INTRODUCTION

The field of Psychology is becoming more and more popular every day. In
India, for example, the number of colleges and students opting for the study
of the subject at the undergraduate and post –graduate levels is yearly
increasing in almost all the universities of the country. In Zambia, psychology
is becoming popular as evidenced by the many higher education institutions
that incorporate it in other programmes or as a stand-alone programme,
especially at the post-graduate level.

Psychology is an offspring of Philosophy. With the passage of time, it has

undergone a change from one of sheer speculation to that of scientific
procedure.

Psychology Defined

The meaning and concept of psychology has frequently changed over time.
Generally, psychology can be defined as an academic and applied discipline
that involves the scientific study of mental processes, behaviors and
experiences in different contexts. In doing so, it uses methods of biological
and social sciences to obtain data systematically.

Mental Processes

Mental processes are activities of the mind and brain that are related to
cognition. We use mental processes when we think or remember something
or solve a problem. However, these mental activities are different from the
neural activities, though they are mutually overlapping processes. The mind
emerges and evolves as our interactions and experiences in this world get
dynamically organized in the form of a system which is responsible for the
occurrence of various mental processes. Mental processes include reasoning,
learning, thinking, problem-solving, perception and many others.

Experiences

Experiences can be defined as learning acquired through everyday life

situations. Experiences are subjective in nature, different for every individual.
We cannot directly observe or know someone’s experiences. Only the
experiencing person can be aware or conscious of his or her experiences.
Thus, experience is embedded in our awareness or unconsciousness.

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Experiences are influenced by internal and external conditions of the
experiences. The nature of the experiences can only be understood by
analyzing a complex set of internal and external conditions. Experiences are
important because most of our learning is based on experience.

Behaviors

Behaviors are responses or reactions we make or activities we engage in. For

example, one can feel the heart pounding before taking an examination. Some
behaviors such as thinking may be simple or complex, short or enduring. On
the other hand, some behaviors may be outwardly seen or sensed and are
called overt, for example laughing. All behaviors can be explained on the basis
of the S-R (Stimulus Response Relations). Any behavior, overt or covert, is
associated with or triggered by a stimulus. Both stimulus and response can be
internal or external. The same stimulus can have different responses, due to
the organism variable. It emphasizes upon an individual’s uniqueness and
variation that makes them different from the others.

PSYCHOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE

As a discipline, psychology studies behavior, experiences and mental

processes. It seeks to understand and explain how the mind works and how
different mental processes result in different behaviors.

When we observe others, our own point of view or ways of understanding the
world influence our interpretations of their behaviors and experiences.
Psychologists try to minimize such biases in their explanations of behavior and
experience in various ways. Some do so by making their analysis scientific
and objective. Others seek to explain behavior from the point of view of those
experiencing persons because they think that selectivity is a necessary aspect
of human experience.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology has four main goals namely to describe, explain, predict and
change/control behavior.

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 a. Describe

Describing things is something we do every single day with no conscious

thought or effort. But describing in psychology has a slightly different meaning
than the describing we do in our everyday life. Descriptions help psychologists
to distinguish between normal and abnormal behavior and gain a more
accurate understanding and perspective on human and animal behavior,
actions, and thoughts.

Psychology researchers utilize a range of research methods to help describe

behavior including naturalistic observation, case studies, correlational studies,
surveys, and self-report inventories.

Researchers might start by observing human behavior and then describing a

problem. By understanding what is happening, psychologists can then work
on learning more about why the behavior happens and even how to change
it.

b. Explain

As you might imagine, in addition to merely describing it, psychologists are

also interested in explaining behavior rather than just being able to describe
it. Why do people do the things they do? What factors contribute to
development, personality, social behavior, and mental health problems? This
helps in providing answers to questions about why people react in a certain
way, why they do the things they do and the factors which affect their
personality, their mental health, their actions.

c. Predict

Making predictions about how we think, and act is the third goal of psychology.
By looking at past observed behavior (describing and explaining)
psychologists aim to predict how that behavior will appear again in the future
and whether other people might exhibit the same behavior. Through the
process of describing an explanation, psychologists are able to understand
more about what thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are contributing factors.
They can then use that knowledge to predict why, when, and how those things
might happen in the future.

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Successfully predicting behavior is also one of the best ways to know if we
understand the underlying causes of our actions.

Prediction also allows psychologists to make guesses about human behavior

without necessarily understanding the mechanisms underlying the
phenomena.

For example, if researchers notice that scores on a particular aptitude

test predict high school dropout rates, they can use that information to
estimate how many students might drop out of school each year.

In the previous example looking at consumer behavior, psychologists would

use the information they collected to try to predict what consumers will
purchase next. Businesses and marketers often employ consumer
psychologists to make such predictions so that they can create products that
will appeal to buyers.

d. Change/Control

Psychology aims to change, influence, or control behavior to make positive,

constructive, meaningful, and lasting changes in people's lives and to
influence their behavior for the better.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

There are different types of psychology that serve different purposes. There
is no fixed way of classifying them, but here are some common types.

1. Abnormal Psychology

Abnormal psychology is dedicated to patients who display abnormal behavior

or thinking. Abnormal behavior is considered conduct that does not comply
with societal norms, which can include mental illnesses such as bulimia or
schizophrenia. Psychologists in this field try to understand what causes
unusual behaviors in people, whether it stems from a biological origin (nature)
or learned through experiences (nurture).

