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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN MATHEMATICS

John Toland

The Dual of L∞(X, L, λ), ),

Finitely Additive Measures
and Weak Convergence
A Primer
SpringerBriefs in Mathematics

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John Toland

The Dual of L1ðX; L; ‚Þ,

Finitely Additive Measures
and Weak Convergence
A Primer

123
John Toland
Department of Mathematical Sciences
University of Bath
Bath, UK

ISSN 2191-8198 ISSN 2191-8201 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Mathematics
ISBN 978-3-030-34731-4 ISBN 978-3-030-34732-1 (eBook)
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Preface

Assuming some familiarity with Lebesgue measure, integration and related func-
tional analysis summarised in Chap. 2, this is an exposition of topics that arise
when identifying elements of the dual space of L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ with finitely additive
measures on a r-algebra L when the measure ‚ is complete and r-finite. Such a
representation has its origins in the independent work of Fichtenholz and
Kantorovitch [14] and Hildebrandt [20] and culminated in a general abstract theory
due to Yosida and Hewitt [35] in 1952. However, even now it is not unusual ([16] is
an exception) for books on measure theory to give a detailed account of the dual
space of Lp ðX; L; ‚Þ, 1 6 p\1, while relegating the case p ¼ 1 to references, e.g.
[12, p. 296] which invokes the theory of finitely additive measures on algebras such
as is developed in [35].
An explanation may be that a study of finitely additive measures on algebras
necessitates a possibly unwelcome diversion from the mainstream theory of
countably additive measures that suffices for p 2 ½1; 1Þ. Whatever the reason, a
consequence is that L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ has acquired an aura of mystery, to the extent that
it is often not very clear beyond the mere definition what is meant by saying that a
bounded sequence in L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ is weakly convergent.
The aim here is to take Yosida and Hewitt theory on r-algebras beyond the
representation theorem for L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ , pointing out some of its consequences for
measurable functions generally and in particular for weak convergence of
sequences in L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ. The target audience is anyone who feels nervous about
representing the dual of L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ by finitely additive measures in the knowledge
that there exist uncountably many, linearly independent, finitely additive measures
m > 0 defined on the Lebesgue r-algebra of ð0; 1Þ with the property that
Z 11k Z 1
u dm ¼ 0 for all u 2 L1 ð0; 1Þ and k 2 N; but 1 dm ¼ 1: ð†Þ
0 0

An essential goal will be to come to terms with observations such as this one.

v
vi Preface

In their seminal work, Yosida and Hewitt [35] studied general Banach spaces
L1 ðX; M; N Þ of essentially bounded measurable functions, where measurability is
determined by an algebra M (closed under complementation and finite unions) and
essential boundedness is defined in terms of a family N  M (closed under
countable unions with the added property that A  B 2 N implies A 2 N ) that
mimics null sets. Obviously, L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ is a special case of L1 ðX; M; N Þ but in
general no measure of any kind is involved in the definition of L1 ðX; M; N Þ.
However, although [35] shows that the dual of L1 ðX; M; N Þ can be expressed in
terms of finitely additive measures, the exposition here is restricted to L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ
because

properties of finitely additive measures on r-algebras are less circumscribed by hypotheses

than on algebras, and replacing the algebra M by a r-algebra L and N by the family of
null sets fE 2 L : ‚ðEÞ ¼ 0g, where ‚ is complete and r-finite, yields a theory which is
relevant in applications, including when X is a Lebesgue measurable subset of Rn or a
differentiable manifold, or when X ¼ N with counting measure.

For a r-finite measure space the ultimate aim is to develop theory sufficient to
characterise weakly convergent sequences in L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ in terms of their ‚-
almost-everywhere pointwise behaviour. However, in the process, when ðX; ‰Þ is a
locally compact Hausdorff topological space and ðX; B; ‚Þ is a corresponding Borel
measure space, there emerges a natural way to localise weak convergence.
A sequence is weakly convergent in L1 ðX; B; ‚Þ if and only if it is weakly con-
vergent at every point x0 in the one-point compactification of ðX; ‰Þ. Here, weak
convergence at x0 is defined in terms of functionals which are zero outside every
neighbourhood of x0 ; for an example of such, see (†).
The essential range RðuÞðx0 Þ1 of a Borel measurable function u at x0 is similarly
defined in terms of those elements of L1 ðX; B; ‚Þ which are localised at x0 . Since
it need not be a singleton, RðuÞðx0 Þ can be interpreted as a multivalued repre-
sentation of the fine structure at x0 of u 2 L1 ðX; B; ‚Þ which is intimately related to
weak convergence.
The Literature
In her Foreword to the monograph by Bhaskara Rao and Bhaskara Rao [6], Dorothy
Maharam Stone cites Salomon Bochner as having said that “contrary to popular
mathematical opinion finitely additive measures were more interesting, more dif-
ficult to handle, and perhaps more important than countably additive measures”.
Oxtoby [25] described [6] as a comprehensive account of finitely additive measures
which effectively organises a large body of material that is widely scattered in the
literature and deserves to be better known, and in their preface the authors them-
selves described it as a reference book as well as a textbook.

