions for activities such
specific segmentation factors that I outlined above. as financial transactions decreases. Furthermore, the trends in the engagement with fantasy sports
This seems fair. You can assume the slicing thresholds at different segmentation levels as you deem is assumed to be decreasing with rising, again because fantasy sports in digital format has been a
fit. recent industry and may not find traction easily with older people.
Further, even within a certain age group, the adoption has been assumed to be lesser for females
Understood. So out of the 400 M people, we can assume the urban population to form 70% chunk compared to males, which in fact mirrors the trends in the sports viewership factor.224
of the total. Further I would assume an equal split of Male and Female genders.
Fair reasoning, proceed with the calculations.

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Fantasy Football Platform Users Guesstimates

Sure, assuming a 30 - 70 split for rural and urban population, the total count of urban population
comes out to be 140 million. Applying the above thresholding factors, the final count of users
comes out to be:

Age 18-25: 35 Mn 26-40: 35 Mn 40+: 35 Mn

Male: Female: Male: Female: Male: Female:

Gender
17.5 Mn 17.5 Mn 17.5 Mn 17.5 Mn 17.5 Mn 17.5 Mn
% who watch
10.5 Mn 7 Mn 8.8 Mn 5.3 Mn 7 Mn 3.5 Mn
sports
% who watch
7.4 Mn 4.9 Mn 6.1 Mn 3.7 Mn 4.9 Mn 2.5 Mn
football
% who use
5.9 Mn 3.9 Mn 4.3 Mn 2.6 Mn 2.9 Mn 1.5 Mn
digital payment
% who play
1.2 Mn 0.6 Mn 0.6 Mn 0.3 Mn 0.1 Mn 0 Mn
fantasy sports

Total number of users comes out to around 2.8 million.

The final figure seems plausible. We can close the discussion.

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Food Delivery App Users Guesstimates

Estimate the number of users for a food delivery app in a South American country. So, 18–40 urban population = 50% of 70M = 35 million
3. Income and Digital Access (smartphone + internet + digital payments): Among 18–40
Sure, I have a couple of clarifying questions before I start the estimation. What is the total
urban population: Assume 70% have sufficient income and access → 0.7 × 35M = 24.5 million
population of the country, and should I assume this is a product in its early stage or already
4. Food Delivery Propensity: Of the digitally active population, estimate 40% actively use food
launched?
delivery platforms (based on competitive landscape and market maturity) → 0.4 × 24.5M = 9.8
The country has a population of 100 million. You can assume the platform is already launched and million
is looking to scale. Go ahead with the assumptions you need.
Final Estimate: ~9.8 million active users
Understood. I’ll assume the app has achieved some market penetration and is targeting urban
consumers first, as they have better access to infrastructure, smartphones, and restaurants. I’ll also That figure seems reasonable. Can you explain your rationale for the 40% adoption assumption?
assume a significant proportion of users would be working professionals or students in urban
Certainly. I based this on a few considerations:
areas, which drives demand for food delivery services.
1. Market maturity: Since the app is already launched and we’re looking at a South American
Seems logical. You can proceed with this assumption. country with urban penetration, early adopters would already be on the platform.
2. Competition: Multiple food delivery platforms may exist, so active usage may be distributed
Thank you. Before I begin with the calculation, I’d like to outline my segmentation framework: across providers, reducing the app-specific share.
1. Urban vs Rural: Given infrastructure and internet access challenges in rural areas, food 3. User behavior: While many users have access to the service, not all order frequently—some
delivery adoption will likely be concentrated in urban areas prefer cooking or dining out.
2. Age Segmentation: Users aged 18–40 are the most likely to use food delivery services due
to lifestyle and disposable income. I chose 40% as a mid-point assumption considering these factors.
3. Income & Digital Access: I’ll consider smartphone ownership, internet access, and digital
payments as necessary enablers. Makes sense. We can close the discussion.
4. Food Delivery Propensity: Finally, I’ll estimate what portion of this digitally-enabled group is
likely to use food delivery services.
Are these factors exhaustive?

That approach works. Assume the slicing percentages as you see fit.
Great. I’ll proceed with these assumptions:
1. Urban population: Assume 70% of 100M = 70 million
2. Age Distribution in urban areas:
i. 0–17: 25%
ii. 18–40: 50%
iii. 41+: 25% 226

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 Section 5.2

New Product
Design

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Office Space Sharing New Product Design

Design a mobile application for an office space sharing business for Airbnb. money.
PM Tip: The Interviewee chose a particular user to focus on, but he/she also gave a proper rationale.
PM Tip: The first step for the candidate is to clarify any ambiguities in the problem statement. He/she backed it up with a business model similar to Uber's to choose the user correctly. It would have
Before moving further, I would like to understand a bit more about the problem at hand. What is been better if the Interviewee had gone deeper about the user (the owner), like their demographics, their
the exact business model of this office sharing app? For whom would we be designing the app, the size, their location, etc.
owner or the renter, or both? And lastly, what is the objective of this app. Few of the needs of the owners would be:
Good questions. The whole business idea is that people with extra office space can rent out to start- 1. Finding reliable people to rent it to, also the ability to approve or decline requests
ups or freelancers, Airbnb will take the empty space and remodel it, but the owner will take care of 2. Furnish and maintain the space with office supplies
the operations. We need to design the app for both owner and the renter. As of now, the objective 3. Estimated rent and information on rental periods and owner’s rules
is to get as many customers as possible on board. 4. Payment and customer support
5. Security of the place
That’s helpful. I am assuming that the person who is renting the space is the owner, just to reduce The user needs can be analyzed by navigating through the steps the owner would need to go
the complexity of the design. Also, I believe we are not focusing on monetization for the business as through the whole process.
of now, later for sure, please correct me if I am wrong. However, I will address the payment issues So, the needs of the user should be identified at each stage of the process
between the owner and the person renting it. Now that I understand the business, I will look for
user segments, then find their needs, build user stories, search for solutions and create an MVP to fit Figuring out Making the Making it
Contracting
contract space rent available to Payment Support
these solutions. details ready rent
with renter
PM Tip: After understanding the problem statement, the Interviewee clears all his/her assumptions
beforehand. Also, he/she gives an overall flow of how he/she is attacking the problem. This helps to keep the PM Tip: It’s always good to break down the whole process into intermediary stages and figure out the
interviewer intact with the broad view and aligned with the Interviewee’s thoughts. It’s always good to first customer in these stages, this helps get the exhaustive list of user needs and avoids missing any important
give a high-level view and then go on to the details. part.
There are 3 users for this application:
1. Owner Fair enough. But how will you prioritize among the different needs of the user?
2. The person renting it Since we are focusing on MVP, I will look at the most needed features which are 2, 3, and 4. So my
3. Airbnb user stories as an owner are:
Which one should I focus on? • Keep a check on the office supplies and other furniture, replenish them whenever necessary.
You may decide that. • I want to know the rent I will get so that I can decide whether it is meaningful for me or not.
• A way to interact with the system to confirm/cancel bookings and settlements
For any multi-sided platform, it is important to solve the chicken-egg problem. Taking the example ProTip: Prioritizing the requirements is one of the key roles of a product manager. Since it's a boundary-
of Uber who first focused on on-boarding the drivers to create supply, I will also focus on owners. spanning role, product managers are bombarded with multiple tasks of the product, from the business
Since we are focusing on the owner, we must first define their persona. Mostly, the owner will be a team, from the engineering team, from the marketing team, etc.. Still, the product managers must make
person or a company who have extra space in their building which can be monetized. They will be 228 multiple
hard calls to prioritize the requirements. Some use the effort-impact matrix to do this; however,
comfortable in sharing their space to a stranger. If it is a company, this will be an additional source of other frameworks exist.

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Office Space Sharing New Product Design

For an MVP, I will address all the stories individually first.

Solution to story 1:
• Display the list of all the supplies and furniture available in the location.
• Provide the capability to the place orders through the app itself, Airbnb can provide support.
• An ability to display to the renters what all furniture and equipment is present in the office.
Solution to story 2:
• Option for the owner to send the rent to the person renting it
• Rent estimation based on
o Space occupied
o No. of days
o Special requests/Customization
o Number of people/employees
Solution to Story 3:
• A tab to manage request for renting.
• Option to confirm/cancel or chat with an interested person.
• Have a payment gateway to pay full rent in advance.
• Provide a weekly settlement into the owner’s account.
• Cancellations/Refunds will be handled by Airbnb in between settlements
Would you go ahead with all of these?
No, I will evaluate the solutions in each story based on customer impact and its ease of
implementation. After the evaluation, I will select 1,2 in S1, 2 in S2, and 1,2 in S3 for the MVP. Do
you want me to go into detail about these?
No, this is good. Thanks for your time and all the best.
PM Tip: The Interviewee could have explained here a bit more about how they selected the features for the
MVP; however, since the interviewer confirmed, it's fine. It's always better to back up your arguments with
data and logic; interviewers are looking for the critical thinking of the Interviewee's ability.

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Increasing Voter Turnout New Product Design

Perugia's voting turnouts have stagnated at 55% in the last few years. The Government of Perugia Sure, go ahead.
has hired you to design an application to improve voter turnout. What are some of the features you
Alright. Keeping the needs in mind, I have come up with the following features in the app:
would recommend for such an application?
Addressing lack of information –
Okay. Can I start with a few clarifying questions about the problem?
• Candidate Scorecard: This would be curated using the information from their previous work,
Sure, go ahead. their previous election performance, their headlines in the news, criminal and other charges
What has been attributed to as the reason behind the stagnation of the turnouts? Are the people against them. Since we are working with the government, some of this information can be
skipping the vote from a specific demographic? What are the current methods of voting in Perugia? directly sourced from the candidates, and the rest can be gathered from external sources.
What is the specific aim of the government with the application, and is it supposed to serve as a • App-based registration: By digitizing the voter registration through the app, the voter would be
method of voting as well? able to register from anywhere using the app, reducing the time and money taken to set up and
use an extensive offline registration system.
The voters who have skipped have cited reasons of lack of knowledge of the candidates, lack of • News section: Capture the headlines to inform the user of the current issues in the news,
interest in the voting process, confusion about how the registration and voting process works, the which would be localized to their voting region.
perception that their vote doesn't count for much and that they were busy on the day of voting. The • Timeline of the voting process: What is my booth and navigation to the voting booth.
government runs awareness campaigns, but they have reached and affect only a few of the voters.
The people skipping are primarily the new voters from the ages of 18-30 years of age. The current Addressing lack of interest:
voting method is just a ballot paper system, and the government doesn't aim to change that. With • Gamification of the voters: Running an app-based daily/weekly quiz to find the most informed
the application, the government wishes to attract more voters to the process and engage them voters. There may be perks associated with that, like preferential voting etc., depending on the
during the election season to get them interested and vote more. Does that help? rules and laws of the land.
Yes, it does. From what I could gather, the government would like the application to make the • Notification center: Using notifications specifically to keep the voter engaged about the
voters more engaged with the voting process and show up to vote. As the most affected user base is happenings of the process and the critical dates.
the new voters, I'll keep the application focused on solving their needs. Is that okay? • Connect with the candidates: The candidates can leverage the app to communicate directly with
their voters specific to the region. On the other side, the voters could ask questions and upvote
Yes, that is the government's target segment as well. the questions that they find relevant. It would be in the candidates' interest to answer more of
Okay. From what you mentioned, it seems the new voters suffer from both the absence of the questions asked since it would only increase their reach, and the voters would be more
information on multiple levels of the voting process and the lack of interest in the voting process engaged.
This also shows that the currently accessible mediums are unable to solve this problem, be it • Non-transferrable badges for voters: Perks like badges, QR to your exclusive photo at the
conventional media or otherwise. Looking at the voting process itself, it could include information booth etc., could be incorporated into the app to encourage voting.
on the performance of the current/previous candidate, the profiles and activities of all contesting
candidates, their manifestos, the current problems faced by the majority of the citizens, how to Do these look fine, or should I explore more features?
enter the voting process and where to vote. If these look fine, can I take a minute to think over the 230
solution?

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Increasing Voter Turnout New Product Design

No, these should do. Could you elaborate on one of the user workflows that you see the user
having on the application?
Sure. Talking about a scenario a week before the election, when the app has the most information.
The user would open the app and see their profile details with the gamified score (could be
percentile of how much more informed they are than the others on the app), the next quiz they
should attempt, and the latest news on their voting area. The user takes the quiz and moves to the
candidate profile tab. The user can select the current/previous elected member who is re-contesting.
The app gives the user a candidate scorecard, their recent work in the office, the candidate's latest
headlines, and the recent legal charges against them (if any). The user selects the work tab, which
then elaborates on their recent participation in the parliamentary debate, the bills they presented
etc. The user reads the information and closes the app. That would be a flow where the candidate
engages with the app and consumes some information. Does that work?
Yes, that is good enough. Can you quickly provide some metrics that you would track for this
application?
Surely, we would want to a few things in this application. Engagement metrics like DAU/WAU,
Session Duration, Notification Open Rate etc. would be important. We would also like to track the
awareness metrics based on candidate profile views per user, number of articles read etc. Finally, we
would want to track the number of users registered as voters through the app.
Thank you, that will be all.

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Disney Theme Park Experience New Product Design

You are a PM at Disney. You have been asked to design an application to improve the customer 4. I want to visit an attraction when it is not too crowded so that I don’t have to wait in line.
experience at Disney theme parks. What would you do? 5. Navigate to selected attractions: I need help figuring out the way to the ride or the show I
I would like to ask a few questions before diving into the solution. I want to verify whether my want to visit.
understanding of the offerings of the theme park is correct. The parks generally offer amusement 6. Eateries: I want to pick an eatery that would provide me with the food I like.
rides and shows for entertainment. Theme parks typically have eateries for customers to eat. Some The pain point assessment seems fair. Assume that you had the budget to solve only one of these
theme parks have an in-premise hotel for customers to stay. problems. Which one would you select, and what feature would you build for it?
You can assume that the theme park you are developing for has all the offerings you mentioned I would prioritize the solutions based on the following parameters:
except hotels. 1. Effectiveness of Existing Solutions
Got it. I will start with identifying the primary user of the application and then listing down the actions 2. Value customer would derive from the problem being solved
they take while visiting the theme park. Pain Point Existing Solutions Solution Effectiveness Value for customer
The most common visitors of theme parks would be families where the adults are accompanying the
children. The decision taker would be one of the parents, so they would potentially be the primary Third party booking
Ticket Booking High Medium
user of the application. platforms
List of attractions on the Low – solution is
The users perform the following activities: Ride Picking High
park website or brochure tedious
1. Book the entry ticket to the park
2. Decide on the attraction to engage with Google maps, physical maps,
Navigation Medium Medium
3. Navigate to the selected attraction directions in park
4. Make the payment if the attraction has an associated fee
Eateries Park Website, Brochures Medium Low
5. Visit eateries for meals or refreshments

Based on the activities I listed down, the users will have the following needs: Based on the selected parameters, I would choose ‘Ride Picking’ as the pain point to be solved.
1. Ticket Booking: I would want to explore the different tiers of tickets available and their offerings
to find the tier which best suits my budget and interests. Solution:
2. Picking the amusement ride/show: During this phase, the customers would have the following The goal of the features to be built would be to help the customers optimize the time spent in the
needs: park. I propose the following features for the Ride Picking functionality:
i. understand the experience of the attraction I am planning to visit to ensure that the 1. Attraction Catalogue: The feature would help customers explore the rides and shows available
attraction would be interesting to me. in the park by filtering them based on their requirements.
ii. understand the restrictions (e.g., age, height) of the ride/show of my choice to validate 2. The rides can be filtered based on the following parameters:
that I am eligible to visit it. i. Age, Weight, Height – To ensure eligibility
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3. I would be visiting the park for a fixed amount of time and want to make the best use of my time. ii. Attraction Type – Audio-Visual
iii. Shows, Rollercoasters, Games, etc.

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Disney Theme Park Experience New Product Design

3. The feature would give the following information about the attraction:
i. Rules & Regulations
ii. Video of the ride
iii. Timings with available slots (If it’s a scheduled show)
iv. Expected waiting time
v. Customer Reviews
4. The feature would have an option to pre-book scheduled shows/rides.
i. Itinerary Optimizer: The feature would assist the customers in building the itinerary
for a visit.
ii. The optimizer would be a chatbot that would take information such as Duration and
Timings of the visit, Number of visitors, and Preferences of each visitor (type of
rides/show they want to see)
iii. The feature’s output would be an itinerary that allows the customers to visit the most
attractions, which are to their liking, in the duration they are present in the park. The
feature would enable the customer to make changes to the itinerary manually.
Sounds good. We can close the case now

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Startup Growth Hub by LinkedIn​ New Product Design

India's start-up ecosystem has grown immensely in the past decade. As a product manager at service offering. The needs during the phase are –
LinkedIn, suggest features to leverage the growth in the start-up ecosystem. • Market Research
• Guidance for conceptualization
LinkedIn's primary mission is to connect professionals to make them more productive and • Idea Validation
successful. Will it be fair to assume that LinkedIn has successfully attracted the major stakeholders 2. Building and Training: The founder moves from a concept to a company, putting their research
of start-ups, i.e., founders and investors, into registering on their platform (considering their into practice. The needs during the phase are
massive user base of 1B+ users)? • Prototyping/Simulating an idea
Yeah, sure. Please go ahead. • Building the core team
• Training the team
With customer acquisition already done, the additional features of the platform should be focused • Building an MVP product
on increasing customer engagement. The goal should be achieved by banking on LinkedIn's core 3. Scaling the company: With the MVP in place, a founder needs to increase awareness and
strengths - its large user base, presence of experts from all domains, access to users’ professional accessibility of the product, and access to more cash flows to increase the scale of the
data such as past employers and education, and services like LinkedIn learning. company. The needs during the phase are:
Moving ahead, I will focus on the needs of key stakeholders in the start-up ecosystem and list • Marketing the product
down their needs. • Accumulate product feedback
1. Founders: A person or group of people who come up with the fundamental idea that forms • Boost metrics based on consumer engagement
the core business of the start-up. • Open new opportunities to raise funds
2. Investors: A high net-worth individual/group that provides capital to start-ups in exchange for The features are prioritized based on the compatibility with LinkedIn's mission and strengths, value
ownership equity in the company. to the customer and lack of existing solutions fulfilling the needs. Based on the above criteria,
market research, mentorship, recruitment and training, and accumulation of product feedback can
Those are the two key stakeholders. Before moving to the needs, could you tell me which
be prioritized.
stakeholder you would prioritize?
I would like to suggest the following features to satisfy the prioritized needs:
As the current business goal is increasing customer engagement, I would prioritize the two 1. Deploy a MentorConnect feature that makes it possible for founders to earn mentor credit
stakeholders based on the potential for increased customer engagement. Investors are generally hours and display a badge based on a tiered badging system based on engagement level on
backed by a professional team or institution and prefer performing primary research for their shared learnings and hours spent on reviewing ideas.
needs. Thus, they have limited requirements for additional services and limited engagement 2. Enable In-Post Beta Surveys: Founders tag product posts with a "Beta" badge; commenters
potential. On the other hand, many founders have limited resources and are actively looking for auto-receive a lightweight NPS poll after interaction.
avenues to create buzz and awareness around their company. This offers LinkedIn multiple 3. Leverage LinkedIn Polls & Events to run micro-surveys in founder-centric groups; segment
potential avenues to engage with them. Will it be fair to focus on Startup founders for now? replies by firmographic filters.
4. Offer an AI Trend Miner that scrapes industry-specific conversations, hashtags, and job-post
Looks good to me.
keywords to surface emerging pain points in real time for a particular industry.
A typical journey of a startup founder during the early stage can be broken down as follows: 5. Bundle LinkedIn Learning Team Pass: Three free licenses per founding team; unlock 234more seats
1. Ideation and Validation: The founder develops a business idea and conceptualizes a product or via milestone achievements

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Ola for Schoolkids New Product Design

Ola management has recognized the travel needs of school kids as a potential business That sounds fair. What other factors will you consider while building the service.
opportunity. Design the experience on Ola to meet their needs.
Another decision-making point would be the kind of service Ola would be planning to offer. The
Would the service be integrated into the existing Ola application or a new application? What standard services available are listed below:
would be the region of operation?
This service needs to be integrated into the existing Ola environment. The region of operation is Mode of Transport Features
India.
Bus Cheaper, more secure, more timely and disciplined service
Alright. Also, the target audience for this service would primarily be children falling in the age Auto Unsafe, informal, multiple vendors, more options to choose from
group of 4-17 years. Before moving on to the features, I would like to identify the key
stakeholders, their needs and the problems they face with the existing services. Van Flexible timings, multiple vendors, more options to choose from,
safer option
Sure, go ahead.
Cab Expensive, more suited for higher- income segments
The key stakeholders would be the consumers (school kids and their parents) and the drivers.
We will be designing the service from the point of view of the consumers because the new service Bike Suited for travelling small distances, not feasible during monsoons
will be drastically different compared to their usual services from the user’s point of view but
similar from the driver’s point of view. As the current Ola service already includes travel via autos, cabs, and bikes, we can target all the
service segments excluding buses, as including buses could result in a huge establishment cost.
We can segment the users based on the:
That sound alright. What are the relevant pain-points of the users which our service is trying to
1. Distance between the school and the student’s residence: A student residing very close to the solve?
school can either walk to the school, use a bicycle, or be dropped off by the parent but will I will group the pain points into 3 buckets - Driver/Vehicle selection, Commute and Payments
probably not avail a bus/van service. On the other hand, a student who resides far away from
school would look for a more comfortable mode of transport as he/she will have to travel for 1. Driver/Vehicle Selection
a longer time.
2. Affordability: The choice of service also depends on how much the parents can afford. • Vehicle condition isn’t good
• Lack of driver/vehicle options
Sounds good. What segment should our service target?
• Prices are same irrespective of quality of service
Our service should target the middle-income segment. Higher-income segments prefer personal
vehicles and school bus services and are less likely to look for cheaper alternatives. The lower-
income segment is not an ideal segment to target at launch. The service could later be expanded at 235
a future stage to cover all the remaining segments.