2. Behavioral Psychology

Psychologists who study the connection between the mind and subsequent
behaviors are behavioral psychologists. Behavioral psychologists counsel,
diagnose and treat patients with behavioral disorders. By better
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understanding behaviors, the psychologists hope to better predict how people
will behave in different situations. Behavioral psychologists study how habits
form in people, and how the mind plays a role in a physical response.

3. Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology relates to psychologists directly providing comprehensive

healthcare to patients who are suffering from mental illness. Clinical
psychologists interact with patients through observations, interviews and tests
before making a diagnosis and coming up with a plan to deal with the
symptoms of a mental illness. Many psychologists in this field use
psychoanalysis, a psychological theory and form of therapy for treating mental
disorders in patients. Over the course of multiple visits, psychologists delve
into the emotions and experiences of a patient to provide insight into the
illness.

4. Cognitive Psychology

It is concerned with mental processes. Cognitive psychologists study the

human thought process and how people obtain, process, and store information
in the brain. These psychologists conduct experiments and research to study
memory, perception, and learning. They work to better understand the mind
and find solutions to memory loss, learning disabilities, and other cognitive
issues.

5. Counseling Psychology

Patients who are suffering through stressful moments in life could be advised
to see a counseling psychologist. Counseling psychologists treat patients who
are experiencing an emotional strain caused by social or physical factors. This
differs from clinical psychologists, who treat and diagnose patients with
mental disorders. Marriage and grief counselors would be considered part of
counseling psychology. The counselors assess patients and then advise them
with a personalized plan to improving their well-being and decreasing stress.

6. Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychologists help people to better understand how people

mature over the course of their lives, both emotionally and physically,
studying human development from birth until old age. Specifically,
psychologists take an in-depth look at biological growth of the body, cognitive
expansion and emotional maturity, among other areas of study. When working

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with patients, developmental psychologists assess and diagnose to treat
various issues, such as developmental delays in children. Some of these
delays are common, and a psychologist could diagnose therapy to help the
child catch up or just observation to see how the child improves on his or her
own

7. Educational Psychology

Educational psychologists study factors that impact learning, including

learning methods and how information is processed and absorbed. Memory,
concepts, and individual differences all affect how a person learns. In
researching these processes, psychologists apply theories of human
development to better understand how to improve the instructional process.

8. Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychologists conduct investigations into basic psychological

processes, such as attention, perception, memory, and reasoning. Arguably,
many psychologists could be considered experimental in that research impacts
much of this field. However, the sole mission of experimental psychologists is
conducting and publishing research on either human or animal behaviors.
Their findings often contribute to work across many branches and builds on a
larger conclusion.

9. Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychologists work in the intersection of the legal system and the
field of psychology. They often conduct evaluations and research that help
guide legal proceedings. This can include evaluating a defendant for
competency to stand trial or helping train police officers and first responders
on how to properly handle criminals and crime scenes. While many forensic
psychologists work within the legal system, some work in threat assessment,
which is the scientific approximation of whether a person will become a threat
in the future.

10. Health Psychology

In 1977, George L. Engel developed the biopsychosocial model, or the idea

that biological, psychological, and social factors influence disease and illness.
In time, this has become the model used by health psychologists to study how
and why people get sick. These psychologists help people make choices that
have a positive impact on their health, as well as that of their families and

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communities. Their patients range from those with genetic disorders to
substance abuse issues.

11. Human Factors Psychology

Human factors psychologists use research to improve transportation,

consumer products, telecommunication, technology – nearly anything and any
system with which humans interact. Their goal is to create safer and more
effective systems by better understanding people’s expectations and how they
interact with products and technology. These psychologists conduct research
and consult with companies on how to ensure a safe working environment for
employees.

12. Industrial – Organizational Psychology

Industrial-Organizational Psychology, also known as I/O psychology, serves

to study how human behavior impacts industry and organizations. I/O
psychologists evaluate a work situation and develop a plan for the optimal
performance and work-life balance in that situation for the employees. I/O
psychologists specialize in designing and executing research done on
workplace setups as well as studying decision-making theories.

13. Personality Psychology

Personality psychologists work to explain why people display certain types of

behavior, such as aggression, and study the differences between disorders.
Psychologists in this branch study individual differences in personality
characteristics, such as conscientiousness, as well as how personality
characteristics interact to create a personality. Additionally, personality
psychologists study the influence of expressed genes and how that affects
personality. Although mainly working in research, they can provide treatment
to people with personality disorders.

14. School Psychology

Creating a safe and healthy school environment is the goal of every school
psychologist. These psychologists focus on helping find the best environment
for student learning as well as helping teachers or students find their optimal
learning space. They study social, behavioral, emotional, and academic factors
to find the best situation for students. They also conduct research on the best
practices for school policy and make recommendations for school
administrators to adopt.

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 15. Social Psychology

Social psychologists strive to understand individual behaviors and

personalities within a social context. Psychologists in this branch study the
social factors that influence how people act and the condition in which those
actions occur. Most social psychologists research and observe social influence,
group processes, prejudice or discrimination, and stereotypes. Over the years,
Social Psychologists have helped better the understanding of people’s
attitudes, willingness to conform to a group, and social decision-making.

16. Sports Psychology

Sports psychologists help athletes achieve optimal performance on the field.

Psychologists in this subset study how sports affect human psychology and
vice versa. In applied settings, sports psychologists work with athletes (from
youth to adults), parents, coaches, and more regarding injuries and
rehabilitation, positive communication, and team building.