RðuÞðx0 Þ is sometimes referred to as the cluster set of u at x0 .

1
Preface vii

The origins of this theory are to be found in the early days of modern integration
theory when there were many contributors: see [12, §III.15, p. 233 and §IV.16,
p. 3882] and the comprehensive bibliography with notes in [6]. However, pre-
sumably because they could not match the versatility of Lebesgue’s theory of
integration and the power of its convergence theorems, finitely additive measures
seem to have fallen out of fashion. Nevertheless, they continue to have significant
roles in, for example, mathematical economics, probability, statistics, optimization,
control theory and analysis [7, 9, 25, 35].
In a series of three papers on additive set functions on abstract topological
spaces, A. D. Alexandroff [2] studied bounded regular finitely additive measures
that represent linear functionals on spaces of continuous functions. On a similar
theme, but in a more general setting, a much-cited reference for the dual of
L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ is Dunford and Schwartz [12, p. 296] which covers the theory of
finitely additive set functions on algebras and includes extensive historical notes.
For a recent account, see Fonseca and Leoni [16, Theorem 2.24], and Aliprantis and
Border [3] for the abstract theory in which it is embedded.
It will soon be apparent that key results, including (†), rely on the axiom of
choice. For a discussion of the role of the axiom of choice, geometrical and
paradoxical aspects of finitely additive measures, and their invariance under group
actions on X, see Tao [32]. Oxtoby’s commentary [25] is of independent interest.
A key role is played throughout by the set G of finitely additive measures that
take only the values 0 and 1 and the observation that L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ is isometrically
isomorphic to a space of real-valued continuous functions on ðG; ¿Þ with the
maximum norm, where ¿ is a compact Hausdorff topology. Further analysis of G in
a Borel setting then leads to localization, and to other developments mentioned
above and outlined in the Introduction.
What follows is in large part an extension of a simplified version of Yosida and
Hewitt [35], set out in the notation and terminology of Chap. 2.

Bath, UK John Toland

Acknowledgements I am indebted to Charles Stuart (Lausanne) for many things including his
encouragement of this project. I am grateful to Anthony Wickstead (Belfast) who obtained for me
a copy of [33] and drew my attention to [34], and to Geoffrey Burton (Bath) and Eugene
Shargorodsky (King’s London) for their interest and many comments. In addition, I would like to
thank Eugene Shargorodsky who contributed Sect. 9.4 and Mauricio Fernández (Stuttgart) who on
a visit to Cambridge asked a question that the account that follows attempts to answer.

2
The reference to Theorem 8.15 on p. 388 is a misprint; 8.15 is a Definition and obviously
Theorem 8.16 was intended.
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Notation and Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Partial Ordering and Zorn’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Algebras and r-Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Measurable Sets and Measurable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4 Measures and Real Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 Splitting Families of Measurable Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.7 Function Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.8 Dual Spaces and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9 Functional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.10 Point Set Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 L1 and Its Dual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4 Finitely Additive Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1 Definition, Notation and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Purely Finitely Additive Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Canonical Decomposition: baðLÞ ¼ RðLÞ  PðLÞ . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.4 L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5 G: 0–1 Finitely Additive Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1 G and Ultrafilters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2 G and the ‚-Finite Intersection Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

ix
x Contents

6 Integration and Finitely Additive Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6.1 The Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.2 Yosida–Hewitt Representation: Proof of Theorem 3.1 . . . . . . . . 50
6.3 Integration with Respect to ! 2 G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.4 Essential Range of u 2 L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.5 Integrating u 2 ‘1 ðNÞ with Respect to G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.6 The Valadier–Hensgen Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7 Topology on G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.1 The Space ðG; ¿Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.2 L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ and CðG; ¿Þ Isometrically Isomorphic . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.3 Properties of G and ¿ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7.4 G and the Weak* Topology on L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.5 G as Extreme Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
8 Weak Convergence in L1 (X, L; ‚) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.1 Weakly Convergent Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8.2 Pointwise Characterisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
8.3 Applications of Theorem 8.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9 L1 When X is a Topological Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.1 Localising G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9.2 Localising Weak Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.3 Fine Structure at x0 of u 2 L1 ðX; B; ‚Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.4 A Localised Range from Complex Function Theory . . . . . . . . . 84
10 Reconciling Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10.1 ðG; ¿Þ Versus L1 ðX; L; ‚Þ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
10.2 Restriction to C0 ðX; .Þ of Elements of L1 ðX; B; ‚Þ . . . . . . . . . . 89