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Ola for Schoolkids New Product Design

2. Commute Alright. Can you walk-me through the proposed MVP?

Sure. Below is the walk-through of the new service:
• Lack of discipline shown by drivers
• Drivers taking uninformed/irregular leaves
Step 1: Signing In
• Information asymmetry regarding driving skills
• Many drivers don’t have driving license/required paperwork
• Create a profile with name ,age, photograph
• Overcrowding in the vehicle
• Select school and home address
3. Payments
Step 2: Select Service
Type & the select the relevant driver for the chosen service. Look at price estimates for each
• Irregular price hikes
service
• No receipts or official paperwork
• Select driver
All the above-given problems are must- solves to engender trust in the parent’s mind and ensure
• Look at driver profile & vehicle condition information
the safety and comfort of children. The incremental effort of adding features to solve the above
• Schedule test ride with the driver
pain points is also low. Therefore, the MVP should solve all the listed problems.
• Finalize driver
Okay, now let’s move on to the solutions.
Step 3: Payment and Service Agreement
The solution is an end-to-end school drop and pick up service with the following features:
• Select Subscription Model - Monthly/Quarterly/Yearly
1. Ola verified drivers: The drivers on the platform will be tested and verified by Ola (driving tests
• Sign the Online Agreement
and background checks) to allow parents to be sure of the driving standards of the driver. The
driving quality will also be kept in check using GPS tracking on the vehicles at all times.
Step 4: Avail the service
2. Free trial rides: To onboard new customers, a free trial ride will be offered so that the parents
can experience the product features live, meet the driver and validate the vehicle quality
• Confirm Schedule for the week. (Driver to be notified for minor tweaks in schedule)
before subscribing to the service. If the parents do not like the free trial ride, they can report
• See the live location of the driver while availing the service
the same on the app and provide feedback. A customer service rep will get in touch if needed.
• Select backup vehicle in case of driver/vehicle unavailability
3. Real-time location updates: Notification in the app for relevant locations – driver starts the ride,
driver 10 mins away from your location, driver at your place, driver at the school, etc. That sums up the case nicely. Thank you for your time.
4. Backup arrangements: Ola will offer to arrange for a backup at no extra charges if the regular
vehicle breaks down or the driver is unavailable.
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Airline Entertainment System New Product Design

You are a PM for Microsoft Surface and Delta asked you to design the perfect airline We would ideally like to serve all of them, but let’s look at the domestic bored economy traveler
entertainment system. You decide the features, scenarios, and users. What would you do? for the problem.
I have some clarifying questions to ask before we proceed. Sure. So, let’s dig deeper into the user persona. These are travellers who are flying for personal
use and are usually at their own expense. They are on a short flight and can’t usually afford the in-
Sure, go ahead.
flight Wi-Fi. The current system gives them minimal support unless they spend money to access
Since airline entertainment systems already exists, do I need to make improvements to the existing the live tv, shows etc. and is virtually unusable.
system or design one from scratch? What are their objectives with this new application? What is
the problem with the current product that you are planning to solve for the user? The user is left to their own devices to spend the flight time. Addressing their requirements, with
the needs in the background, I would like to propose a few features:
You would need to make improvements to the existing software system. The hardware, however, 1. Interface with OTT platforms: Users can utilize their existing subscriptions during transit and
can be changed with the new corporate relationship between MS and Delta. MS wishes to become continue their watchlist. The user can indicate preferences, and content will be preloaded
the leading provider of the entertainment system for airlines, and Delta wishes to improve the user before the flight.
experience. The current usage of the system remains low, especially on shorter flights 2. Casual In-Flight Games and Trivia Challenges: Free-to-play casual titles like Tetris, word
Yes, are there any constraints? puzzles, Flight trivia and quizzes with rewards like drink coupons
3. Mood-Based and AI-Personalized Content powered by Copilot: Options like “Relax”, “Laugh”,
Yes, we are looking at a 6-8 months timeline of making the changes, and the budget is not a “Focus”, and “Explore India” to surface relevant content based on flight time and preferences.
constraint. 4. Incorporate MS surface abilities like drawing, MS 365 ecosystem apps: The surface ability gives
Got it. Based on our discussion so far and my understanding, the user the apps to create drawings, documents, notes, etc. The user could also email their
work to themselves once done and wouldn’t need to log in to secure the user better.
On the user persona side, I think there would be the following user personas that we can look at: 5. The MS 365 ecosystem with a login option would give additional access to MS Teams and the
1. The busy business traveler(on company time, often has personal devices and Wi-Fi) and has user’s past work for messaging and collaborating.
internet access 6. MSN available freely on the system: The user would have access to information and stay up to
2. The bored economy traveler date with current happenings. Incorporating MSN as a free service would serve both
3. The international leisure traveler companies better.
7. Detachable systems for drawing or reading mode
The needs of the users could look like this: 8. Making free and premium sections: to encourage users to rely on the entertainment system
1. Casual Entertainment for the flight time rather than look for their own devices.
2. Information on the flight 9. Quick Navigation to all important options
3. Other Information
4. Communication Would you like me to prioritize some of these features?
237
Yes. As stated, let think of an MVP that can be built within the stipulated timeline that we discussed
Does this sound okay? Would you like me to focus on any specific persona? earlier.

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Airline Entertainment System New Product Design

Sure. Since time is our only constraint. I will focus on the features with the highest impact and the
least effort not only in development but also in the implementation. I’ve eliminated the physical
changes to devices as they require a change in both the software and hardware. Therefore, the
features we can focus on for the MVP could be:
1. Incorporate MS 365 ecosystem apps like OneNote, MS office without the login
2. Interface with the OTT platforms
3. MSN access on the system
4. Quick navigation, modern UI refresh
5. Casual games & trivia

These features enable the user with more entertainment options than currently available and make
the experience more convenient to use. Moreover, it strengthens the corporate relationship
between Delta and Microsoft, increasing their stickiness.

Assumptions:
1. The current system can take a software update
2. Revenue generation has not been a focus since we looked at only improving the user
experience
3. Changes in content were also put out of the current scope of the problem
4. No complex real-time networking features required

Metrics:
1. Increase in the usage time of the entertainment system overall
2. Increase in the number of users accessing the entertainment system more a minimum
threshold time
3. Increase in the customer satisfaction of the entertainment system showing a better perception
of the system in the user’s mind

Would you like me to elaborate further on any part?

No, this should do. Thank you
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Alexa Skill New Product Design

Design an Alexa skill for artists/designers that can be monetized. Let’s call our hobbyist musician Aditya. He spends 30 mins – 1 hr daily either singing or practicing
playing instruments. Typically, he is either alone or is joined by some friends. Aditya plays Hindi,
CIRCLES – COMPREHEND THE SITUATION
English and other contemporary music. I would like to focus on one type of user, someone who
Let me just clarify the problem statement. The goal is to design a monetizable, useful Alexa skill for
plays instruments or is practicing singing. Can you help me decide if I should pick a particular user?
a chosen artistic user segment.. In my understanding, Skills are like apps for Alexa. For example,
controlling smart lights etc. through Alexa can be done through Alexa Skills. I am assuming that You can choose the use case of playing instruments.
this means that the skill I am designing shall have a voice- interface? Monetization methods include
CIRCLES – REPORT USER NEEDS
offering the Alexa skill as a complementary feature to an existing product, providing access
Next, I would like to understand what problems does our instrumental hobbyist musician, Aditya
through a subscription model, or charging users on a pay-per-use basis.
face. Given that they practice alone, they need feedback on how they can improve. How their
Yes. It will primarily be a voice enabled product, but as a supplementary interface, UI/Video can be tempo, rhythm and chords are matching with the song. In case of guitar, they can get feedback if
used to provide certain information. they are playing the right notes. In other cases, they might need vocals backing their playing and
adjust according to the instruments pace. Finally, they might want to record their sessions and
CIRCLES – IDENTIFY THE CUSTOMER PERSONA
want to either use them or analyze, through tools or manually.
Okay. Are we targeting a particular segment of artists? sculptors/painters/graphic/music artists,
To summarize the user’s problems – a) need for feedback, b) backing vocals and c) recording.
etc.?
You can select a particular segment and think of a product around it. CIRCLES – CUT THROUGH PRIORITIZATION
We need to prioritise among these problem statements. Ideally, you would want to build a
I will first try to identify certain user personas that the Alexa skill can cater to. Among artists, the comprehensive solution which caters to multiple needs of the user but for our MVP, we will
most attractive market that has a demonstrable monetization potential is that of musicians. They choose the most important feature and then build other features over time. We will use Revenue
primarily work with audio through lyrics, rhythm and sounds. Potential, Impact and Ease of Development.
Strength of Alexa lies in its audio recognition capabilities. I can think of two user personas in the
realm of musicians: User Need Monetization Impact Development Need
a) Hobbyist learning instruments or singing in their homes
Need of feedback High High High
b) Professional musicians recording in studios but practicing at home.
Out of these two, I would pick the hobbyist as my target user. Professional musicians are set in Backing vocals Medium Medium Medium
their ways and usually use professional equipment. The hobbyist might be willing to invest in tools
Recording Low Low Low
that speed up the learning process and help them become a seasoned musician from a beginner.
Does that sound alright? Revenue potential is maximum for solving the need for feedback. The ability to partner with
Yes, that sounds good. existing players like Guitar Tuna is huge.
I would like to start by talking about some of the features. After which, we will discuss some
monetization strategies for the product and select the best way forward. Does that sound good?
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Yes, that sounds good

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Alexa Skill New Product Design

CIRCLES - LIST SOLUTIONS That sounds great. Let’s summarize now.

Some core features of the application will be:
CIRCLES – SUMMARISE
a) Ability to understand tone, rhythm, tempo and chords of the playing instrument beat
We designed an Alexa skill targeted at hobbyist instrumental musicians like Aditya, who practice at
b) Ability to select a particular song and playback the general music so that the player can play
home and seek structured feedback. Among user needs—real-time feedback, backing tracks, and
their instrument on top of it
recording—we prioritized feedback due to its high impact, monetization potential, and
c) Spoken feedback using NLP & LLMs
development feasibility.
d) Improvement of the LLM through targeted edits using data.
The MVP includes features like tone and rhythm analysis, voice-based feedback using LLMs, and the
ability to play along with chosen songs. We propose a phased monetization strategy: initially
Monetizing the application can be through three methods:
partner with music apps (e.g., Guitar Tuna) to integrate the skill, then evolve into a standalone
a) Partnering with different music applications like Spotify, Guitar Tuna etc. to build it into their
subscription service with a companion mobile app. This approach balances development effort,
apps,
user value, and long-term revenue potential.
b) Pay per use model on the number of invocations
c) Building a standalone music subscription service, along with a mobile app to view analysis and
track progress.
How would you evaluate which monetization strategy works best in this case?
CIRCLES - EVALUATE TRADEOFFS
Building a standalone Alexa skill with only a voice mode would be very difficult to monetize, given
the low monetization of Alexa skills in general. In most cases, like smart lights etc., the Alexa
service is provided as a complementary service. Similarly, it makes sense to focus on either
partnering with the right apps or building a standalone music app. Given the development effort
required to develop a standalone app, it makes sense to initially partner with other music apps to
build some credibility and eventually release as a separate premium service. The service can be
offered as an add on subscription or can be paired with premium tiers of existing applications.

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Social Media app for Covid-19 New Product Design

Design a product for social media apps to fight Covid-19. Covid-19 Patients:
Is the main purpose of this product to access information easily and reduce misinformation going
• Confirmed patients: Steps to be followed next and actions to be taken
around and be a reliable source for data?
• Non - confirmed patients: Starting from testing procedure, what are the steps to be followed
Yes, and along with this we would also use this product to build strong support communities in
this difficult times. Government:
Sure, We can also share safe practices to be followed. • Send alert messages when new cases are detected
Sure, go ahead. • General information and rules to be followed - in terms of conveying them to citizens or
checking if they are being followed etc.,
I would like to segregate users based on the emergency and their impact on the situation. So, the • Track confirmed patients and returnees from abroad
main segments would be: • Act as single channel to address all the frequent concerns and questions that public might have
• Act as a medium to let public know of the new schemes by government
1. Healthcare workers
2. Covid -19 patients All the other users:
3. Government
4. Others (Friends, family and everyone else) • Act as single trusted source for all the information
• Protocols to be followed as advised by WHO and other governments
I would like to first define the user needs of these segments and pick the most critical one to solve.
Is that okay? For this interview I would like to address the issues faced by healthcare workers as they are the
That sounds okay. ones most impacted and must spend long hours at hospital, away from family and are really
important for us to catch a hold of the situation.
I will define the user needs of each category, following which I will discuss the prioritization and
success metrics of our application: To define these personas a little more, they are mostly doctors, nurses, hospital staff and other
staff related to healthcare. The assumption here will be that most of these people are well
Healthcare Workers: connected with technology and are often 25 years or older.

• Need to communicate with other hospitals and government officials to confirm protocols to be Possible Solutions - Healthcare Workers (Especially Doctors And Nurses)
followed
• Availability of kits, medicines etc.
• As this is a heavy stress period, concentration should be there on the mental health of
healthcare workers. 241
Express concerns and update the status of patients etc.

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Social Media app for Covid-19 New Product Design

In the problems mentioned above for the healthcare workers I would suggest the following Success Metrics
solutions:
1. Number of people using this service (in terms of regions, professions in a time frame like 1
Online counselling app to healthcare workers working directly with Covid patients: months, 3 months etc.,) - helps us understand the attractiveness of our features.
This will be available for both healthcare professionals and their families to help them get through 2. Number of requests answered by government officials in terms of supplying kits, filling up
this stressful situation. vacancies, addressing concerns (converted) - on daily basis.

Information portal: This will act as a source where doctors from different hospitals will be able To summarize, data has a crucial role to play to understand the spread of disease, capacity of
to update different requirements they have (like blood, plasma, PPE kits etc.,) and update multiple workforce we have, necessity of medical equipment etc., so the process of data sharing should be
things like number of patients etc., and because large amount of people already use different seamless, for this reason the idea of an information portal is prioritized.
platforms this will be helpful

One of the other objectives in these times is morale building. If we enable users on Instagram to
appreciate the real-world events happening around them, this will act as a motivator for health
care workers in these tough times. This can probably include sending appreciation stories to their
profile, tag them on appreciation posts or help in raising awareness of their requirements

PM Tip: While suggesting these you may face some questions like by whom, who will support the platform
and funding etc., be careful to not quote something totally unrealistic.

Cut Through Prioritization:

To create the prioritization list let’s consider the engineering costs and the number of people this
will impact.

So, in my opinion the Information portal has the highest ROI amongst the suggested options
because in these tough times, it is hard to get correct data and harder to fulfill the requirements
needed. This might act as one of the ways in bridging that gap.

This can be followed by the online counselling app as keeping doctors mentally healthy is also
critical. At the end we can have Instagram stories where others can appreciate the real word
happenings to increase morale of doctors and nurses. 242

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Bicycle Renting App New Product Design

Design a new bicycle renting app to be used in a college’s campus. one else takes it by the time she reaches there.
2. She might need directions to reach the nearest bicycle stand.
So, we have to design a bicycle renting application for the people staying in large college campuses. I 3. After reaching the location, she would have to identify her bicycle and unlock it to start the
want to confirm that the goal of this product will be to provide an easy mode of commute for the ride.
college’s residents? Also, will these bicycles be allowed to be driven outside campus? 4. New students might want to be navigated to the destination. Students will also require an
Yes, this is the goal. The bicycle can be driven only inside the campus. emergency contact number whom they can reach out in case the bicycle breaks in the route.
5. She will end the ride after reaching the destination so that she can stop the meter from
Then this can be a mobile application, thus, giving users the flexibility to plan the commute from charging her anymore.
anywhere. Moving forward, I will first identify the customers for the product, then list down and 6. She would want to make the payment through the apps she commonly uses so that she doesn't
prioritize their needs. Then, I will brainstorm the solutions and prioritize among them for the MVP. have to maintain a new wallet.
Lastly, I will define the success metrics for the product. Does this plan look good? 7. She would want to generate recurring bicycle booking requests so that she can have a mode to
Yes, please continue. commute for each of her classes.
8. She might want to synchronize her academic calendar with bicycle booking so that a bicycle
There can be following type of users: can be tentatively blocked for her.
Residents: For MVP, we would initially focus on fulfilling the following needs so that students rent the bicycle
• College students: They would be young (generally, 18 yrs to 30 yrs) and tech savvy. However, for easy commuting: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6.
they will have lower willingness to pay. They might use the bicycles for faster commuting between
hostels and academic complexes, and for leisure campus rides. Brainstorming few features for MVP of mobile application and also measuring their impact (shown in
• Faculty members: The younger section of faculty members might be interested in utilizing the the table at the end of the case). Based on this, I will prioritize the following features (from the
bicycles for commuting within campus. Their willingness to pay would be higher than that of table): 1, 2, 3, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16.
students.
• College staff: They would comprise guards, mess workers and workers in food outlets. Fewer of To measure the success of the product, I would track the following metrics:
these will be tech savvy and have higher willingness to pay than students. Their main goal would • No. of app downloads per month
be to travel from one location to another faster and carry goods. • No. of new registrations per month
Visitor: They may visit the campus during fests, conferences and competitions. Their willingness to • No. of rides per month
pay might be higher when compared to resident students. Their goal would be to travel from dorms • Average duration of a ride
to event locations faster and sightseeing. • Average distance of a ride
Whom shall I focus on for this interview? • Percentage of pickups from each point
Let us focus on students. • Percentage of drops from each points
Would you like me to do something more?
Sure. I will first list down the needs of a student as per their user journey.
1. A student would want to find the nearest available bicycle so that she is aware of where the This is good. Thank you! 243
bicycle can be picked from. Furthermore, she would block the bicycle for some time so that no

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Bicycle Renting App New Product Design

[Link]. Features User Impact/Value Cost of building impact/Effort

1 GPS on college campus map for finding the nearest pickup point with available bicycle High Low

2 Maintaining state of bicycle: Available, Not Available, Soon Available High Low

3 Blocking the bicycle and making it unavailable for other users for a time duration High Low

4 Measuring estimated time to reach destination and making it soon available at that point High High

5 If a bicycle is not currently available, user should get to know an estimated availability time High High

6 Whenever a user leaves hostel, provide him with a push notification if a bicycle is available near them Low High

7 The user should be able to navigate to the available bicycle Low Low

8 The user can scan a barcode on bicycle through app to unlock it and start the ride High Medium

9 The user enters the destination and be navigated to the nearest drop point from there Medium Low

10 The user should be able to end his ride through the mobile app High Low

11 When the user ends the ride, the bicycle should be locked automatically High Medium

12 The user should be allowed to end a ride if he is not at a drop location High Low

13 The user should be able to link UPI and wallets to the app for ease of payments High Medium

14 The user should be able to see the ride duration and distance travelled for past rides Low Medium

15 Gamification can be implemented by maintaining a leaderboard on the distance travelled and also Medium High
providing users with badges for motivation
16 An alert should be shown if user takes the bicycle outside the campus High Low
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Table: Features for MVP and corresponding impact

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Podcast App at Spotify New Product Design

You are a PM at Spotify. You are asked to come with solutions to improve Spotify as a podcast app I would like to concentrate on the working professionals, as these are the people who tend to use
podcasts more.
As per my understanding, Spotify is a music and podcast streaming platform. It follows a freemium
model. It gives listeners access to millions of songs and other content from creators all over the That’s a good understanding. You can go ahead with your line of thought.
world.
Thanks. Going forward, I see that the current pain points for the working professionals are:
That’s correct. • Users often struggle to find new podcasts aligned with their interests due to overwhelming
volume and lack of engaging previews.
Before delving deep into the problem, I have a few questions in mind:
• There’s no forum within the app where listeners can ask questions, comment, or discuss
• For whom, are we trying to improve the product i.e., Listeners or Creators?
episodes. This pushes the community interactions to third-party platforms (e.g., Reddit,
• Are we have targeting any particular demography?
Discord).
• Do we have any budget or timeline constraints?
That sounds fair. What product features you would like to introduce to mitigate the pain points?
Thank you for asking that. We are focusing only on the listeners at the moment. For the simplicity
of the case we can assume there are no demography, budget or timeline constraints. • In order to diversify the content usage by the customers, we can introduce a function
equivalent to "Podcast Snippets”. With this feature, viewers may scroll through and view brief
Thank you for clarifying that. I would now like to touch upon the various stages of user journey
excerpts from different podcasts. Clicking on a clip may take a user to the original podcast
which involve: Acquisition, Activation, Engagement, Retention and Referral.
channel, where they may listen to the entire episode, if they find it fascinating and would like to
For the given problem statement, we need to focus on the Engagement and Retention stages. I'll
investigate more. This strategy could pique users' interest in podcast genres they never would
prioritize Engagement, since a good engagement increases chances of retention, if that's fine with
have considered.
you?
• To increase engagement among the users, we can have a community feed for podcasts after it
Sure, Go ahead. attains specified number of followers where the creators can share notes and conduct Q&A
sessions.
Now, I would like to list down the user-personas. Based on my understanding, there are three
user personas for Spotify podcast users. Those are some interesting suggestions. Can you also list down some success metrics for your
• School and College Students suggestions?
• Working Professionals
Sure. We can use the following success metrics:
• Retired Citizens
• Monthly increase in the no. of users who saved and listened to full episodes via podcast
snippets.
College students are primarily interested in music and podcasts. However, they struggle to find the
• Total number of unique users saving podcast snippets.
right topics for podcasts, often losing interest and leaving halfway. Working professionals, who
• Average snippets saved per person.
listen to both music and podcasts, are more focused on podcasts related to their professional
• Increase in user engagement (likes, comments, Q&A participation) on podcast community feeds.
work. Despite having a higher attention span, they also get distracted while listening to long
• Growth in followers for podcasts with active community feeds.
podcasts. Retired professionals, who have more spare time, also struggle to find the right 245
recommendations due to the various types of recommendations on the app's home page. That sums up the case nicely. Thank you for your time.

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Antique Marketplace New Product Design

Build a Product to buy and sell antiques For the sellers, we can again have two broad sub-categorizations:
1. Direct sellers: Users who directly sell their personal antiques
Sure, I have a couple of preliminary questions. What is the scope of the product that we are 2. Merchants: Users who own a business to sell antiques.
looking to design, in terms of users, the nature of antiques, and the orchestration of the solution?
Let us only consider direct customers for the buy-side.
Good question. We are looking at an online marketplace where users can buy and sell antiques. By
antiques, we imply goods that are older than 100 years. Understood. I’ll now proceed with defining some use-cases for each user.
For the seller, the following use-cases may be considered along with their priority order, which is
Understood. What is the geography that we are targeting, and does the client have experience in defined in terms of usefulness to the customers for the MVP:
delivering similar products or marketplaces in the past?
Use Case Priority
Let’s assume the geographical target to be pan-India. Also assume that it is a startup venture that
the client is looking to enter, with no prior experience. I want to display and get maximum reach for my antiques P1

Right. Given this information, I would define the goal of such a product to be an online I want to have a QnA platform to connect with the potential buyers and answer
P2
marketplace to enable sellers to list their antiques and sell them to prospects, and enable buyers to their queries
search, view and buy antiques. Is the goal sufficiently defined, or would you like me to consider any I want to safely sell my product to the interested buyers P1
other aspects? Also, I take it that the antique-based market is presently unorganized in India - is
this a fair assumption? I want to know about the customer feedback and ratings for the products sold in
P2
the past
This is fine.
I’ll like to structure the design into three parts. First, I’ll define the user personas for buyers and Use Cases for Direct Buyers (Self-purchase):
sellers and outline some use cases for each of them. Second, against each of the use cases, I’ll
present some potential solutions. Lastly, I would define some success metrics that can be Use Case Priority
employed for these proposed solutions. Is it a fair structure to follow, or would you like me to I want to view the antiques that are available for sale P1
look into a specific aspect of the solution.
I want to verify the authenticity of the antique P1
Looks good. Let’s go through each of the segments one by one.
I want to know the past reviews and ratings of the sellers that have been added
Sure. given the goal of our product, we would primarily have two segments of users - the buyers P2
by past buyers
and sellers.
I want to safely carry out the purchase transaction P1
Among the buyers, we would have two sub-categorizations:
1. Purchase for self: Users who want to purchase antiques for themselves In the initial phase, I would like to prioritize only the P1 features and propose solutions against
2. Purchase for re-sale: Users who want to purchase antiques for re-sale in another market or 246the client
them. Is this a fair approach? Do let me know in case there is any specific use-case that
potential buyers. wants to incorporate or any re-prioritization that may be required by the client.

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Antique Marketplace New Product Design

The use-cases are comprehensive. Let us proceed with some proposed solutions. I want to verify
Add mandatory attribute for “certificate
the authenticity of M L
Understood. Before delving into the specific interface, I would also like to outline the interface for the of authenticity” for each listing.
the antique
product. Given the need for an online marketplace, I would propose the solution to be hosted as a
reactive website at least in the initial phase, with further interfaces being added in the later stages of Buyer I want to safely Have a 3rd-party payment gateway
H M
the product life cycle. The choice for web platform is based on two factors: carry out the integration (eg Razorpay, PayU)
1. Lower cost of prototyping purchase Live tracking of order status (Payment-
2. Minimal issues with versioning and compatibility transaction M L
>Dispatch->Delivery)
The specific features for each of the P1 use cases are as under: The proposed solutions are comprehensive. Why don’t you quickly list down the solutions that
should be prioritized first.
Business
User Use Case Potential Solutions Cost
Impact Sure. I would like to prioritize the solutions basis two factors - Business Impact and Cost. By
Business Impact, I aim to incorporate the importance of the said solution in developing a MVP and
Standard form fields for listing of products for
the first level go-live, and through cost, I aim to take into consideration the cost of development
sale. Additional option for sponsored listing for H L
I want to on a financial level.
bumping-up the listing on the listing page.
display and get
maximum Analytics dashboard to track product metrics Using the above two factors, the key solutions that should be targeted first are as under.
H M
reach for my such as impressions on temporal basis. 1. Standard form fields for listing of products for sale
antiques 2. Integration with social media APIs to enable direct sharing of products on them.
Integration with social media APIs to enable
Seller H L 3. Multifilter functionality basis location of seller, nature of antique, pricing, seller, etc.
direct sharing of products on them.
4. Add mandatory attribute for “certificate of authenticity” for each listing.
I want to safely Have a 3rd-party payment gateway integration 5. Order management dashboard to update status of dispatch, delivery, and track current orders.
H M 6. Have a 3rd-party payment gateway integration.
sell my product (eg Razorpay, PayU).
to the Order management dashboard to update status
interested While the first four features are prioritized basis their high business impact and low cost, the last
of dispatch and delivery and track current H M two are prioritized since payments and order status form a crucial part of the journey of a
buyers orders. marketplace solution
I want to view Multifilter functionality basis location of seller, Fair analysis. Can you quickly define some success criteria before we wrap up this case?
H L
the antiques nature of antique, pricing, seller, etc.
Buyer that are Sure, some of the key success metrics for this solution can be as thus:
Statistical ML model to use past purchase
available for history/profile details to bump up relevant H M 247
sale 1. Adoption Metrics:
listings on the search feed Number of new signups - both buyers and sellers - per month

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Antique Marketplace New Product Design

2. Engagement Metrics:
i. Average session duration
ii. Number of listings viewed
iii. Number of listings shared on social media
iv. Purchase conversion rate
3. Retention Metrics:
Churn rate (percentage of users who stop using the platform)
Good analysis, we can close the case now.

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Ride Hailing App New Product Design

Can you walk me through how you'd improve a ride-hailing app like Uber or Ola? 3. Priority Matching for Loyal Users - Offer faster ride assignments and reduced cancellations to
users who frequently use the app. This can also include a loyalty badge and early access to new
Before diving into the solutions, I’d like to clarify a few things to better scope the problem. features.
What is the state of our company? What is the goal of the company at this point? Are we focused 4. Predictive Surge Alerts - Notify users ahead of time if surge pricing is likely to occur soon in
on increasing bookings, improving retention, enhancing driver satisfaction, or expanding to new their area. This gives them a chance to book early or adjust their plans.
segments?
How would you prioritize amongst these features?
Let's assume the company is mature and has a significant urban user base. However, competition is
intense, and we want to improve rider experience and increase loyalty. As a mature ride-hailing company, our product goals are:
• Retention
That’s helpful. I’ll assume we are targeting urban Indian users, existing and new. One quick follow- • User satisfaction
up: Who is our primary user here – the rider or the driver? While both are critical, I’d like to • Competitive differentiation
prioritize based on the product goals.
Retention User satisfaction Competitive
Good question. Let’s prioritize riders for now. Improving their experience is our current focus.
differentiation
Understood. For the rider segment in urban India, common pain points include:
1. Long wait times during peak hours Smart Pickup Reduces frustration, Lower pickup delays, Industry-standard
2. Price surges Suggestions improves reliability better experience
3. Safety concerns (especially for female users at night)
Trust Mode for Night Builds long-term trust Directly addresses Strong
4. Lack of visibility on driver location or ETA accuracy
Rides with a key segment safety concerns
5. Unreliable driver cancellations
So, with retention and satisfaction as our north stars, I’ll try to solve for reducing friction and Priority Matching for Rewards frequent use Speeds up access, Encourages staying
building more rider trust. Loyal Users builds habit over switching
Sounds fair. Go ahead—what would you build to address this? Predictive Surge Alerts Neutral to low Manages expectations Easy to copy, not
1. Smart Pickup Suggestions - Use real-time location data, traffic patterns, and geofencing to sticky
recommend better pickup points nearby. This helps avoid confusion and failed pickups,
especially in areas with traffic restrictions or confusing road layouts. I’d start with Smart Pickup Suggestions—it hits two of our top goals, is relatively simple to
2. Trust Mode for Night Rides - An opt-in safety feature, especially for women. Riders get implement, and solves a daily pain point.
matched with high-rated drivers (or even only female drivers, where available), and the ride Next, I’d prioritize Trust Mode. While it may not apply to everyone, it significantly improves the
comes with enhanced live tracking and optional emergency sharing. experience for a key user segment, and it positions us as a more thoughtful, safety-first brand.
Priority Matching would follow as a loyalty feature that rewards repeat usage—something we’ll
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Ride Hailing App New Product Design

Sounds good. Let’s say you launch Smart Pickup Suggestions. How would you measure success?
• Failed Pickup Rate – Did we reduce cancellations or missed pickups?
• Pickup Time Accuracy – Is the gap between ETA and actual arrival smaller now?
• User Feedback – Specifically comments or CSAT scores related to pickup experience
Nice. Would you roll this out all at once?
I’d suggest a soft launch in a few zones of high-density cities like Bangalore or Delhi, where pickup
issues are common due to traffic and infrastructure.
Great answer. We can end the discussion here.

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Health and Fitness App New Product Design

Develop a health and fitness application for smartphone users. The following solutions come to my mind
Alright. Do we have any specifics in terms of the geography we are targeting or any particular aims
1. A tracking feature for tracking health analytics - this includes features like tracking workouts,
of the company?
calories burnt, heart rate etc. We can build a profile for the user and give them
For now, lets focus on the urban Indian market. recommendations based on their workout history.
2. A scheduling feature to plan workouts for the week - this will help users track which body part
Ok. Do we have a target set of customers in mind we want to sell our product to? they are training when and with what intensity.
How about you recommend the same? What would be the best target for our application? 3. Workout plans for customers - We can create personalized workout plans for users based on
their health history and aims. We can also onboard famous trainers who can then sell their
Ok. One preliminary question. How does our company look like? Are we a startup building a workouts on our application which will help us with engagement.
single application, an enterprise with a suite of apps or something else? Do we have prior 4. A diet tracking plan - we can implement a calorie counter that can help users track their
experience in building related products? calorie and their nutritional intake. We can then provide them recommendations on food
Let’s say you are a startup that is building this app for the first time. plans and what to eat based on what their goals are.

Cool. Since we are a startup, we will want to focus on growth and adoption to get an initial set of These sound like nice solutions. Although, how do we plan on building them?
users to try our application. Since experimentation rate is higher among young populations and
since the young urban population is more geared towards fitness these days, I would suggest that Since we are a startup, we should focus on the following factors when prioritizing building features
we target the younger urban demographic as our initial set of customers. More specifically, people
in the age of 18-30 who are both willing to try out new things and also have enough disposable • Reach - how many users are likely to be interested in this feature
income to spend on new products. • Cost - How much time and money will be required to build out these features
• Revenue - How can we likely earn revenues from these features.
Sounds good. We can move forward.
Great. I want to discuss more about the target customers’ needs. Since these are urban young Since we are in early stage, I would suggest prioritizing reach and cost over revenues.
consumers, with a majority of them working full time jobs, they do not have much time to dedicate
toward health and fitness. Most of them frequent gyms on a regular basis or occasionally play Alright, then based on these factors, what should we build first?
sports like cricket and badminton or run marathons. I will prioritize the listed features in the following order
Ok, are there any other aspects of health and fitness that urban consumers might try to focus on?
1. Scheduling feature
Yes, diet control is gaining popularity these days. Hence, providing features that aid in the same can 2. Health Analytics tracking
be a helpful feature in such applications. 3. Workout Plans
Cool. How should we prioritize what to build first? 4. Diet tracking
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Health and Fitness App New Product Design

We should build scheduling first since it will be relatively cost effective to implement, and given the
busy lifestyle of urban Indians, will be a helpful solution that can provide them value in planning out
their workouts. This will help us with Reach and Cost.

We can then build health analytics. The reason I put it second is that there are already lots of
applications that build this and have dedicated accessories for tracking. However, it is an integral
part of fitness apps and hence should be built out.

We can then focus on Workout Plans. For this, we will need a repository of workout plans and
onboard trainers, which will require a lot of marketing. However, this can help us with revenue as
we can take a percentage share in sales. However, I will suggest building this in later stages and not
in the MVP.

Diet tracking can be kept last. As per my personal experience, only hardcore gym enthusiasts
actively update their charts and track diet effectively. Plus, we will have to build knowledge in the
nutritional content of a variety of Indian meals, which will take time.
Sounds good. Any other recommendations you would like to make?
Yes. I guess we can focus on metrics to track success. Since our priority is growth and adoption,
we can focus on two metrics:

1. New User Adoption Rate – this is the percentage of users gained on a periodic basis. This will
help us track how popular our application is and with some geographical analytics can help us
focus on which regions we can prioritize for growth
2. DAU(Daily Active Users) – this can help us figure how actively our existing users are using the
app, which can help us approximate how much value we are delivering to customers and how
useful our built features are to them.

We can use these 2 metrics to define success for our product and help grow in an effective way.
That sounds great. We can close the case now. Thank you for your time!
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Internal Knowledge Repository New Product Design

You are a Product manager of XYZ company. Design a web portal that will serve as an internal For the consumers, the following use-cases may be considered along with their priority order,
knowledge base of this company. which is defined in terms of usefulness to the customers for the MVP.
Sure, I have a couple of preliminary questions. What is the scope of the product we are looking to
Use Case Priority
design - in terms of users, the types of knowledge shared, and whether the portal should focus on
just consumption or include contribution and collaboration as well?
I want to search for and view relevant documents (SOPs, Playbooks, etc.) P1
Good question. We are looking at a company-wide internal portal. It will serve as a single source for
resources like SOPs, playbooks, and internal decks (e.g., Stage 0 decks). Currently, there’s no formal I want to see who created a document and when it was last updated P1
structure; documents are scattered. You may decide whether collaboration and contribution are in
scope for the MVP. I want to download documents for offline access P1
Understood. One more question - do we have any constraints in terms of geography, scale of
organization, or existing tools in use (e.g., SharePoint, OneDrive)? And is this a revamp of an existing I want to ask questions or leave comments on a document P1
tool or a fresh build?
I want to bookmark frequently used documents P2
Assume it’s a fresh build for a mid-to-large organization, spread across functions and locations in
India. Knowledge is currently scattered in drives and email threads.
For the contributors, the following use-cases may be considered along with their priority order.
Got it. Based on this, I would define the goal of the product as: To create a centralized, searchable,
and structured portal for employees to access and engage with key organizational knowledge such as Use Case Priority
SOPs, playbooks, and internal decks. Would you like me to proceed with structuring the problem
now? I’ll define the user personas, outline their key use cases, and then propose MVP features and I want to upload knowledge documents with proper tags and metadata P1
success metrics.
That sounds good. Let’s go through each of the sections one by one. I want to receive and respond to comments on my uploaded resources P1
Great. Let me start with the user personas. We would primarily have two segments of users:
I want to be reminded or able to update outdated documents P2
1. Consumers (Knowledge Seekers): Employees who are looking for information - SOPs,
playbooks, strategy decks, etc.
2. Contributors (Knowledge Owners): SMEs or team leads responsible for uploading and Would you like me to move on to the proposed solutions for the P1 use cases?
maintaining documents.
Yes, let’s proceed with the proposed solutions
Alright. Now walk me through the use-cases for each of the user personas.
Before diving into the specific features, I recommend building this as a responsive web portal for
Yes, I’ll now proceed with defining some use-cases for each user. the MVP. This allows: 253

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Internal Knowledge Repository New Product Design

• Easy access across desktops and mobile browsers The proposed solutions are comprehensive. Why don’t you quickly list down the solutions that
• Lower prototyping cost should be prioritized first for the MVP?
• No app store dependencies or versioning issues Sure. Based on the above analysis, I would propose the features in the following priority order for
Now, based on the P1 use cases, I will proceed with the solutions targeted towards the Consumers the MVP for both Consumers and the Contributors:
and I have used the RICE framework for feature prioritization: Consumers:
Feature Reach Impact Confidence Effort Priority • Global Search with Filters - It is central to discovery and while slightly more complex, it delivers
high value to most users.
Global search with filters to • Metadata Display (Author, Timestamps, etc.) - It enhances document credibility and transparency
view relevant documents High High Medium Low High and is easy to implement with immediate benefit.
(SOPs, Playbooks, etc.) • Download Button with Version Info - It has high reach, impact, and confidence with low effort
which enables offline access and builds trust with clear versioning.
Display metadata on each
Medium High Medium Low High • Threaded Commenting on Documents - This introduces collaboration and clarifications at a
document page
moderate cost and is useful for feedback loops.
Download button with Contributors:
version timestamp and file High High High Low High • Upload Form with Metadata Fields - This is a critical enabler for structured knowledge
type shown contribution which is low effort and high impact for long-term content growth.
• Email Notifications to Contributors - This is useful for engagement and can be added after core
Threaded comment section
workflows are functional.
under each document to ask
Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium
questions or leave Fair analysis. Can you quickly define some success metrics before we wrap up the case?
comments on a document Sure. I’d group the success metrics across three dimensions:
1. Adoption Metrics
I will now proceed with the solutions targeted towards the Contributors in the similar manner:
• % of employees using the portal weekly/monthly
Feature Reach Impact Confidence Effort Priority • No. of unique documents uploaded per month
2. Engagement Metrics
Upload form with fields • Avg. time spent per session
(title, tags, category, contact • No. of downloads made
info) to upload knowledge High High High Low High • No. of comments or feedback submitted
documents with proper tags • No. of searches performed
and metadata 3. Retention Metrics:
Email notifications + • Churn rate (percentage of users who stop using the platform).
comment response Medium High Medium Medium Medium These metrics will help gauge both the utility and sustainability of the portal. 254
dashboard Good analysis. We can close the case now.