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Chapter 1
Introduction

Overview
In a normed linear space V , a sequence {vk } converges weakly to v (vk  v) if
v ∗ (vk ) → v ∗ (v) for all v ∗ ∈ V ∗ , the dual space of V and, from the uniform bound-
edness principle, weakly convergent sequences are bounded in norm. However, it
has been known since the work of Banach that when V is a complete normed linear
space it may not be necessary to use all elements of V ∗ when testing for weak con-
vergence. Indeed, when C(Z ) denotes the space of real-valued continuous functions
on a compact metric space Z with the maximum norm, he showed that vk  v in
C(Z ) if and only if vk (z) → v(z) for all z ∈ Z and {vk } is bounded. To do so he
observed [5, Annexe, Thm. 7] that Dirac δ-functions satisfy conditions for a set W ∗
in the dual space of a Banach space to have the property that

{vk } bounded and w ∗ (vk ) → 0 for all w ∗ ∈ W ∗ imply vk  0. (W)

When (X, ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space and (C0 (X, ),  · ∞ ) is the
Banach space of real-valued continuous functions on X that vanish at infinity (see
(2.9)), weakly convergent sequences are pointwise convergent because δ-functions
belongs to the dual space of C0 (X, ), and bounded by the uniform boundedness
principle. Conversely, from Theorem 2.37 (Riesz) and Lebesgue’s Dominated Con-
vergence Theorem [15, Thm. 2.24], sequences that are norm-bounded and pointwise
convergent on X are weakly convergent.
In particular, when Z is a compact Hausdorff space, for {vk } ⊂ C(Z) (the space
of real-valued continuous functions on Z with the maximum norm)

vk  v0 in C(Z) ⇔ sup vk  < ∞ and vk (z) → v0 (z) for all z ∈ Z. (V)
k

The possibility of usefully extending these observations to L ∞ (X, L, λ) (the real

Banach space of essentially bounded real-valued functions defined by (2.8)) at first
appears limited because, for example, in an open set  ⊂ Rn with Lebesgue measure,
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1
J. Toland, The Dual of L ∞ (X, L, λ), Finitely Additive Measures
and Weak Convergence, SpringerBriefs in Mathematics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34732-1_1
2 1 Introduction

u k  u in L ∞ () implies that u k (x) → u(x) almost everywhere and {u k ∞ } is

bounded, but the converse is false (Lemma 8.4 and Example 8.6). Nevertheless, for
bounded sequences it is shown in Theorem 8.7 that weak convergence is equivalent
to strong convergence in L ∞ (X, L, λ) of elements of a family of related sequences
and the resultant test is illustrated by several examples in Sect. 8.3.
The proof, which inter alia is developed from first principles in the follow-
ing pages, depends on the construction a compact Hausdorff topological space
(G, τ ) with the property that L ∞ (X, L, λ) and C(G, τ ) are isometrically isomorphic
(Theorem 7.4). Here G (Gothic G) is the set of the finitely additive measures that
take only values 0 and 1 on L, and are 0 on null sets in a general measure space
(X, L, λ).
When the essential range of u ∈ L ∞ (X, L, λ) is defined as
 
R(u) = α ∈ R : λ({x : |u(x) − α| < }) > 0 for all  > 0 ,

it is shown that
 
R(u) = u dω : ω ∈ G
X

and its relation to the isometric isomorphism is given by (7.2) and (7.3). If the setting
is a Borel measure space (X, B, λ) corresponding to a locally compact Hausdorff
spaces (X, ), these considerations can be localised to points x0 in the one-point
compactification X ∞ of X . This in turn leads to the definition of the essential range
of u ∈ L ∞ (X, B, λ) localised at x0 ∈ X ∞ and the possibility of regarding u as multi-
valued at every point while at the same time being single-valued almost everywhere.
These ideas are closely related to the dual of L ∞ (X, B, λ) and weak convergence.
The fact that L ∞ (X, L, λ) and C(G, τ ) are isometrically isomorphic appears to
be at variance with L ∞ (X, L, λ)∗ being represented by finitely additive measures
while C(G, τ )∗ is represented by σ-additive measures. Moreover, when (X, ) is
a locally compact Hausdorff space, elements of L ∞ (X, B, λ)∗ are represented by
finitely additive measures but their restrictions to C0 (X, ) are also represented by
Borel measures. Both these issues will be addressed.
As explained in the Preface, finitely additive measures will be considered only on
σ-algebras. The classical text [12] and the exhaustive monograph [6] both consider
more general situations from the outset, as does Yosida and Hewitt [35] which is the
motivation and main source for this account of the simplified theory. The approach
here is referred to as Yosida–Hewitt theory.
Layout
Chapter 2 is a brief survey of background material, collected with references from
different sources and organised in a consistent notation that will be used in the chap-
ters that follow. Although most of the material is entirely standard and does not need
to be digested unless a need arises in later chapters, some of it may be less famil-
iar. For example, Sect. 2.5 is a slight extension of Kirk’s [22] application of Baire’s
1 Introduction 3