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Book Recommendation App New Product Design

You are a Product manager of ABC company. Design a book recommendation platform that helps Use Cases for Engaged Reader:
users discover and find the best book recommendations suited to their interests.
Use Case Priority
Sure, I have a couple of preliminary questions. What is the scope of the product we are looking to
Ask the AI assistant for book suggestions based on genre, mood, or specific themes. P1
design, in terms of target users, the types of books, and recommendation flow?
Ask targeted queries like “best books on productivity” or “top thrillers of 2023”. P1
Good question. We’re building a mobile-first book recommendation platform powered by an AI
assistant where users can get book suggestions, compare prices across marketplaces, and write or Scroll through suggestions and reviews easily on mobile P1
read reviews.
Save or revisit previously viewed books through History P2
Understood. What geography are we targeting? Also, is this a new initiative or part of an existing
business? Bookmark books for later consideration P2

We’re targeting India initially, and this is a fresh startup with no existing product in the books Use Cases for Review Contributor:
space. Use Case Priority
Great. Based on that, I’d define the goal as creating a mobile-first platform that helps users Write and submit detailed book reviews with star ratings and genre tags P2
discover, evaluate, and buy books using an intuitive AI interface. Would you like to focus only on
the discovery-to-purchase journey or include post-purchase engagement as well? Read community reviews and respond to comments P2

Let’s keep the focus on discovery, exploration, and purchase for now. Receive notifications when someone reacts to their reviews P3

Sounds good. I’ll structure the solution into three parts: View and manage a list of books they’ve reviewed P2
1. Defining user personas and their key use cases Use Cases for Deal Seeker:
2. Proposing mobile-first solutions
3. Outlining success metrics Use Case Priority
Does that work? View price comparisons across Amazon, Flipkart, and other online marketplaces. P1
Yes, please go ahead. Receive alerts or notifications on price drops or new offers P2
Great. Let’s start with the user personas. We identified 3 primary user personas for this platform: Filter books by price, format (paperback/hardcover), and delivery speed P2
• Engaged Reader: A student or a working professional who enjoys reading, either casually or
with intent. Looks for relevant, high-quality recommendations and wants a quick way to Quickly access external purchase links with minimal steps P1
browse, evaluate, and purchase books.
• Review Contributor: Enjoys reviewing books and influencing the reading community.
Would you like me to move on to the proposed solutions for the P1 use cases?
• Deal Seeker: Looks for the best prices and fastest delivery before buying. 255
Based on these personas, here are the core use cases prioritized for MVP: Yes, let’s proceed with the proposed solutions.

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Book Recommendation App New Product Design

Given the mobile-first nature of the product, I propose an intuitive, responsive app design with • Conversational AI Assistant: This involves high impact and reach but it also involves higher
minimal typing, high discoverability, and quick access flows. We can include the following features: development efforts and can be rolled out iteratively after validating core user journeys.
• A sidebar view (AI Assistant, History, Notifications) - with AI Assistant being the default view
• Swipe between book info and reviews Fair analysis. Can you quickly define some success metrics before we wrap up the case?
• Tappable prompts for common AI queries Sure. I’d group the success metrics across three dimensions:
• Lazy loading of prices and review sections to ensure performance Adoption Metrics:
• Percentage of users who initiate an AI query within their first session
Now, based on the P1 use cases, I will proceed with the solutions and use the RICE framework for • Daily active users (DAU) growth over time
feature prioritization: Engagement Metrics:
Feature Reach Impact Confidence Effort Priority • Average number of books viewed per session
• Click-through rate on marketplace links
Conversational AI Assistant for Retention Metrics:
High High Medium High Medium
book discovery • Percentage of users who return within 7 days
Book Detail Screen with • Number of reviews posted by users
scrollable tabs (summary, High High High Low High Good analysis. We can close the case now.
reviews, metadata)
Price Comparison View and
High High Medium Medium Medium
external buy links
Side Bar with quick access to AI
Assistant, History, and Medium Medium Medium Low High
Notifications to comments
The proposed solutions are comprehensive. Why don’t you quickly list down the solutions that
should be prioritized first for the MVP?
Based on the above analysis, I would propose this priority order for the features in MVP:
• Book Detail Screen: This has high reach and impact with low effort, making it the first step
for enabling discovery and evaluation.
• Sidebar Navigation: It is quick to implement and critical for user accessibility and flow
continuity.
• Price Comparison View: This would drive user purchase decisions and monetization, and 256
should follow after book discovery core features.

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Samsung Galaxy Buds Experience New Product Design

Thanks for joining! Imagine you're working at Samsung in the product team for Galaxy Buds. Using Engagement Product
Segment Age Location Description Social Priority
listening data, Samsung wants to investigate new approaches to improve the listening experience Potential Affinity
for Galaxy Buds owners. In particular, there’s interest in exploring how this data might Casual Use earbuds for
be made social. Let’s brainstorm how you would approach building something valuable here. Urban 25-35 Urban commute, work High Medium High 1
Listeners focus, light music
Before jumping into solutions, I’d like to ask a few questions to better understand the problem. Stream heavily,
1. Is the goal primarily to improve user engagement, or are we also trying to build brand loyalty Students/
Mostly love social sharing Medium-
or monetization opportunities? Young 16-25 High High 1
Urban (listen during High
2. Do Galaxy Buds users typically use an app for post-purchase interaction, and is the app usage Adults
studies / lectures)
limited to setup and occasional settings? Use offline +
3. Are we open to building a new app from scratch or would this ideally live within the existing Semi-urban streaming apps,
ecosystem? Music 25-35 Semi-Urban interested in Medium Medium Medium 2
Great clarifying questions. Enthusiasts community-based
1. Engagement is the priority here. sharing
2. You’re correct with the assumption. Current Wearable app usage often drops off after setup. Music is
3. We’re open to both approaches. I am interested in what you think would make the most Fitness-first Urban/Rural secondary to
20-40 Medium Low Medium 3
sense from a product standpoint. users Mix fitness tracking,
low social intent
Understood. Given that context and considering Samsung already has an app installed on the Prefer local/offline
majority of Galaxy Buds users (the Wearable app), I would like to recommend that we can music, low app
leverage and enhance the existing app rather than build a new one. Rural
20-40 Rural engagement and Low Low Low 4
Listeners
limited digital
Sure. I am with you on the approach. Please go ahead.
sharing
Great! Firstly, I would like to identify and prioritize the user segments most likely to benefit from a According to the filtering parameters, defined above I would like to prioritize the following
social listening feature. I would like to segment the customers based on age, location, likelihood of customer segments:
social sharing and the underlying potential for engagement. 1. Casual Listeners – large base, high engagement potential, and use buds frequently.
2. Students/Young Adults – inherently social, love personalization and expression through music.
That’s a nice way to segment and break-up. However, I would like you to think if you have missed
any user segment in the above classification?

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Samsung Galaxy Buds Experience New Product Design

I think I have covered an extensive spread of the user base. However, I feel one segment is
Feature What It Is
particularly missing from there which are Audiophiles / Tinkerers who are highly engaged in sound
customization but are less into social features. But I would not like to prioritize them as compared A personalized, visual summary that shows your weekly listening highlights,
to the current top users as they will have medium engagement potential and low-medium social Weekly Listening top songs, favorite genres, total listening time, mood tags (e.g., "Chill",
sharing likelihood. Digest (Shareable) "Energetic"). Users can share a summary with friends/family or can post it
to community groups as well.
That’s a great catch. Please proceed with the analysis.
In-app social spaces organized around music genres or moods (e.g., “Chill
Based on the top two segments, I would like to jot down the key user needs to understand the
Genre clubs Lo-fi,” “90s Bollywood,” “Focus Beats”). Users can join, share their digests,
underlying the use-cases:
see others’ stats, discuss music, and discover new tracks.
Understand and track Users want to consider their music and audio habits, trends, duration,
A simple tool for users to create and share their own sound/EQ settings.
listening behavior genres to develop self-awareness and feel more linked to their routines.
Peer Sound Preset Others can try, save, and upvote presets like “Bass Boost for EDM” or
over time It turns inert listening into a more conscious, customized experience.
Exchange “Crisp Vocals for Podcasts.” Presets can also be recommended within
Share music Genre Clubs.
Users want to consider their music and audio habits, trends, duration,
preferences and
genres to develop self-awareness and feel more linked to their routines. I would like to prioritize Genre Clubs feature in this scenario as it is:
listening highlights
It turns inert listening into a more conscious, customized experience. 1. Most aligned with the core goal of building social interaction around Galaxy Buds usage.
with others
2. Encourages ongoing participation, not just one-off sharing.
Discover new content Users want to consider their music and audio habits, trends, duration, 3. Unlocks opportunities for community-based features (polls, recommendations, badges, etc.).
or tuning setups genres to develop self-awareness and feel more linked to their routines. RICE Framework (optional, scoring out of 5)
through peers It turns inert listening into a more conscious, customized experience.
Priority
Feature Reach Impact Confidence Effort
Feel part of a like- Being part of communities with like tastes gives the product emotional (R*I*C/E)
minded audio worth. It encourages repeated participation and transforms a personal
Genre Clubs 4 4 4 4 1
community hobby into a group, communal one.
Weekly Listening
Before proceeding, I would like to know if there are any inputs you might have over the needs? 4 3 3 3 2
Digest
No, I think you defined the needs in detail. Please proceed to mention the solutions.
Preset Sharing 3 3 3 3 3
Great! Now, let me outline three potential features/solutions we could build into the Galaxy
That was a thoughtful walk-through. I liked how you explored the full landscape, asked clarifying
Wearable app based on the customer segments and their needs defined above:
questions, and grounded your prioritization in both user behavior and feasibility. Now, as a last step,
can you also mention a few of the success metric we could track for the feature you plan on
introducing? 258

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Samsung Galaxy Buds Experience New Product Design

Sure! I would like to segregate the metrics based on discovery, adoption, engagement, retention
and revenue.
Stage Metric
% of app users who tap to explore club previews (genre tiles, trending clubs,
Discovery
etc.)
1. % of users who join at least one club within 7 days of discovery
Adoption
2. % who complete onboarding
1. Average club visits per user per week
2. Average posts/replies per user per week (including shared digests,
Engagement
comments)
3. % of users who react/like content
1. % of users who return to a club within 7 and 30 days of first visit
Retention
2. % of users who post/comment in a club more than 3 times in a month

Great! Genre Clubs feels like a natural extension of the Galaxy Buds experience. That wraps up
the interview. Thanks for joining!

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 Section 5.3

GTM Strategies

260
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Social Fitness Product GTM

Our company wants to launch a social fitness product. How would you develop its go-to-market There are some synergies on both sides of the business. Major competitors would be other
strategy? (Ask clarifying questions about the product, what it does, what problem it solves and how, target fitness apps currently in the market like MyFitnessPal, [Link], HealthifyMe, FTTR etc. This
market and the goal of the launch) product covers both physical activities and social interactions. Moreover, people are becoming
aware of the importance of good health, and the fitness industry is in the growing phase in India.
What kind of a product is this? Is it a tangible product like smartwatches or a smartphone app?
It is a smartphone app where users can connect with other fitness enthusiasts. The users can share Now that we have analyzed different components, we can go to the launch strategy. I will divide
updates about their workouts, diet plans, progress etc. with each other. They can work together the activity into 3 stages: pre-launch, launch and post-launch.
through video conferencing on the app itself and compete against other users in groups or Pre-Launch:
individually in regular challenges hosted on the app. The aim is to encourage users about health • Pricing – The product could be a free app with ad-based revenue or follow a freemium model
and fitness through peer motivation. or could be a mixture of both (depends on the discussion with the interviewer)
• Create buzz – through marketing activities like releasing teasers on social media channels and
Okay. Are you partnering with other third-party apps? promotion by fitness influencers
Yes, users can also share their updates on other social networking accounts like Facebook and • Early Community Building: We can select 50–100 fitness influencers and personal trainers for
Instagram. It can also connect to smartwatches and wearables like Apple Watch, Fitbit, and Garmin an invite-only beta; collect feedback and build anticipation
to enable automatic workout and health data syncing. Launch:
• Place – Since this is an app, it will be released via app stores(android and iOS)
So, who are the target users for this app? I assume it would be fitness enthusiasts who are also • Promotion - start marketing the product actively by employing digital and social media
tech-savvy. marketing tactics. We should also advertise the product in gyms and wellness centres. And
Yes, you are right. We are targeting people in the age group of 20-60 years, living in metropolitan we can also use SEO to help gain traction for the application on the web as well as on the
and urban areas of India. app stores. We can also look at exclusive launch offers like fitness merchandise giveaways for
early adopters.
Is this a new product or an existing one being launched now in India? And, what is the goal of this Post -Launch:
launch? Now, we will measure the performance by tracking relevant metrics. Some examples could be:
This is a new product, and India is the first country where it would be launched. The MVP launch • Acquisition - conversion rate, cost of customer acquisition, # of downloads
and beta testing were successful and now we want to launch the full version in the market. The • Activation: % users completing onboarding, first post/workout log within Day 1
goal, therefore, is to build awareness, drive adoption and generate revenue. • Retention - churn rate
• Engagement – avg. session time, what features are being used, # of updates/posts posted
Okay, thank you for answering my questions. • Customer satisfaction – feedback in the form of ratings and reviews, NPS scores
(Analyze the market situation – take company, product, customer, competitor, and market landscape into • Revenue and market share – are we meeting our revenue and market share goals
consideration) I will use the feedback information and engagement information to plan for v2 potentially and
add features like group leaderboards, corporate wellness tie-ups, and cashback rewards.
The company is a sports equipment company that manufactures footwear, sports and casual 261
apparel. They are looking to diversify their offerings by entering the smartphone app space. Sounds good. We can close the case now.

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Table Reservation GTM

Swiggy has decided to enter the table reservation category in restaurants. Formulate a launch late, what happens then? Should it continue to be blocked at the cost of losing another customer?
strategy for the same.
We can provide a buffer time beyond a customer’s reservation time till which the restaurant will
Can you tell me more about the product, like if you want to create a new app for this reserve the table for them. If the customer arrives later than the allotted buffer time then he/she
requirement, or would this be a new feature in the existing app? will have to wait if the restaurant is fully occupied.
So the product is still in the idea conceptualization phase. I was hoping you could help me with Okay. Considering this to be what the application does, how would you go about launching it?
that.
I would like to divide the marketing activities into three buckets. Pre-launch, Launch, and Post-
All right, for table reservation, there would be three major stakeholders, the customers, launch. I would like to go through this one by one.
restaurants and Swiggy. I would suggest creating a new feature in the existing app as Swiggy already
has a large customer base, therefore creating awareness and growing customer adoption about Pre-launch:
this product would be easier. Next, I want to look at the pain points of the stakeholders involved Swiggy can release this product in big cities like Mumbai, Bangalore, Delhi etc. first, where the
to come up with the product features. dining culture is big to observe customer adoption. They can create hype around the new feature
through marketing activities like releasing teasers on social media channels, putting up billboards.
1. Customers –When going out to eat, a customer would like to know the various restaurants This will help us in attracting new customer segments who previously did not use Swiggy.
available around them, price range and the cuisine. Under cuisine, they would like to know the
variety of dishes served. Customers do not like waiting, so they would want to know the Launch:
waiting time beforehand. They would also like to know about the availability of parking space, We can start marketing and promotional activities to build customer awareness: traditional and
timings etc. And most importantly, they would like to reserve tables so that they don’t have to modern channels. We can also introduce smart nudges integrated into the app to push the existing
join a queue when they reach the restaurant. users to use the newly introduced feature. We can also add features to allow them to share the
2. Restaurants – Restaurants are aware that if they cannot handle demand effectively in their new feature with their friends, providing the existing users with a discount after a certain number
restaurants, they would lose out on customers who had to wait too long. On the other hand, of new users join through their link.
if a restaurant reserves a table for a customer, then they can’t give it to another customer.
They must keep the table vacant until the designated customer arrives. Due to this, there are Post Launch:
chances of them losing out on prospective customers. Now, we will measure the performance by tracking relevant metrics. Some examples could be:
• Acquisition - conversion rate, cost of customer acquisition.
But don’t you think Zomato already provides these features?
• Engagement – # of reservations, bounce rate, % of reservations where customer visited the
Yes, so one differentiating feature of this product would be that customers can also pre-order restaurant out of total reservations, % of reservations where customer arrived before the end
their dishes while reserving a table. This way, they wouldn’t have to wait for their orders to be of buffer period.
prepared in the restaurant. Swiggy can provide estimated arrival times of customers to the • Customer satisfaction – feedback in the form of ratings and reviews, NPS scores.
restaurants so that they can start preparing their orders accordingly. • Revenue and market share – Are we meeting our revenue and market share goals?
I will use the feedback and engagement information to expand it to other cities potentially.
262
Okay, I have one more question. If the customer has booked a table for a particular time and is
Sounds good. We can close the case now

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Facebook Dating App GTM

You are a PM at Facebook India. You’re tasked to come up with a Go to Market strategy for a about launching it?
dating application that Facebook has come up with.
Sure. I would like to divide the marketing activities into three buckets. Pre-launch, Launch, and
Before I move on, I want to clarify the marketing goal. Are we planning to launch the application in Post- launch. I would like to go through this one by one.
India?
Sounds great. Go on
Yes, you need to come up with a strategy to launch this application in India.
Okay.
Sure. I would like to start off by analyzing the current dating application market. Dating is among • Pre-launch - Facebook should ideally start by testing the application in a few regions within
the top-grossing categories on the Google PlayStore in India. People are willing to pay for such India. They can start with metro cities like Mumbai & Bangalore where the dating culture is
products. The top applications which I can recall are Tinder & Bumble. They both are global more progressive. Facebook should create hype around the product. They could release
products. There are quite a few local products as well. But all these are dating applications first. teasers & small clips showing what the product could do.
None of them have the capabilities that Facebook has, in terms of Social graph, user preferences, • Launch - They should launch the product by creating a virtual or a live event. All the
etc. Most of the users are between the ages of 18 - 27. They are usually in college or early stages competitors in the market are somewhat established, so Facebook should seek to make an
of their professional careers. Most of the dating platforms follow a freemium model. They also use impression on its users.
ads to generate revenue. One of the main reasons for a freemium model is to get the users to use • Post-launch - Facebook should actively market the product and educate the users about how
the product and realize the value before asking them to pay. There is also the aspect of network this platform is different from its competitors. They can use existing products like their
effects. Getting more users on the platform is very important for its success. Facebook & Instagram to market this product.
Now, talking about distribution; Facebook can launch this as a separate application. Facebook has
So how does Facebook fit in this market? What can Facebook do differently?
access to 300 million Indian users and they can use this user base to market the product to.
Talking about Facebook, I think the goal of Facebook is to bring the world closer together and help
Now let’s move on to user retention.
build communities. A dating platform that enables building new connections fits right into its vision.
The key strength of Facebook is its data. It can leverage this data to find an almost perfect match. Sure. When it comes to dating platforms, retention is dependent on the value people derive in
However, dating experiences vary from culture to culture. Facebook has to keep in mind that terms of connections made. Facebook should not focus on whether the said match goes on a date
dating expectations are starkly different in India compared to western countries. So the data about or meet up in real life as there are a lot of other factors beyond the control of Facebook. The
users and their networks can be leveraged to build a product that people can trust. Dating primary focus should be on how happy a user is with the kind of people he/she meets on the
platforms in the market struggle to keep the platform clean of bots and fake accounts. This is a platform. We can measure this by seeing how long they interact with each other on the platform
huge problem, which is hard to solve without taxing the actual users to give out personal and also if they go one step further and connect on Facebook as well. We can also ask them for
information. However, the current platforms have the advantage of understanding the user their feedback a week after they start interacting with each other. We need to craft the feedback
behavior. They also have brand equity. This would take quite some time to build. Facebook can in such a way that the users realize why the feedback is being taken.
also include features like fraud detection and a better recommendation system to win over the
Sounds good. How would you go about pricing this product?
customers’ trust. So Facebook should focus on providing a platform for building lasting
relationships as they have enough data about the users and their behavior. The product should be free for all users. New features can be added later on which263 can be
charged. We can also tap into live experiences with virtual parties, events, etc. Facebook can also
Okay, this is good. Considering these are the main features of the application, how would you go

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Facebook Dating App GTM

create a pro version for the user who unlocks several features to find better matches or even find
matches quicker.
This is good. Could you please summarize the whole plan?
Sure. The goal for Facebook would be to stand out and differentiate itself from the competition.
The focus should be on building long term relationships, be it friendship or dating. Moving on to
marketing, Facebook should focus on creating hype towards the product. This will also set the
right expectations for the users. They should back that up with a launch that involves its users.
However, most platforms don’t have enough data to find the perfect match for a person and
hence, not enough value can be derived from them. Also, these platforms struggle to identify bots
or fake accounts on their platform. Facebook can differentiate itself by solving these very
problems.
That sums up the case very well. Thank you.

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Lyft’s Indian Market Entry GTM

Lyft wants to enter Indian market, what should be its go to market strategy? Market Conditions
If we divide India into rural, suburban and Metropolitan we need to decide on where to launch first
Lyft has both ride sharing and Food delivery. Is there anything specific that I should be focusing on?
and what would make sense to achieve our goal. Because major customers are there in
Yes, you need to come up with a strategy to launch this application in India. Metropolitans that would be the first place to launch according to me.
Regulatory Issues
Let’s focus on ride sharing. Along with these we also need to consider regulatory issues and rules that the country has so that
So how does Facebook fit in this market? What can Facebook do differently? we won’t get into trouble later which might spoil the brand reputation.

In ride sharing should we focus on only cars or should we also look at Autos and bikes? Sounds fair. How should Lyft go about the launch strategies ?

We’ll just keep it to cars for now. Now that we have analyzed different components we should go to the launching strategies. Let’s
divide the activities into 3 stages: Pre launch, Launch itself and Post launch.
For this lets first analyze the situation in the market. Pre-launch
Company • Marketing Activities - Billboard ads, newspaper ads, pamphlets, experience videos from other
Lyft is a ride sharing app like OLA and Uber. It connects riders and drivers and allows an easier countries etc.
mode of transportation. Lyft has many verticals in other countries like Uber does in India (Autos, • Enough supply according to the demand in the area
Shared, normal etc.,). We need to decide in which segments we are going to launch initially and the • Offer monetary benefits to drivers better than competitors or experimenting with new revenue
future plan. sharing methods like subscription etc.
Opportunity • Referral programs
Lets now explore the opportunity on the segments. One of the main things to keep in mind is the • Tie ups with local dealers - training and adhering to rules
traffic in India, along with this we also need to keep in mind demand and supply for these segments. • Compulsory training for drivers to improve customer experience as they are the face of our
My suggestion in here is to take use of high number of cars existing already and give good benefits brand
to drivers so they use Lyft more than other competitors Launch
Customers • Promotions and discounts for riders, customers
Coming to our customers most of them might not know about the brand itself and most of them • Advertisements in local newspapers, pamphlets Tie ups with corporates Blogs with influencers
might be regular customers to other competitors we have. We need to give them a compelling and celebrities to create positive images etc., can be done.
reason to try out our app, can be discounts, more safety etc. Post Launch
As we know we have 2 major competitors currently and many upcoming ones. Uber expanded This is where we measure the metrics. I think these are the metrics which we make more sense in
into this market with a lot of competition and was successful, if we have a compelling this case.
differentiating factor we can also be successful as customers look for best options for them. We Acquisition
can probably tie up with local car dealers to create localization feelings among customers which • # customers in time frame like 1/3/6 months
would probably encourage drivers to join us. We should also invest heavily into marketing initially • # drivers in time frame like 1/3/6 months
and probably be a loss making firm like Amazon initially to get customers to try our product. In • # app downloads in time frame like 1/3/6 months 265
addition to this our pricing strategy is unique and will help us in remaining competitive.

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Lyft’s Indian Market Entry GTM

Revenue
• Expenditure per ride - 3 months Vs 6 months
• Revenue per ride - 3 months Vs 6 months
Customer Experience
• # repeat customers in a week
• Wait time (average) in a day
• # cancellations in a day
• Ratings given by customers on average
In addition to all this we should proactively reach out to customers with complaints to resolve
them soon for better experience and also reach out to people for feedback for continuous
improvement.
Okay, we can close the interview.

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Tata Group Loyalty Program GTM

The tata group wants to incentivize their customers and want to increase their loyalty towards the So, the structure should be as follows:
brand. We need your help to prepare a loyalty program for the conglomerate. • Tata Group points: Under this, the Tata group can award points to all the customers
irrespective of the brands.
To make sure I understand the situation correctly, Tata group wants to design a conglomerate
• Brand points: Under this, any independent brand can award points to their customers. They can
wide incentive program which would cover all the brands falling under the Tata brand including
define rules for the loyalty program.
Taj, Titan, Tanishq, automobile etc.
• Store owners: Every store owner should have the ability to award points to the local
Yes, that is correct. customers.
Another thing I need to add is that a customer can be eligible for any points, depending on the
As I understand, many brands under Tata group already has their standalone loyalty program. May rules defined. A customer can get Tata group points, brand promotions and even points by the
I please know what will happen to these programs. store owner.
You can assume that all the existing loyalty programs will be replaced by the new loyalty program Usually when the campaign runs, the points are provided in a particular city. How will you ensure
that you would suggest. that?
I am not sure that I understand the problem statement. Do the Tata want to make the existing Fair enough. I believe if all the store owners are asked to update the offers, it might be quite
benefits (reward points) that customers have earned null and void? I believe that would make the ineffective. We should probably give this functionality in brand points and Tata group points.
customers angry. Generally, the configuration should be done on store id which acts as an identifier for the store.
Good that you mentioned it. In your solution, ensure that there is a smooth transition for the That seems like a good plan. Can you explain the implementation plan?
existing reward system.
Okay. I know that we need a unique identifier to identify each person uniquely. It is hard to
Okay. One last question before I lay out my solution, will the brands have a say in incentivizing provide the unique number to the customer as they would tend to forget. I suggest we use the
their customers or the complete control will be with the of Tata group? mobile number of the consumer as a unique identifier. However, with this, we will have one
We would like you to think how this Loyalty program should be structured. Also, comment on its limitation. The identity of the person will be saved at the Tata group level and not the brand level.
technical feasibility. To counter this, we need to create a tag where the customer registers.

Okay, can I take 2 minutes to structure my thoughts and provide a solution? Can you suggest other things to consider for a good loyalty program?

Sure. Sure, please let me think about it for a minute.

The whole idea of accruing the points is to have the ability to redeem the points. Usually, the
So according to me, different stakeholders like the Tata Group, brand owners and store owners points can be redeemed at the same brand where they were accrued. I believe Tata group can
should have the option to award reward points to the customers. Also, the system should have look to allow some cross- brand redemptions. For example, the points accrued at Titans can be
the capability to award different points to consumers using different brands. For example, different used to redeem at Starbucks.
reward should be awarded to customer of Starbucks and customer of Titan.
Interesting, anything else you’d like to add? 267
Makes sense, carry on.

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Tata Group Loyalty Program GTM

One last point which we discussed in the beginning about the current reward points of the users. I
believe if we are going with the new Loyalty program, all the existing points should be mapped to
the new customer identifier so that customers can use those points in future. I believe the
personal data of all the existing customer is also important to import. Therefore, there needs to
be a one-time data migration activity to get the old data in the new system. That will be all, sir.
Thank you for the insights.

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New Geographies GTM

WinZO has seen a great success in the Indian market and now is looking to expand to other Brazil on the same scale as that in India. For other casual games, I feel Brazil as a country that is
geographical areas. After thorough research, we have found that Brazil would be a suitable market more inclined towards games related to football compared to India which has more cricket buffs.
to expand. Can you chalk out a Go-to-market strategy for the same?
That’s right. So, how do you go about choosing which games to add in the platform? What all
Sure. Can you tell me more about the product and its features? Also, do you want to create a new factors would you consider?
app with new games for this particular requirement, or would this just be a new version of the
For choosing the games, I would be looking at these factors:
existing app?
• Player preferences: Looking at the general trends, we can focus on popular game genres like
Well, WinZO is a social gaming platform with over 100 games. Currently it has 20 Cr+ registered sports, FPS, MOBA, etc.
players who compete against each other for actual monetary benefits. Answering to your second • Cultural Context: We can focus on games that align with cultural elements or themes of the
question, I was hoping that you would help me with the same. country that might have a greater appeal (Like Ludo in India).
• Existing Platforms: By closely watching our competitors, we can analyze the kind of games they
Alright. Before I move on, I want to understand two things:
offer and their top grossing games.
• You have described WinZO as a gaming “platform”. Does it mean that not all games are owned
• Collaborators: We can look at possible partnerships with games and game developers to host
by WinZO?
them onto the platform, along with top grossing games in Apple Store, Google Play Store, etc.
• And, are all the games paid on the app? And how are the games priced?
• Tech & Infra: We need to loop in the device preferences of the users (i.e., mobile vs tabs vs
You are right; the games on the app are a mixture of owned and hosted games. WinZO console), internet stability etc. that will help decide whether to host cloud-based lightweight
collaborates with game developers to host their games on the app either on a fixed fee model or a games, or client-based games.
revenue sharing model. Most of the games on the app are paid. Users can use the practice mode • Integration: We should also look at technological feasibility of integration (Unity, Android, etc.)
for free if they want to. Pricing of the games is different across different formats of the games. when considering possible partnerships,
There are single player games, two-player live games, tournaments, etc. However, the ticket value This should give us a good starting point to decide on the games. After the launch, we can also
for each game is small (ranging from INR 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 to 100), considering our target take inputs from the users about the games they would like to see on the platform.
audience which is typically from Tier-2,3 and 4 cities.
This looks good. What all metrics do you think would be important to track when we decide to
Thank you for providing the details. I would first analyze the market situation - taking the company, release the application?
product, users, collaborator and competitors into consideration. Then, I shall explore the pricing
We could these useful metrics to track the progress of the app after the release:
and launch strategy.
• Acquisition - Installs, Conversion Rate, Cost of Customer Acquisition.
In the interest of time, I would like you to focus on the product, users and collaborators. We can • Engagement – # of games played, time spent on the app, DAU, MAU
assume that the pricing strategy would be similar to that in India for different formats. • Customer satisfaction – Feedback in the form of ratings and reviews on Google Play Store/App
Store, NPS scores.
Alright. When it comes to the product and its users, I feel that there is a need to look at the • Revenue – Amount of real money spent, Amount of money withdrawn, CLTV, etc.
games, which are the key value proposition offered to the users. There will be a significant I would use the valuable feedback from users and the above metrics to strengthen the product.
difference between games liked by people in Brazil. WinZO has games like Ludo and Snakes &
Ladders in India which hold a traditional significance. However, these might not be performing in Sounds good. Thank you for your time.

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 Section 5.4

Metrics

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Instagram Creator Marketplace Metrics

You are a product manager at Instagram working on the Creator Commerce product tagging For buyers, the journey would be:
feature. How would you go about measuring its success? • Discovering a tagged product while consuming a creator’s content through feed, reels, stories,
or the explore page.
I would like to start by shedding light on my understanding of Instagram shops to check whether
• Tapping on the product tag to open the product detail page and viewing product information,
it’s accurate. Please correct any inaccuracies that I might state. Creator Commerce Checkout is a
price, and images.
feature where Instagram creators can tag products from partnered brands in their posts, reels, and
• Clicking through to the merchant’s website for checkout.
stories. When users view this content, they can tap on the product tag, see product details, and
• Completing the purchase externally and optionally returning to Instagram for feedback or
complete their purchase by visiting an external website.
future engagement via comments, posts.
The description is accurate. Please proceed with the rest of the solution.
You’ve captured the journeys accurately. Please go ahead with the metrics.
Great. To define meaningful metrics, I’d like to first map out the journeys of the three primary
I’ll start with the creator side and follow the awareness, engagement, and conversion funnel to
stakeholders involved in making this feature work: the creator, the business/brand partner that
define the metrics.
lists and fulfils the products, and the buyer who makes the purchase. For defining the metrics, I
• Awareness: At this stage, the focus is on whether eligible creators know about the Creator
would like to proceed with defining the user journey of the stakeholders. Should I proceed with
Commerce program.
this approach?
For example:
The approach seems good. Let’s keep the focus on the creators and buyers. You can skip the • What percentage of eligible creators have seen the program announcement via in-app
brand-side metrics for now. Please go on with the journeys. notifications or email campaigns?
• How many creators have clicked through those invites to learn more? Click-through
Sure, Thanks. I’ll start by mapping out the journey for creators. It would broadly involve these rate (CTR) on program invite notifications/emails
steps: • Engagement: At this stage, we check if creators are adopting and actively using the product.
• Awareness of the Creator Commerce program through in-app notifications, creator Metrics I would track here include:
community announcements, or outreach from Instagram’s team. • % of creators who enabled product tagging
• Confirming eligibility by linking a Business or Creator account and passing Instagram’s • Average number of product-tagged posts, stories, or reels per creator per week/month
commerce policy review. • % of creators actively tagging products over consecutive weeks
• Activating product tagging by enabling the feature within account settings. • Conversion: To measure whether creators are successfully driving transactions through their
• Tagging products from the catalogue in their posts, reels, and stories. content, the key metrics could be:
• Tracking performance and earnings via Instagram’s insights, including metrics like product views, • Average number of outbound clicks to merchant websites per creator
taps, and conversions. • GMV attributed to creator-tagged product referrals
• Iterating and optimizing by tagging new products and participating in brand campaigns based on • % of creators whose tagged products generated outbound clicks
past performance.
That’s a solid set. What about metrics for buyers?
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Instagram Creator Marketplace Metrics

I’d approach it in a similar way Makes sense. How would you go about defining a North Star and tracking all these metrics?

• Awareness: Whether buyers are noticing product tags in creator content. Since Instagram does not control the checkout, our goal is to drive qualified outbound traffic that
For instance: converts on partner sites. The North Star metric would be –
• % of users who encountered product-tagged content in their feed, reels, or stories
• % of users who tapped on product tags • Outbound Purchase Conversion GMV driven by Creator-tagged content
• Engagement: Here, I’d measure how meaningfully users interact with the product listings.
Here, the examples would be: To track these metrics, we’ll need to set up event tracking in the internal analytics platform for all
• Average number of product detail views per user session originating from creator major actions, like product tag views, product detail page views, UTM-tagged URLs for outbound
content links, capturing content ID, creator ID, and campaign info and completed purchases. Operational
• Average time spent on product detail pages within Instagram data such as payment success rates and order fulfilment times would come from our backend
• Conversion: To capture how effectively we’re converting those views into purchases. systems integrated with other brands' apps/websites. And we could capture buyer and creator
The metrics would be: satisfaction scores using lightweight in-app surveys triggered post-purchase or post-campaign.
• Click-through rate (CTR) from product detail views to merchant website Thanks for the great discussion. We can end the interview.
• External conversion rate (purchases made per outbound click
• Repeat outbound clicks per user
Do you think we can consider any other metrics to track for this program?
Yes, beyond these metrics, we can also monitor operational and counter metrics to keep a check
on the health of the program.

For operational health, I’d track:

• Outbound link click success rate (any click failures or dead links)
• Time-to-load metrics for merchant landing pages (to avoid drop-offs)
• Partner merchant conversion attribution accuracy

And for counter metrics:

• Creator dissatisfaction rate — via periodic in-app surveys
• Fraud reports or abuse of product tagging by creators
• Number of buyer complaints about poor merchant checkout or product quality

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Promotions in Google Pay Metrics

You are a product manager in the Google Pay team. You have been given the task of defining the From a promotion partner’s perspective, the metrics will cover how Google Pay, and promotion
metrics for tie-in promotions on Google Pay. How will you go about it? partners can benefit from the exercise.
No. of successful use of a specific promotion = No. of payments * % of promotional coupons for a
I believe I can start by describing how tie-in promotions work on Google Pay to get my context
given partner * % of a specific coupon * % of users successfully using the promotional coupon.
right. Please correct if my description is inaccurate at any point. Google Pay is used for making
The partner metrics are:
payments. People use it for transferring money to their friends or making online payments mostly
• No. of tie-in promotion partners
via UPI or cards. Once the user makes a payment, they get a scratch card as a reward. On
• Retention rate of promotion partners
scratching the card, users get rewards which can be cashback or coupons of various companies. I
• Churn rate of promotion partners
believe these coupons of various companies like Lenskart, Mamaearth, Zomato & others are tie-in
• Average number of promotional coupons shown for every partner
promotions.
• Percentage of promotions which get expired without use, both overall and for a given partner
Your description of tie-in promotions is accurate. Essentially tie-in promotions involve a company • Average number of recipients of a given promotional coupon
partnership with another company for promotions. You can proceed further with your analysis. • Percentage of users successfully using a given promotional coupon (this needs to be shared by
the partner)
The metrics need to be aligned with the business value. The tie-in promotions are an important
factor for users to repeat payments using Google Pay. Users will keep using Google Pay if they get Overall, these metrics will help track the success of tie-in promotions and help identify some
relevant offers on some occasions. Similarly, promoters will partner with Google Pay if they benefit issues. For example, if a promotional coupon by Lenskart has very low conversion rates, it can be
out of the partnership by gaining more customers & revenue. discontinued or be modified to increase the usage.
The business goals seem accurate. Please proceed with the metrics. I think this covers most of the important metrics for tie-in promotions.
I will cover the metrics from aspects of both users and promotional partners.

From the user’s perspective, the metrics will be covering the frequency of promotions, its
utilisation, and its impact on user engagement on the platform. We would ideally expect the
promotions to be useful for the users.
No. of successful uses of promotions = No. of payments * % of tie-in promotion scratch cards * %
of tie-in promotions used.
The user success metrics are:
• No. of payments or payment rates every month
• Percentage of scratch cards which are tie-in promotions (Scratch cards be cashback,
promotions, or better luck next time)
• Percentage of promotions getting expired
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• Percentage of repeat promotions of a specific type or brand.

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Facebook Marketplace Metrics

You are the PM for Facebook Marketplace. What metrics would you track to measure the health Your understanding of the journey of the stakeholders is fair. Let’s move ahead to the metrics
and success of the feature?
I would divide the metrics into Awareness, Activation, Conversion and Retention metrics.
I would first like to clarify my understanding of the feature and the stakeholders involved.
Facebook marketplace is a platform within Facebook to discover, buy and sell items with people in 1. Awareness: The goal would be to measure whether users can discover Facebook
your community. The functionality caters to two stakeholders –the buyer and the seller. The Marketplace. The metrics would include
feature allows sellers to list both new and second-hand items they want to sell that would then a) #Users who have visited Facebook Marketplace
show up on the marketplace tab. Buyers can then explore the listed products in both the b) #Clicks on Facebook Marketplace tab per day
marketplace tab and groups in which product details are shared. 2. Activation: The goal of the phase is to measure the level of active engagement with the
I’ll assume that Facebook’s goal with the feature is to increase customer engagement on the feature. Relevant metrics will be
platform. a) #Products listed per week
b) #Bounce Rate
You are right. Please go ahead.
c) #Clicks on product listings per week
Before I list down the metrics, I would like to map out the journey of both the stakeholders to 3. Conversion: The goal of this phase is to measure how effective is the feature in getting users
understand the goal of each action the feature asks the user to take. to perform the primary action, i.e. buying a product.
a) #Unique Interactions per week
Seller’s Journey:
b) #Purchases made per week
1. Visit the marketplace tab
4. Retention: Retention indicates the users’ propensity to come back to the platform and use
2. Select the option to list an item
the feature again.
3. Add item description and price
a) #Repeat Purchase Rate
4. Receive an offer to buy from the buyer
b) #Repeat Product Listing Rate
5. Accept or reject the offer
6. Receive the payment Alright, out of all these metrics mentioned, which one should be prioritized by us as the top
7. Handover the item metric?
The last two steps happen outside Facebook’s ecosystem
The Activation and Conversion metrics should be tracked for individual categories to understand
Buyers Journey differences in buying and selling process for different product categories. With the goal of
1. Visit the marketplace increasing customer engagement in mind, the North Star Metric would be - #Unique Interactions
2. Search for a product per week. #Purchases per week would be used as the counter metric to ensure that product
3. Contact the seller quality on the platform is not compromised for increasing user engagement.
4. Make the payment
5. Receive the product
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An alternate customer journey would start with buyers discovering a product they like in groups

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Big Basket Metrics

You are the Digital Product Manager of Big Basket. What would be the metrics you would like to I would then map out the user journey:
follow?
• The user installs the app via Play Store or App Store.
Okay, first I want to confirm that my understanding of Big Basket is correct.
• The user opens the app and lands on the home screen.
• The user browses products using the homepage cards, app navigation, or in-app search.
Big Basket is an Indian food and grocery E-Retail store. A user can order a wide range of products
• The user adds items to the basket or saves them to a custom list (requires login).
like fruits, vegetables, packaged foods, personal care items, and household supplies. Moreover, the
• The user logs in or registers when prompted either to save items, place an order, or view
users can use both a mobile app and website for placing an order.
personalized offers.
Yes, you may move forward. • The user reviews the cart, selects a delivery address and slot, applies vouchers, and may be
nudged to opt for BBstar membership for better value.
Could you please share the business goal which we would like to report through the metrics. • The user proceeds to the payment gateway, completes the transaction, and is shown an order
Assume that the goal of the business is to increase the value of orders placed via the BigBasket confirmation screen.
mobile app. • Confirmation is also sent via push notification, SMS, and email.
• Users may contact customer support via the in-app help section to modify, cancel, or track
I will create a user journey map, identify which actions indicate success and failure towards placing orders.
order and then define the actionable lagging indicators. Should I do it for both, website and mobile • The user receives the delivery at the doorstep and can rate the experience via the app.
app?
You can define the metrics for only the mobile app for now. In this journey, the user goes through 5 stages:

Sure. The value of orders can be formulated as follows: Awareness: The users can discover BigBasket app via Play Store, App Store, referrals, paid
marketing or even through BigBasket’s own website. Hence, we can have following metrics:
• Total Value = # of orders * average value per order
• # of orders = # of visitors * % of visitors who viewed/added items to cart * % visitors who • Number of app installs per month
bought the items • Percentage of installs from organic sources (search/website)
• # of visitors = # of new visitors + # of retained visitors. • Percentage of installs from paid campaigns (ads, influencer links)
• App ranking in relevant categories (e.g., Shopping, Grocery)
• Click-to-install conversion rate
• App uninstall rate per month
• Average app rating

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Big Basket Metrics

Engagement: The user browses the app to find and shortlist products. The following can be Referral: The users can also be a marketer for our product through word of mouth and sharing
measured to improve user engagement: referral code.
• Bounce rate per product or category page per month • Percentage of users sharing referral codes per month
• Average session duration per user per month • Conversion rate of shared referral codes
• Average number of products viewed per session • Revenue generated through referrals per month
• Average quantity per product added to the basket • Net Promoter Score (NPS) collected via in-app feedback
• Number of custom lists created per month
• Percentage of users using in-app search per month This is great. Thank you!
• Percentage of logged-in users per month
• Percentage of new registrations per month
• Daily active users (DAU)
• Monthly active users (MAU)
• Value of returns per month

Conversion: After adding the products to the basket, the user reviews the basket and checks out.
The following can be measured to improve conversion:
• Average number of items in the basket per month
• Average value of items in the basket per month
• Basket abandonment rate per month
• Order cancellation rate per month
• Average order value per user per month
• Percentage of users who select similar products during checkout per month
• Percentage of users applying vouchers per month
• Value of vouchers applied per month

Retention: The user should return to the Big Basket app for further purchases within 2 weeks.
The following can be measured to improve retention:
• Percentage of users opting for BBstar membership per month
• Percentage of users buying again per month
• Repeat order frequency (orders/user/month)
• Average time between two app purchases
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WhatsApp In-App Video Playing Metrics

How will you measure the success of WhatsApp’s in-app video playing feature? Engagement:
• % of users who played the link and watched the video (either partly or wholly)
First, I would like to describe the feature and my understanding of its objective. WhatsApp has
• Relative return rate: % of users who stayed in WhatsApp after they stopped watching the video
introduced an in-app video playing feature, whereby users can play YouTube videos from within
v/s % of users without the feature who return to WhatsApp after watching the video
the chat window itself. I think the objective of the feature is to keep the users within the app
• % of users who share the video link within WhatsApp after watching
context, so that the time spent on WhatsApp can be increased. There are three types of
• Time spent on WhatsApp by users with this feature v/s without this feature
interactions that can be done when this feature is in use:
1. Expand the video to full screen
Leakage:
2. Close the video
• % of users with the feature opting to view the video on YouTube
3. Watch the video on YouTube by clicking on the YouTube icon
• % of users who opted to view the video on YouTube that returned to WhatsApp
That sounds good. Please proceed.
Okay, and how would you use these metrics to evaluate the feature’s success?
The user’s journey for using this feature would look like this:
The engagement metrics will show whether the feature has boosted time spent on WhatsApp and
whether it enables users to engage with YouTube content more frequently. The leakage metrics
• Activation: The user receives a link to a YouTube video on WhatsApp
will help identify if the feature successfully limits app-switching or if significant drop-offs still occur.
• Engagement:
• They click on the link, and the video starts playing within the app Great, can you please summarize in 30 seconds?
• They can expand the video to full screen or stop viewing by clicking on the close
To summarize, the in-app video playing feature is an effort by WhatsApp to boost time spent by
button.
users within WhatsApp and enable more media consumption for users. Primarily, the relative
• Alternatively, they can click on the YouTube button to be taken to the YouTube app. If they
activation and retention rates will help evaluate these feature value propositions.
choose this option, they can either continue browsing on YouTube (Leakage) or return to
WhatsApp.
• Post-Engagement: After video interaction, the user may resume chatting, share the video, or
initiate a call within WhatsApp
Since this feature would be available only on phones with an Android version that supports in-app
windows and an updated version of the app, all the metrics should account for that.

Activation:
• % of users who play a link they are sent
• Relative activation rate: % of users with this feature available that play a video v/s % of users
without the feature who play a video (which opens the YouTube app instead)
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Instagram Story Highlights Metrics

How would you measure the success of the Instagram story highlights features? Let’s go through the customer journey in phases. I have already explained the detailed steps for
both the account owner and visitor. Now, let’s get into the customer journey stages.
I would like to clarify my understanding of the Instagram story highlight feature and its objective. It
is a feature to describe a particular account in crisp selected stories. The intention of the highlights Awareness: The account owner should be made aware that such a feature exists. It is currently
could be multiple. being done at two places, on the account page and on the story page.
For instance, if we talk of a photography page, the highlight might include its best photo works to •Average # of times highlight button clicks per story on the story page
indicate the level of quality to its clients. If the Instagram page is about a tech product, its highlight
may include how to use the product in stepwise, or maybe the answer to the FAQs about the •Average # of times highlight button clicks on the account page per account page visit per user
product.
The objective of the feature is to reduce viewer’s time to understand/know about the Instagram Engagement: The engagement here indicates whether the account owner is able to engage with
profile/product in a short span of time and thus increase the conversion rate for these accounts. this feature or not, basically the highlights they created. For account visitors, the engagement
Conversion might mean different things for different accounts, for instance, for the personal depends on various other factors like time spent by visitors on other’s account seeing these
account it could mean increased followers/likes, for business accounts, it could mean increased highlights and so on.
product sales etc. Also, Instagram has introduced a story archive feature which is the backbone of • Percentage of number highlights created to the number of stories posted per user per month.
highlights feature. So, even after 24 hours of posting a story, you can get those stories in the • Percentage of number highlights created, from account page to the number of stories posted
archive. per user per month.
• Percentage of number highlights created, from story page to the number of stories posted per
Bang on. You are right, please go ahead. user per month.
Thanks. So, users can make any old stories a highlight, which will be present on the Instagram • Average time spent on watching other account's
account until and unless it is removed manually by the account owner. It just acts like key • Highlights per user per month.
highlighted posts for the account. These highlights are like small circular icons, similar to story Conversion: The whole purpose of the feature is to improve the conversion for users. So, once a
icons present on top of all of the posts on the account page. So, there are two stakeholders in this user has engaged with other’s highlights, he/she should be able to quickly understand about the
system: other’s account and make decisions whether to follow or not, whether to buy their product or
Account owner: The account owner follows the below steps: not etc.
• Click on the new button on account page • Average time spent on another account's page per user per month.
• Select the Instagram stories to be highlighted • Percentage of highlight viewers following other’s page per user per month.
• Confirm the stories to make them the highlight • Percentage of highlight viewers ordering services from other’s account per user per month
• Average time spend on other’s account before following them per user per month
Account visitor: Once a user visits the Instagram account, they can see all the highlighted stories in • Average time spent on other’s account before placing the order for their products/services per
circular icons on the account page. Then they can click on the highlight of their choice, and they user per month.
will be able to get the story like any other Instagram story.
PM Tip: Always quantify metrics (e.g., per day, per month). Align metrics with the product’s
Yes correct, you have got the product correctly. Now tell me, how will we measure its success. 278 matching
stage by first defining the stage’s objectives (e.g., Awareness, Conversion) and then
metrics to those goals.

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 Section 5.5

Pricing

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Amazon Prime Pricing Projection Pricing

Assume you are the new product manager in our Amazon Prime business and are deciding pricing. To recap on the net annual impact:
The vice president would like to lower the price from $99.99 per year to $89.99 per year. Making
your own assumptions, develop the financial projections for this decision. Existing Prime customers: -$2 billion net

With lower prices, customer demand will increase. The new Prime customers might also purchase New Prime customers: +$3.2 billion net (+$3.6 billion from member revenue - $0.8 billion
more things. However, increased demand will reduce membership revenues from existing Prime incremental shipping costs + $0.4 billion incremental gross margin)
customers and increase shipping costs for existing non-Prime customers. Let’s assume there are 5
million Prime customers. So, what’s the overall change in revenue, and what’s your recommendation?
Overall, we’re looking at a $1.2 billion annual increase from reducing price by $10. I recommend
1. Existing Prime customers we reduce the price.

With a $10 price reduction that reduces annual revenues by $2 billion ($100 * 200M Prime
customers = $20B annual revenue)

2. New Prime customers

We need to estimate how many new Prime customers will be gained from the changes. Finally,
let’s consider additional revenue from the membership, along with incremental sales. Let’s say
Prime membership jumps 20 percent due to the price cut. That’s an additional 40 million Prime
customers. The incremental membership revenue is roughly $3.6 billion (40m * $90).

Average shipping costs per customer is around $40 per year. Let’s say that moving these
customers into Prime increases shipping costs by $20 per year per new Prime customer. That’s an
additional $0.8 billion cost (40m * $20).

Lastly, we can anticipate more frequent purchases due to free 2-day shipping. Let’s say there’s an
additional $40 worth of purchases per new Prime customer per year. Amazon’s gross margins are
25%, so that’s an extra $10 per year per new Prime customer, in total $0.4 billion (40m * $10).

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JioSaavn Family Plan Pricing

JioSaavn is a music streaming service that wants to launch a family music plan for its users. How We can probably run experiments to identify user perception regarding this new feature. I’d also
would you go about it? look at how many paid users we currently have versus the competition. If we’re behind, then this
aggressive pricing could help us catch up without sparking a price war. Overall, the idea is to keep
Sure, from what I understand JioSaavn wants to launch a new subscription plan aimed at families.
things affordable, play to our strengths, and build a family plan that makes sense for our audience.
So, I need to come up with a pricing strategy for this plan?
Great! This sounds good.
Yes, go ahead.
Okay, and I assume the goal of the pricing strategy is to attract more users. Especially, those who
are non-earning members or dependents within a household (e.g., children or elderly).
Fair enough. How do you go about pricing such a plan?
From what I know music streaming is a very competitive market in India and I would like to
concentrate on competitor-based pricing. However, various players cater to different customer
segments. To identify appropriate benchmarks, I'd first look at which segment JioSaavn targets
which I believe is regional music consumers, especially in tier-2 and tier-3 cities.
Okay, go ahead.
Also, I think Spotify and YouTube Music are the appropriate competitors given their popularity in
India. I would look at their pricing strategies and the offerings they provide to their customers.
Could you provide the latest pricing tiers for us and our key competitors?
Of course. Here are the current approximate monthly plans:

• JioSaavn: Individual: ₹99/month, Duo Plan (2 users): ₹129/month

• Spotify: ₹179/month for 6 users (Family Plan)
• YouTube Music: ₹189/month for 6 users (Family Plan; part of YouTube Premium)
Most music streaming platforms offer quite similar features, but JioSaavn stands out because of its
strong regional music collection and how well it can tie into Jio’s telecom ecosystem. That’s why
I’d suggest pricing the family plan at ₹149/month for up to 6 users as it would be a sweet spot that
would give families great value and fit well with users in Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities and even in rural
areas.
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Netflix Pricing Strategy Pricing

The Indian OTT market is intensely competitive and price-sensitive. Netflix has already • Amazon Prime: Included with Prime membership at ₹299/month (or ₹1499/year), which also
implemented price cuts and a mobile-only plan. Now, with the global rollout of its 'paid sharing' includes shopping and music.
policy to curb password sharing, you, as a Product Manager at Netflix, need to refine the pricing
and product strategy for India to continue growing the subscriber base and revenue. • Jio Hotstar: Has multiple tiers, with its premium ad-free plan at ₹299/month (or ₹1499/year).
I understand that the objective here is twofold: continue to grow our subscriber base while also This data confirms my hypothesis: our premium plans are priced significantly higher than
increasing revenue, specifically by converting password-sharers into paying customers. competitors, who leverage bundles (Amazon) and live sports (Jio Hotstar) as key value
Yes, that sounds fair. Go ahead. propositions. Our core value is our original content library. Competing with them on prices will
neither justify our costs nor our value proposition. Moving on to cost-based pricing, it doesn’t
To structure my approach, I'll use the 5 Cs framework: Company, Customers, Competitors, make sense to analyze it from a cost perspective, as the variable cost involved in serving every
Collaborators, and Context. I'll begin with what I know and then ask for a few details. additional subscriber is close to null. This industry primarily comprises high fixed costs of obtaining
Sure, you may take your time and go ahead. content licenses, content production, IT infrastructure, etc., and hence shouldn’t be looked at from
a cost-plus pricing angle.
1. Company (Netflix): Our goals are shifting from pure subscriber growth to profitable
growth, meaning Average Revenue Per User (ARPU) is now a key metric. The "paid sharing" 4. Collaborators: Telco operators like Jio and Airtel are key acquisition channels through
feature is the critical global initiative to support this. Our core competencies remain our bundling. OEM partnerships for pre-installation on devices also reduce friction.
content engine and personalization algorithm. 5. Context: The password-sharing crackdown is the most significant trend. Additionally, the 5G
2. Customers: The Indian market isn't monolithic. I see three key segments: rollout makes HD/4K plans more appealing, and the ubiquity of UPI simplifies payments.
• Mobile-First Youth: Highly price-sensitive, needs a low-cost, mobile-only option.
• Family Household: Values multiple screens and 4K quality for Smart TVs. They are That's a thorough analysis, especially highlighting the new "Converted Sharer" segment and the
less price-sensitive and prioritize convenience. competitive pressures from bundled services. Based on this, what are your specific
• Converted Sharer: This is a new, important segment. They are being forced into a recommendations on the “paid sharing feature”?
purchase decision and need an affordable, low-friction way to keep their profile and
viewing history. Based on that analysis, my recommendations are focused on successfully implementing paid sharing
3. Competitors: I know the landscape is defined by bundling and low prices from major players while refining our offerings for key segments.
like Amazon Prime Video, Jio Hotstar. To ground my recommendations in the current market,
could you provide the latest pricing tiers for us and our key competitors? 1. Optimize the "Paid Sharing" Feature for India: This is our biggest opportunity to boost
ARPU. The "Profile Transfer" feature must be flawless. I propose pricing the "add an extra
Of course. Here are the current approximate monthly plans:
member" slot at ₹99/month.
a. Rationale: Our ad-free Basic plan is ₹199. At ₹99, the fee is less than half the cost of a
• Netflix: Mobile (₹149), Basic (₹199), Standard (₹499), Premium (₹649). Netflix doesn’t offer
new plan, making it a low-friction "yes" for someone forced to pay for the first time.
annual plans.
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Netflix Pricing Strategy Pricing

2. Introduce an Ad-Supported Tier: The crackdown will cause some user loss. This plan is Secondary Metrics (The Diagnostic Metrics):
our safety net to increase ARPU. It would offer most of our catalogue with ad breaks, capped
at 720p on a single screen. I suggest pricing it at ₹149/month. • Conversion Rate of Shared Accounts: What percentage of accounts that receive the sharing
a. Rationale: This creates a clear value ladder. It's cheaper than the ad-free Basic plan notification convert to a new plan or an "extra member" slot? This is the direct measure of
(₹199), giving a clear choice to our most price-sensitive users and keeping them in our Recommendation #1's success.
ecosystem. Note: This would effectively replace the current Mobile plan by offering • Churn Rate or otherwise Customer Retention: How does our overall churn rate change? And
more device flexibility at the same price point, but with ads. specifically, is the ad-supported plan successfully catching users who would have otherwise
churned?
Any other recommendations going forward with the strategy?
• Ad-Supported Tier Engagement: How many hours are users on this new tier watching? This is a
1. Refine Acquisition with "Freemium" Pilots: Since 30-day free trials are gone, we need a leading indicator for our ad revenue potential.
new hook. I recommend making the first episode of our top 5 Indian and top 5 global originals
Excellent. You've covered the strategy from analysis to execution and measurement. We can close
free to watch for all non-subscribers.
the case here.
a. Rationale: This provides a risk-free sample of our best content, acting as a powerful
acquisition tool to drive sign-ups.
2. Deepen Telco Bundling Partnerships: We should create custom plans for our telco
partners, like a "Netflix Ad-Supported + 15GB data" bundle. This makes Netflix a value-add for
the telco and an easy acquisition channel for us.
3. Annual subscriptions: This serves as a commitment discount, which can achieve two goals:
it lowers the perceived monthly cost for price-conscious users and, more importantly, it will
help lock in subscribers and reduce monthly churn.
These are very concrete recommendations. How would you measure the success of this new
strategy if we were to implement it?
I would track a hierarchy of metrics:

Primary Metrics (The North Stars):

• Subscriber Growth Rate: Are we still adding net new subscribers?

• Average Revenue Per User (ARPU): Is the revenue per user increasing, driven by paid sharing
and upsells?
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Vendor Price Negotiation Pricing

Excerpt: While most pricing questions cater to setting the appropriate price for new products or services, Fair analysis. Assume for simplicity that there are no pay-as-you-go revenues, we are simply using a
negotiating vendor contracts is another kind of pricing problem that a manager might encounter subscription fee-based model.
Hi, you are a product manager at a popular cloud services company. Your main product is a Great, so we can approach the issue in the following way. There are two counter forces to shape
platform that provides on-demand GPU instances for AI startups and researchers to train their the response to the situation - Server costing & Product pricing.
models. You source your capacity from a third-party GPU server vendor. This vendor is
dissatisfied with the current pricing contract and is asking for the payment of significant overage GPUs can either be our own or from a third-party. The third-party server additionally can be
charges. How would you proceed? existing or new. The existing one can have the ongoing costing model, or it can be renegotiated.
That’s an interesting question. To begin with I would like to clarify some aspects of the problem.
Since the ongoing costing model is clearly not working, we would exclude that from our analysis.
Go ahead.
On the pricing end. We can either continue with the current pricing strategy or shift to a new one.
I would like to understand what kind of pricing structure is currently in place, and what is the The new strategy can, in turn, be subscription- based or usage-based. Is there something else I
reason for which the vendor is asking for the renegotiation? should consider?
Currently, we have a pay-per-use payment model. Here, the amount to be paid per user depends No, this looks perfect. What parameters would you evaluate these options on?
on the band in which the lump sum requirements of the GPU server's capacity lie. Recently, a
major new open-source AI model was released, and there has been a massive, unexpected surge in We could evaluate the options on the revenues (a proxy of pricing success), cost (a proxy of
demand from our customers wanting to use it. costing success), and risk (a sanity check on whether the option makes sense for the business).
Alright. So, this surge in usage could be from more customers signing up to use the new model, or Great. Now you can present your analysis and recommendations?
our existing customers running much larger or more frequent training jobs. Or both. Which one
has been the case with us?
Good question. So, we have had a spike in the number of users and in addition, the average time
for which a user engages with the platform has increased too.
Also, to understand the business requirements better, I would like to know more about the
business model in place. Typically, such platforms would either have a pure pay-as-you-go model
or a subscription-based model with a certain number of credits. If our model is purely pay-as-you-
go, we should be in a better position, because the increase in usage would translate directly to
higher revenue, offsetting the vendor's overage charges. If we have fixed-price subscription
customers, the existing fee would have been decided considering the break-even point with the
ongoing GPU costs - hence, the loss of profits would be higher.
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Vendor Price Negotiation Pricing

H=High, M=Medium, L=Low. 4 Revise M H L This would lead to higher revenue from new
Subscription customers, improving future profitability.
S. Alternative Rev. Cost Business Evaluation Pricing (New However, it doesn't solve the immediate cost
No. Impact Impact Risk Customers problem, as existing subscribers would
Only) continue to cause losses. The risk of churn is
1 Build Own L H H Although this option would reduce low since it doesn't affect current customers.
Data Center reliance on third-party vendors, it involves
extremely high capital costs and a long 5 Introduce M H L Improves future profitability without upsetting
timeline. It carries risks of migration usage-based the existing customer base. Doesn't solve the
downtime and, critically, the surge in tiers for all immediate loss from current customers.
demand for this specific AI model might new
cool off, leading to unused capacity. Since subscribers
the process is long, revenue realization
6 Launch usage- H L H This would lead to the highest revenue by fully
might be lower than the potential.
based pricing monetizing the usage surge. However, the risk
2 Diversify M L M Costs are potentially low due to tiers for all is extremely high. Forcing existing fixed-price
(Add a New competitive pricing. However, there is a users (fair-use) subscribers into a usage-based model would
GPU Server medium risk due to the time and effort likely cause significant customer churn,
Vendor) required for technical integration with our negative PR, and brand damage. Also, technical
platform, quality assurance, and the added changes might be required in the platform.
operational complexity of managing a
second vendor relationship.
Based on this analysis, I would like to recommend opting for option 5 immediately. The reason is
that it's least disruptive to our customer base and addresses both our cost structure and future
3 Renegotiate H M M The business risk is moderate as this is the revenue without taking on excessive risk.
with Existing least disruptive option, but our vendor has
Vendor significant bargaining power due to our On the other hand, we need to explore option 2 as a strategic initiative. Building relationships with
dependency. Therefore, the impact on a second vendor will protect us from being in this position again and will give us bargaining power
cost may only be moderate. Revenue is for future negotiations.
not directly impacted due to no transition
We could evaluate the options on the revenues (a proxy of pricing success), cost (a proxy of
losses. Also, no capital or fixed payments
costing success), and risk (a sanity check on whether the option makes sense for the business).
would be required.
That’d be all, thanks! 285

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 Section 5.6

RCA

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Drop in Engagement RCA

We are seeing a drop in Engagement for Duolingo over the last month. How would you go about [Phase 1: Investigating External Factors]
analyzing this issue?
To start with external factors, has this 15% drop been sudden or gradual over the last month? And
Thank you for this interesting problem. To make sure I analyze it thoroughly, I'd like to proceed in
to understand if this is a pattern, I'd like to check our year-over-year data. Have we seen a similar
a structured manner. First, I'll clarify the problem and the metrics. Second, I'll state my framework
dip around this time in previous years? This would help me identify any seasonality.
for investigating the root cause. Third, I'll systematically drill down to isolate the cause. Finally, I'll
propose solutions and a validation plan. The drop has been gradual over the last 4 weeks. And yes, while we often see a slight dip around
To begin, I'd like to confirm my understanding of Duolingo and the problem. Duolingo is a this time of year, this 15% drop is significantly steeper than the 3-5% seasonal variation we've seen
freemium language-learning app that gamifies the experience through points, levels, and streaks to historically.
drive user retention. Is that correct?
That's a key piece of information. It suggests that while seasonality might be a small contributing
Yes, your description of Duolingo is accurate. factor, it doesn't explain the majority of the drop. There's likely another, more dominant cause.
Have there been any major actions by our competitors, like a big marketing push or a viral new
Great. Now, clarifying the core metric: "Engagement." You mentioned it has dropped over the last
feature from an app? Or any negative PR affecting Duolingo?
month. Could you define what specific metric we use for engagement? Is it DAU/MAU (Daily
Active Users / Monthly Active Users), average session time, or perhaps the number of lessons Our market intelligence shows no unusual competitor activity or any significant negative
completed per user per week? press.
Excellent question. For this discussion, let's define Engagement as the weekly average number of Okay. It seems unlikely the root cause is purely external. So, I’ll now focus my investigation
users who complete at least one lesson. We've seen this metric decline by about 15% over the on Internal Factors.
past month. [Phase 2: Investigating Internal Factors]
Thank you, that's a very clear definition. A 15% drop is certainly significant.
I'll break down the internal factors into a few buckets:
• User Segments: Is the drop uniform across all users, or is it concentrated in a specific segment?
Now, I'll outline my approach. I will structure my analysis by first looking for External Factors and
• User Journey Funnel: Where in the user's path is the drop-off happening?
then drilling down into Internal Factors.
• Technical Issues & Product Changes: Have we introduced bugs or made a product change that's
1. External Factors: Things outside our direct control, like seasonality, competitor actions, or
causing this?
major news events.
2. Internal Factors: Things within our control, like product changes, technical bugs, or marketing
First, let's segment the data. I'd want to analyze the engagement drop across different dimensions:
campaigns.
• Geography: Are we seeing this drop globally or is it localized to a specific country, say the US
or India?
Does this structured approach sound good to you?
• Platform: Is there a difference between iOS and Android users?
Yes, that sounds logical. Please proceed. • User Type: Are new users or returning users more affected?
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• Language: Is this drop seen across all languages or specific ones like Spanish or French?

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Drop in Engagement RCA

That's a great line of questioning. After looking at the data, we've found the drop is most That is a very strong lead. My primary hypothesis now is: The increased frequency of mandatory
pronounced among returning users on iOS in the United States, across all the major languages speaking exercises is causing users to drop off mid-lesson because they are often in environments
they learn. where they cannot or are uncomfortable speaking aloud (e.g., on public transport, in a quiet office,
Excellent. That narrows down the problem space considerably. We're looking for something that or at night).
specifically affected returning iOS users in the US in the last month. [Phase 3: Validation and Solutions]
Now, let's map out the user journey for a returning user to see where they are dropping off. A
simplified funnel would look like this: To validate this hypothesis, I would propose a few quick data analyses:
1. User receives a notification or opens the app. • Correlate Drop-off with Exercise Type: Can we see which specific exercise screen users are on
2. User lands on the home screen/learning path. when they exit the lesson? If there's a spike in drop-offs on speaking exercises, that would
3. User starts a lesson. strongly support the hypothesis.
4. User progresses through the lesson's various exercises (e.g., matching pairs, typing • Analyze Time of Day: Are drop-offs higher during commute times or typical work hours, when
translations, speaking phrases). users are more likely to be in public?
5. User completes the lesson. Let's say the data confirms your hypothesis. We see a huge number of users dropping off the
The metric you mentioned was "users who complete at least one lesson." This implies the problem moment a speaking exercise appears. What would you propose as a solution?
lies somewhere in this funnel. My hypothesis is that we'll see a significant drop-off at one specific
step. For instance, are users failing to start a lesson, or are they starting but not completing it? This is a classic case of a well-intentioned feature creating a poor user experience in certain
contexts. I would brainstorm a few solutions and prioritize them based on user impact and
You're on the right track. The conversion from Step 2 (Home Screen) to Step 3 (Start Lesson) is engineering effort.
stable. However, we are seeing a major drop in the completion rate of lessons. That is, users start 1. Solution 1 (Quick Fix): "Can't Speak Now" Button. Introduce a button on speaking exercises
a lesson but don't finish it. that allows users to skip it or replace it with a different type of exercise (e.g., typing or
Got it. So, the problem is within the lesson itself. Now we need to figure out what changed inside listening). This directly addresses the user's contextual problem without disabling the feature
our lessons in the last month for returning iOS users in the US. I can think of a few possibilities: entirely.
1. Technical Bugs: A new iOS update might be causing our app to crash during lessons, or maybe 2. Solution 2 (More Control): Exercise Preferences. In the settings, allow users to set their
lesson assets (images, audio) aren't loading correctly. preference for how frequently they receive speaking exercises, or to disable them entirely.
2. Performance Issues: The lesson could have become slower or laggier. This gives power users more control.
3. Product/Content Change: We may have rolled out a change to the structure, content, or type 3. Solution 3 (Smarter System): Context-Aware Suggestions. Use device signals (e.g., headphones
of exercises within the lessons. I'd want to review our release logs and feature flag dashboard. connected, microphone access denied, time of day) to intelligently decide whether to serve a
speaking exercise. This is more complex but would provide the best experience.
Let's assume we've checked for major bugs and performance issues and they aren't the primary
cause. You mentioned product changes. We did recently roll out a change via a feature flag to a For an immediate rollout, I would champion Solution 1. It's the most direct and likely lowest-effort
segment of our iOS users in the US. We increased the proportion of speaking exercises in lessons solution to stop the bleeding.
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Drop in Engagement RCA

We could roll this out as an A/B test.

• Control Group: The current experience with increased speaking exercises.
• Variant Group: The experience with the "Can't Speak Now" button.

Success Metric: Our primary success metric would be the lesson completion rate. I would look for
a statistically significant increase in this metric for the variant group, bringing it closer to the pre-
drop baseline. A secondary metric would be to ensure that long-term retention isn't negatively
impacted.
If the A/B test is successful, we can roll this feature out to 100% of the affected users and then
explore Solution 2 or 3 as part of our long-term product roadmap.
That's an excellent and thorough analysis. You've clearly identified the problem, drilled down to a
plausible root cause, and proposed a concrete, data-driven plan to validate and fix it. Thank you.

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Low Adoption Rate RCA

Instagram recently launched a new feature allowing users to purchase merchandise of clothes shown know where the new feature got introduced and has users been dropping at any part of the above
in Reels. However, the initial adoption rate for this feature is very low. Can you walk me through user flow.
how you would start investigating this issue?
Good analysis of user flow. The new feature was introduced on the profile page of content
Let me know if I understood correctly about the product in question. Instagram is a popular social creator. Where user gets option to visit the page to buy merchandise of content creator by
media platform that revolves around visual content sharing. Its core value proposition lies in enabling clicking on the profile image of content creator. No, user metrics have not changed in the old user
users to express themselves through photos, videos, short form content, connect with a global flow.
community, and discover inspiring content.
Based on this new information, the user flow would be modified as follows. Instagram users open
Yes, you are right about the product. the app’s homepage. Then, they open a reel on their timeline. They, then, do vertical scrolling to
watch new recommended reels. They can like, comment or share a reel in the feed when they are
Firstly, I will narrow down the scope of the problem. Is this specific to a geography? Or Is it specific
watching it. If they like the reel and content creator, they open the profile page of the content
to app users? Or any such specific demographic.
creator and click on the profile image of the content creator to buy their merchandise.
The low adoption rate has been low for all geographies.
That’s right. That would be the new user flow.
Is this a recent issue, or has it been gradually declining since the feature was launched?
Since, problem is observed across the content and user metrics have not changed at any part of
It's a recent issue. the old user flow. What has been the rate of users clicking on the profile image and clicking on the
merchandise link?
Have there been any technical issues or performance problems reported with this feature?
There was no change in rate of users clicking on the profile image. However, rate at which users
No technical issues have been reported. click on the merchandise link has been minimal to say the least.
Is the low adoption seen across all types of Reels or concentrated in some categories? Since, the whole user flow metrics have been normal till the last point. The problem could be
It has been observed across the content. awareness about the feature.

Thank you for the information. Now, I'd like to analyze both internal and external factors. Have Yes, you are right. Users did not know that the feature existed. Only users who read or heard
there been any external factors such as changes in the social media landscape or competitors about the feature release interacted with it. How can we improve awareness about the feature?
launching similar features or government regulations? Following could be done so as to increase adoption rate. Send notifications to all users or targeted
No, there haven't been any significant external changes. user segments when they open the Instagram app informing them about the new shopping
capability. Have a "Shop from Reels" spotlight as the first post users see in their feed for a period
Okay, let's move on to analyzing the internal factors. Let me chart out the user journey of user of time to announce the feature. Show reels that are ads to users on how to use the feature. This
interacting with reels. Instagram users open the app’s homepage. Then, they open a reel on their way interventions can be made on current the user flow to nudge user behavior.
timeline. They, then, do vertical scrolling to watch new recommended reels. They can like, comment
or share a reel in the feed when they are watching it or they can follow the content creator. Users Thank you. We can close the interview. 290
would open the profile page of content creator to check old content of the content creator. Let me

ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

Drop in Watch Time RCA

Let's say you're a Product Manager at YouTube, and you've noticed a 10% drop in overall watch With that context, I would proceed to internal factors analysis. Do we have any indications that
time on the platform this week. How would you go about analyzing this issue? data accuracy might be an issue? Are there discrepancies in our metrics or reports?
Let me know if I understood correctly about the product in question. YouTube is a leading video- The data appears to be accurate and consistent with other data sources.
sharing platform that allows users to upload, share, and view a wide variety of videos. With its vast
Have there been technical problems, such as increased downtime, latency, or errors in the mobile
and diverse content library, including user-generated content, official music videos, and educational
app? Could these technical issues be discouraging users from engaging with the platform?
resources, YouTube offers a one-stop destination for entertainment, information, and creative
expression. No, technical issues observed.
Yes, you are right about the product. Let’s understand the user journey and see where the problem is occurring for users. Users open
the YouTube app. Then, they search for a video based on keywords or click on a video
Firstly, I would like to seek more context about the problem. Could you provide insights into
recommended to them. They watch the video. They click on search for a new video, or a new
whether the drop is consistent across all content categories, or if specific types are more affected?
video gets auto played after the video is played.
The drop seems to be consistent across most content types.
This user journey is appropriate and relevant.
Understood. Next, I'd like to understand if this drop is observed on all devices or if it's more
Let’s pinpoint the point in user journey where the watch time is dropping. are fewer people
pronounced on mobile or desktop.
launching the YouTube app?
It appears both have the same drop.
No.
Great. I'd also like to know if specific regions are experiencing a more significant drop in watch time
Are people finding less content that intrigues them to watch? Or not receiving relevant search
compared to others.
results? or are fewer titles and thumbnails enticing users to click videos open?
It seems to be a global issue without any significant regional variations.
Relevant keyword results are shown. Recommendation algorithm is working well.
Lastly, have there been any recent changes in how watch time is calculated or measured on the
Are people watching videos for shorter durations once they start?
platform?
The watch time per video has been normal.
No, there haven't been any changes in the calculation method recently.
Has there been change in drop offs after watching the video? If yes, it could be due to disabling of
When did this drop in watch time start, and has it been consistent over the past week?
default auto-play because search and recommendation are working normally.
It has been consistent.
Yes. This was the reason for drop off of watching times. Thank You.
Have there been any external factors such as changes in the social media landscape or competitors
launching similar features or government regulations?
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No, there haven't been any significant external changes.

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Spike in Ride Cancellations RCA

Thank you for joining us today. We are facing a significant issue with our Uber app. There has been a Yes, that’s correct.
sudden spike in cancellation rates, and our customers are experiencing poor service as a result. I'd
That’s very helpful. Moving on to internal factors, has there been any recent update or major
like you to walk me through how you would approach identifying the root cause of this issue.
release to the Uber app, particularly anything that might affect the user experience or the
Thank you for the opportunity. To start, can you clarify what the Uber app does in this context and functionality of the driver’s side of the app?
which specific services are being impacted by these cancellations?
Yes, we recently rolled out an update that allows drivers to see the drop-off location before they
The Uber app connects riders with drivers for transportation services. The issue is primarily with accept a ride.
ride cancellations.
Interesting. Let’s go back to the user journey once. Can you specify at which point in this journey
Understood. Could you specify the time period during which this increase in cancellations has been the cancellations are occurring?
observed? Is it a recent development, or has it been a gradual increase over time?
The drivers are usually cancelling the rides after accepting them but before reaching the user’s
It’s a recent development, primarily observed in the last couple of weeks. pickup location.
That’s helpful to know. Is there a particular geographic region or city where this problem is more That provides valuable insight. Have there been any technical issues or glitches reported since this
pronounced, or is it widespread across all areas where Uber operates? new feature was released?
The issue seems to be more prevalent in metropolitan areas, but it’s not limited to a specific city. No technical glitches have been reported with this feature.
Interesting. What kind of customers are being affected the most by these cancellations? Are they Aside from the new feature, have there been any other recent changes in the offerings on the app,
new users, existing users, or a mix of both? such as pricing, internal salaries, service quality, or any new product offerings that might influence
driver behavior?
Both new and existing users are affected, but we’ve noticed more complaints from our frequent
users. No, the main change has been the new feature allowing drivers to see the drop-off location.
Thank you. On which platform are these cancellations happening? Is it more on iOS, Android, or Let’s consider external factors as well. Are there any new regulations or laws affecting our service?
both equally? Any environmental factors like recent natural disasters?
The cancellations are happening across both platforms, so it doesn’t seem to be platform-specific. No new regulations or environmental factors that we’re aware of.
Got it. Have there been any recent changes to how the cancellation metric is calculated or How about competitor actions? Have there been any significant changes in competitor offerings or
reported? Any updates to the BI tool that tracks these metrics? promotions that could be impacting driver behavior?
No, the way we calculate and report cancellations hasn’t changed recently. Not that we’ve noticed. Our competitors seem to be operating as usual.
Understood. Now, let's look at the customer journey on the app. Typically, a customer would open Have there been any PR issues or negative sentiment on social media that could be influencing
the app, enter their destination, request a ride, and wait for a driver to accept the ride. The driver or customer behavior? 292
customer is then notified of the driver’s details, price and ETA.

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Spike in Ride Cancellations RCA

We haven’t noticed any significant PR issues or social media backlash recently.

Based on our discussion, it seems the root cause might be related to the recent update allowing
drivers to see the drop-off location. Drivers could be cancelling more frequently if they find the
drop-off location undesirable. This matches the feedback you’ve received from the drivers.
Addressing this feature, perhaps by implementing incentives for completing rides to less desirable
locations or refining the feature to balance driver preferences with customer needs, might help
reduce the cancellation rates.
That makes sense. Thank you for walking through the analysis so thoroughly.

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Decline in Subscriptions RCA

Great to have you here today. Let's dive into the case. Netflix subscriptions have reduced on a Great, thank you. Now, I would look into internal factors. To do this, I'll map out the user journey
month-to-month basis by 8%. How would you approach identifying the root cause of this decline? on the Netflix app: users typically log in, navigate to the payment section to adjust any payment
preferences and pay, set preferences of language and genre and then proceed to search for or
Thank you for the opportunity. Let me know if I understood correctly about the product in
watch recommended content. Is that correct?
question. Netflix is a streaming service that offers a wide variety of TV shows, movies,
documentaries, and more, available to subscribers for a monthly fee. Yes, it sounds perfect.
Yes, that’s correct. Moving on, have there been any recent tech-related issues or updates or major UI releases that
could have contributed to this decline? Any glitches, non-intuitive UX changes, or performance
Now, regarding the time period, is the 8% decline observed just in the last month, or has this been a
issues?
trend over several months?
Yes. There was an update related to instant messaging service to customers reminding them of
The decline has been observed over the last month.
scheduled auto debit subscription setting. Furthermore, a new readily available and accessible auto
Understood. Is this decline observed only in India, or is it a global phenomenon? debit cancellation button has been introduced in the payment section of the websites and app.
It's specific to India. Okay, that’s really insightful. Have there been any changes in the offerings on the app, such as
pricing adjustments, changes in service quality, or new product features that might be cannibalizing
Okay. Are we seeing this decline across all the customer segments, or is it more pronounced in a existing offerings?
particular segment, such as new subscribers or long-term users?
There haven't been any significant changes in offerings.
It seems to affect both new and existing subscribers.
Understood. Are there any notable trends in user reviews that could give us insight into their
Noted. Is this change in subscription rates sudden, or has it been gradual over the month? satisfaction or dissatisfaction?
It's been quite sudden. We had noticed some negative reviews mentioning the ease of cancellation due to the new
That’s helpful to know. Could you clarify how the subscription metric is calculated? Is it the number regulations.
of active subscriptions, revenue, or something else? That's insightful. Now, let's consider external factors. Has there been any new government
It's based on the number of active subscriptions. regulation or law, other than the one you've mentioned, that might affect Netflix's performance?

Thanks. Has there been any recent change in how this metric is calculated or reported? Yes, the Government of India has recently introduced other policy changes aimed at increasing
consumer protection. These include stricter data privacy laws and more stringent rules around
No, the calculation method has remained consistent. auto-renewal of subscriptions across various digital services.
Lastly, is the BI tool that reports this metric functioning correctly? That's important to know. Can you confirm if the mentioned updates were due to these factors?
It seems to be working fine. Yes, that’s correct. 294

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Decline in Subscriptions RCA

How about competitor analysis? Have any new entrants or existing competitors launched more
attractive options or promotions recently?
Some competitors have been offering discounts, but nothing drastically different from usual.
Noted. Have there been any recent PR issues or negative sentiment on social media or in the news
about Netflix?
No major PR issues, but the new regulation has been a topic of discussion.
Finally, are there any observable changes in consumer behavior or psychology that could be
influencing this decline?
The users have been opting for cancellation of auto debit feature in significant numbers.
That makes sense. The government regulation requiring text reminders and an easily accessible
cancellation button seems to have made users more aware and cautious about automatic payments,
leading to the observed decline in subscriptions. We can address this by enhancing the value
proposition to retain users and perhaps offer reminders or loyalty programs of the benefits of
staying subscribed.
Sounds good, thank you!

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Drop in Daily Active Users RCA

Welcome! You're the Product Manager for our mobile banking app. Recently, we observed a Good question. Upon checking, the drop is primarily among users with Android 12 and above,
concerning drop: Android Daily Active Users (DAU) decreased by 40% in the last two weeks, regardless of manufacturer.
whereas iOS DAU remained steady. Can you walk me through how you'd diagnose and identify the
That's insightful. Let’s investigate internal changes next. Typically, sudden drops coincide with
root cause?
product changes: (Recent Product Updates) Did we deploy a new Android app version around the
Absolutely. Let me first ensure I clearly understand the issue. Android DAU dropped by 40% over time this DAU decline started? Did the update include major UX/UI, backend, security, or
two weeks, while iOS DAU remained flat. Is that accurate? permissions changes?
Yes, that's correct. Yes. We pushed a major Android update two weeks ago, specifically targeting improved security
and permissions management. No equivalent iOS update was rolled out.
Great. I'd start by asking a few clarifying questions: (Metrics Definition) Are we measuring DAU as
total unique users who opened the app at least once per day? (User Segments) Is this drop This aligns well with the timeline of our issue. Let's drill down deeper here: (Release Quality) Did
consistent across new and existing users? (Geographic Scope) Does this issue appear globally, or is it we observe a spike in crash reports or user complaints post-release? Has our app rating on the
localized in certain markets? Google Play Store dropped significantly after the update?
(Metrics Definition) Yes, it's unique users per day. (User Segments) Both new and existing users are Yes, crash reports have surged dramatically, specifically around app startup. Reviews mentioning
impacted. (Geographic Scope) It's a global issue but more pronounced in North America. crashes and negative ratings have sharply increased since the update.
Understood. First, I'd like to verify the reliability of our metrics before digging deeper: (Metrics That's a critical clue. I’d next examine the crash reports closely: (Crash Diagnosis) Do crash logs
Reliability) Have we recently changed our analytics system, or any event definitions? Is there a indicate a specific error or exception consistently across devices? Do crashes correlate to the new
possibility of data processing delays or incorrect aggregation? permissions or security logic we introduced?
No changes to analytics tools, or events definitions. Also, no delays or data aggregation errors The logs indicate repeated crashes tied directly to permission checks during app launch, specifically
detected. on Android 12+.
Given metrics are accurate, I'd next explore external market factors: (Industry Trends) Has the Given this, it strongly suggests our recent security update has introduced a permission-handling
industry witnessed any recent shifts or disruptions impacting Android specifically? (Competitor bug that specifically impacts users on Android 12 and above. To summarize our diagnostic path so
Influence) Are there competitors who recently launched any significant promotions, discounts, or far clearly: Verified metrics accuracy (no issue found). Ruled out external market factors and
features targeting Android users specifically? competitors (no impact). Identified the affected segment (Android 12+ devices globally, strongly in
North America). Narrowed the problem to our recent internal app update with permission or
No significant external events or competitor promotions recently. security logic changes causing app startup crashes. Do you agree with this conclusion so far?
Okay, ruling out external factors. Let’s segment the users more deeply to see where precisely this Yes, I agree with your analysis and conclusion.
drop is happening: (Device Analysis) Is this issue consistent across all Android OS versions, or
specific to a particular Android version? Does this issue affect all Android devices equally, or is it Excellent. Now, with root cause identified, let’s discuss solutions and next steps:
specific to certain manufacturers (e.g., Samsung, Google Pixel)? 296 If
Short-term fixes: Immediately roll back the problematic update to the last stable version.
rollback isn’t feasible, urgently issue a hot-fix correcting the permissions logic and deploy quickly.

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Drop in Daily Active Users RCA

User Communication: Inform affected users about the issue and provide clear instructions to update
the app promptly once fixed. Consider compensatory gestures (e.g., promotional offers) to regain
user trust.
Long-term preventive measures: Strengthen QA testing, especially for Android OS upgrades,
permissions, and startup routines. Implement automated alerting systems to catch anomalies in user
metrics and crash rates earlier.
Thank you. We can close the interview.

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Decline in Cart Additions RCA

There is a decline of about 10% in cart additions (Add to Cart) in the last 3 days in Myntra. Can Thank You. I will divide the framework in 2 parts: External factors and internal factors.
you help us investigate the problem?
1. External factors: What competitors have done in the last 3 days. This can include any new
Sure, to make sure we are on the same page, I would clarify the problem statement. The cart
product launch or new announcement by the competitor. This can take away some of the
addition refers to adding an item through the ‘Add to Bag’ button on Myntra and I have to find the
existing customers of the Myntra or their purchase decision can be delayed. We can also look
root cause behind the decline in the cart additions.
at macro-economic changes: is it the seasonality impact or has been there any particular news
Yes, that is correct. in the market?
2. Internal factors: Is there any new announcement or campaigns run by the Myntra? Has Myntra
Myntra has both mobile application (android and IOS) and website. Are we looking at a generic made any design changes in the app or released any updates in the android app? Apart from
10% decline on all platforms or is it specific to any one platform i.e. app or website? these factors, we can look at the customer journey to see whether any step before the cart
Good question, we are noticing the decline in the Myntra android app. addition has seen any glitch or bugs. If none of this is the reason, then probably we can look at
some of the factors that impact the purchase decision of the consumer. Does the approach
Is the decline seen across all categories of products or in any specific category of product? Also, I look good, or do you want me to make any changes?
am assuming that this is an abrupt decline and not associated with month-end/start seasonalities.
Yes, that looks great. Please continue.
The decline is seen throughout all the categories. Yes, you may assume that.
Has there been any sale or product announcement by the online or offline competitors of Myntra?
Is this specific to certain user segments as in new users, premium users or based on any kind of
demography? No, nothing unusual. To the best of our knowledge, they are running their regular campaigns.

No, the decline is broadly similar. Is it safe to assume that there have been no macroeconomic changes that can influence customer
behavior? Personally, I did not come across any such news.
Okay. I will take just 2 mins to prepare the root cause analysis framework and explain it further.
Yes, it is safe to assume.
Sure, take your time.
Okay, so I will move on to the internal factors. Firstly, has there been any new announcement or
Okay, so I am assuming that all the analytical tools are working fine and we do not need to check campaigns run by the Myntra? The information can help me identify whether customers are waiting
the tool that are providing us with the data. for any special event to shop or has there been decline in any one product category and increase
Yes, you can assume this. We have checked the logs multiple times. in another.
The decline is spread over all the categories and not specific to any product or customer base.
Also, we are running regular campaigns that we run throughout the year.
Interesting. My next question would be whether Myntra app has released any new updates?
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Decline in Cart Additions RCA

Yes, we have released few updates to improve the user experience of the customer.
Are these updates related to the customer journey of the user, and does it involve changes in Add
to Bag feature?
Yes, it involves design changes related to ‘Add to Bag’ feature. We want you to analyze this thing
further. What other factors do you think can be there that can lead to decline?
Okay.

• The first thing I can think of is whether this update released for the android app was a force
update or not. If it was not a force update, then some consumers might be using the older
version, and the backend services might not support the older version. Further, we need to
focus on whether a rollback for such an update is possible to mitigate this impact.
• Second, we can look at the success rate of the ‘Add to Bag’ API in the last 3 days to analyze if
the API is working fine or not.
• Thirdly, I hope consumers are aware of the new changes in the app and they might not consider
the changes fishy and abort the transaction.
Actually, when the consumer clicks on the ‘Add to bag’ button, that action is not being captured by
the API. Looks like there was a mistake in the deployment. Thank You for resolving the issue.
Do you want me to analyze it further by going through the customer journey?
No, I think that will be all.

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 Section 5.7

App Improvement

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Facebook Reactions App Improvement

Let us say that Facebook wants to improve its Reactions feature. How would you go about Yes we can proceed.
suggesting some actions that they can take?
For the active engagers, since their objective is to have a deep expression of their opinions and
I’d like to clarify a few things before I deep dive into this question. Firstly, when we say ‘Reactions’, feelings, I believe that that they would have the following major pain points with the current
are we talking about the feature through which users react to the posts made by them or other implementation:
users through emojis etc.? Second, do we have any specific user persona in mind for which we
should suggest some focal areas - for example, based on their engagement? Third and most 1. Not enough emojis to express themselves, and since the emojis usually represent a single
importantly, is there any specific reason behind the call to action for improvement such as negative expression, there is a lack of expression avenues to express more complex expressions.
user feedback or any other thing? 2. Emojis lack any dynamic visual characteristics, hence limiting the ability of the users to be more
engaging and expressive in their reactions.
You are correct in your understanding of the feature. We have multiple user personas that use
3. Reactions are limited to only one emoji per post, which may act as an inhibitor to express
Facebook, however for the sake of this discussion, let’s restrict ourselves to individual user
multiple reactions.
personas only. You can assume that Facebook wants to drive higher engagement on its platform
4. There are limited counter-reaction opportunities to the existing reactions, which leads to
and wants to explore how the Reactions feature can be improved to achieve this.
premature termination of the exchange.
Understood. I'd like to broadly outline my high-level structure before I start. First, I’ll start by
identifying the different user personas that use this feature. Then: identifying the pain points, I’ll
Good observations. Let us say you want to prioritize any one of these pain points. Which one will
formulate some solutions that can address them and evaluate the tradeoffs and risks that may be
you pick, and what solutions do you think can address them?
associated with them. Is this a fair approach, or would you like me to consider any additional
analyses? I think since the core objective of this analysis is to drive more engagement, offering greater
expression avenues beyond emojis with the prioritization of point 2 - having audio-visual reactions
This seems comprehensive. We can proceed.
- would be the way forward. To that end, some of the solutions can be:
Thanks, since our focus is on individual users, I would like to bucket them into three segments:
1. Have avatar-based reactions through integration with facial-recognition solutions to make the
1. Passive viewers: Users who do not react to any posts reactions much more personalized.
2. Nominal engagers: Users who react to posts using emojis and/or like button 2. Offer functionality to users to record or choose from a standard gallery, short videos that can
3. Active engagers: Users who are deeply engage with posts through emojis and comments be used for visually-expressive reactions
3. Include visual cues at the UX level to direct users towards the reactions discussed above. This
Now, to prioritize the user personas that I would take into consideration two factors - degree of can be in the form of a catchy, highlighted icon(s) that would drive attention of the users
unmet needs and TAM. Based on this, I feel that ‘Active engagers’ are the segment of users that we towards it.
should prioritize as they have the highest unmet needs for expression and they act as the pull for
Passive and Nominal engagers to increase their current engagement levels, thus expanding the
current base of active engagers. Are there any inputs, or should I proceed with identification of 301
pain points as the next step?

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Facebook Reactions App Improvement

However, some key challenges for these solutions can be:

1. Censorship challenges
2. Higher storage requirements
Good points. I would like you to think now of some success factors that can be used to measure
the success of your solution, and some mitigation measures for the challenges that you have
identified.
Some of the KPIs for the proposed feature can be:

1. The number of users engaging with video reactions

2. The percentage of reactions comprising of video reactions

For the challenges, the following mitigants can be adopted:

1. Use an AI model that screens the video reactions for risky content, and based on detection of
uncensored content, flag the content to the user and prevent it from getting posted.
2. Limit the duration of the video to a maximum value, say 5 seconds, to reduce the storage
requirement. Additionally, the resolution of the video can be adjusted to a set value to prevent
storage overruns from high resolution content.
Nicely elaborated. We can close the discussion now.

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BookMyShow User Engagement App Improvement

Let us say that BookMyShow wants to improve engagement and user satisfaction through new For Transactional Users, the key pain points include:
experiential features. How would you go about suggesting some actions they can take?
1. Static location settings: Users traveling to other cities often don’t get relevant suggestions
I’d like to clarify a few things before I dive deeper. Firstly, are we targeting the end-user flow from
2. Event discovery is passive: There is no intelligent or voice-based assistance for finding events
discovery to post-booking, or are we focusing on a particular phase (e.g., event discovery, booking,
3. No meaningful rewards for writing reviews: Users contribute ratings but receive no incentive
post-attendance)? Second, are we looking at improving engagement across all users, or is there a
4. Review contribution doesn’t drive social visibility: Users aren’t acknowledged for being
priority persona we want to focus on? Lastly, is there any trigger behind this need for
consistent reviewers
improvement - such as a drop in repeat usage or a need to increase content creation on the
platform?
From these, I would prioritize point 2 and 3, as they are directly linked to habit formation and
You can assume that we are looking at increasing user engagement and stickiness across the engagement loops.
lifecycle. Let’s focus on individual users who use BookMyShow regularly to book movies and Makes sense. What solutions would you propose to address those?
events.
I’d suggest the following:
Understood. I’ll start by outlining my high-level structure. First, I’ll define relevant user personas
based on engagement behavior. Then, I’ll identify key pain points across their journey, followed by 1. AI Assistant with Prompt-Based Search (Voice Supported): Introduce a smart assistant
proposed solutions for the highest-impact areas. I’ll also touch on trade-offs and mitigation on the homepage with prompts like “top movies near me”, “sports this weekend”, or “comedy
strategies. Does that sound good? shows in Mumbai”. The user can type or speak a query, and it redirects them to a pre-filtered
That works. Go ahead. result set. This reduces cognitive effort and encourages proactive exploration.

Based on BookMyShow’s use cases, I’d classify users into the following segments: 2. Reviewer Rewards Program: Gamify the review submission process. Verified reviewers
earn points for each review they write after attending an event or movie. These points can be
1. Occasional Users: Use the app only for major releases or popular events redeemed for wallet credits, partner discounts, or early access offers. This can help improve
2. Transactional Users: Regularly book tickets but don’t engage beyond the core booking flow community content while also driving post-transaction re-engagement.
3. Engaged Users: Book often and also explore events, write reviews, and refer others
3. Dynamic Location Updating: Enable automatic location detection so users don’t have to
To drive sustainable engagement, I would prioritize the Transactional Users segment. These users manually change cities. This is useful for travelers and ensures that recommendations are
already trust and transact with the platform but are under-leveraged from an engagement and always contextually relevant. A fallback toggle should be provided for users to override auto-
retention perspective. By increasing their post-booking or mid-journey interaction, we can move location for privacy reasons.
them closer to the Engaged User segment and improve overall stickiness.
These three solutions focus on reducing friction in discovery, increasing meaningful user
Should I move on to identifying pain points next? contributions, and personalizing content.
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Yes, please proceed.

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BookMyShow User Engagement App Improvement

The are thoughtful. What challenges or trade-offs do you foresee?

Some potential trade-offs and risks include:

1. The AI assistant might require strong natural language understanding to avoid frustration from
misinterpretation. Needs a fallback experience (e.g., pre-filtered cards).
2. Risk of low-quality or spam reviews just to earn points. This can dilute trust and create
moderation overhead.
3. Location Auto-Detection can raise privacy concerns among users who don’t want location
tracking.
Good points. I would like you to think now of some success factors that can be used to measure
the success of your solution, and some mitigation measures for the challenges that you have
identified.
Here are some relevant KPIs:

1. Percentage of users using the AI assistant (text or voice) in the discovery journey
2. Percentage of first-time reviewers converting to repeat reviewers
3. Average reviews per 1000 bookings
4. Uplift in session-to-booking conversion due to faster discovery
5. Opt-in rate for location-based recommendations

For the challenges, the following mitigations can be adopted:

1. Use pre-built AI intents (e.g., Google Dialogflow) for assistant implementation and limit scope
to predefined genres/events to start.
2. Implement content filters and quality thresholds before awarding points (e.g., minimum word
count, flagged words).
3. Make auto-location opt-in and clearly communicate its benefit to the user upfront.
Well structured and nicely articulated. We can close the discussion now.
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 Section 6

Collaborators

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 COLLABORATORS
Mukul Jain Apurva Narvekar
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Muskan Gupta Mihir Rajora

PGP-2 PGP-2

Dipak Agrawal Priyesh Pandey

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 COLLABORATORS
Hemant Agarwal Shashish Maurya
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Vyom Goel Subhash S

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Jagadish Singh Harmandeep Singh

Naik Bhukya Kahlon
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 COLLABORATORS
Surabhi Porwal Kishor Khilare
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Anurag Rakshit G R Srikanth

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Siddhant Samyak Amish Gupta

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ProdMan Club, IIM Ahmedabad 2025-26

 COLLABORATORS
Meghna Sparsh Chadha
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Anik Mondal Arju Aman

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Jai Kumar Aisha Meena

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 COLLABORATORS
Cini Joseph Aryan Rastogi
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Sanjay Sankar Roopak Sharma

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Rohin Gupta Mayank Adhikari

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 COLLABORATORS
Aayush Gahan Yogesh Deokar
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Ayush Mahant Aditya Dokhale

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Pramod Chandra
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 Thank You

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