category theorem to show that if (X, L, λ) has no atoms and G is a denumerable fam-
ily of sets of positive
 measure, there exists an infinite family of disjoint sets A ∈ L
such that λ(G A) > 0 and λ(G \ A) > 0 for all G ∈ G. This construction is used
in Example 9.11 when considering possibilities for the localised essential range of
u ∈ L ∞ (X, L, λ) at x0 defined in (9.4).
Chapter 3 begins by stating Theorem 3.1, which is the Yosida–Hewitt representa-
tion of the dual space L ∞ (X, L, λ)∗ as the space of finitely additive measures on L
which are zero on sets of zero λ-measure. These finitely additive measures will be
denoted by L ∗∞ (X, L, λ), which should therefore be identified with, but not confused
with, L ∞ (X, L, λ)∗ , the bounded, real-valued, linear functionals on L ∞ (X, L, λ).
From Theorem 3.1, it follows intuitively that if {Ak } ⊂ L is any sequence of mutu-
ally disjoint sets, then χ Ak  0 in L ∞ (X, L, λ) as k → ∞, where χ Ak denotes the
characteristic function of Ak . Moreover, there are finitely additive measures that rep-
resent non-zero bounded linear functionals f on L ∞ (0, 1) with f (v) = 0 when v
is continuous. Since no such countably additive measure can exist because of the
dominated convergence theorem and Theorem 2.35 (Lusin), observations such as
these reflect the delicacy of Theorem 3.1 and the differences between σ-additive and
finitely additive measures.
Chapter 4 introduces basic notation and definitions, for example, of partial order-
ing, lattice operations, absolute continuity and singularity, for finitely additive mea-
sures. The important notion of pure finite additivity of measures follows, and it is
shown that every finitely additive measure is uniquely the sum of a σ-additive and a
purely finitely additive measure.
Chapter 5 introduces the set G of elements in L ∗∞ (X, L, λ) which take only the
values 0 or 1 on L and explains the sense in which every u ∈ L ∞ (X, L, λ) is constant
ω-almost everywhere when ω ∈ G. Elements ω ∈ G give rise to families of sets
Uω = {E ∈ L : ω(E) = 1} which are ultrafilters (Definition 5.3). The collection of
ultrafilters is denoted by U (Gothic U), and there is a one-to-one correspondence
(Theorem 5.4) between G and U. The existence of ultrafilters, and consequently of
elements of G with certain properties, follow from Zorn’s lemma. G will dominate
subsequent developments.
Chapter 6 defines the integral of essentially bounded measurable functions with
respect to the finitely additive measures that featured in Theorem 3.1 (the Yosida–
Hewitt representation theorem).
 In Theorem 6.2, it is noted that for all ω ∈ G and u ∈
L ∞ (X, L, λ), u(x) = X u dω, ω-almost everywhere in the sense of finitely additive
measures (Remark 5.2). Observation (†) in the Preface is justified in Remark 6.1.
The chapter ends with an account of the Valadier–Hensgen example [19, 33] of
purely finitely additive measures on [0, 1] that are definitely not σ-additive but which
coincide with σ-additive Lebesgue measure when integrating continuous functions.
Chapter 7 introduces a compact Hausdorff topology τ on G and from theory
already developed, derives the existence, Theorem 7.4, of an isometric isomorphism
between the Banach algebra L ∞ (X, L, λ) and the space of real-valued continuous
functions C(G, τ ). It is immediate that the functionals corresponding to G have
property (W) in the Introduction.
4 1 Introduction

Independently, it is shown that τ coincides with the restriction to G of the weak*

topology on L ∗∞ (X, L, λ) and that G is a closed subset of L ∗∞ (X, L, λ) with the
weak* topology. Also, it is shown that ±G coincide with the extreme points of the
closed unit ball in L ∗∞ (X, L, λ) and consequently Theorem 2.55 (Rainwater) yields
an alternative proof that G has property (W) in the Preface.
Chapter 8 opens with the observation, based of the duality between Dirac mea-
sures acting on C(G, τ ) and elements of G acting on L ∞ (X, L, λ), that u k  u 0 in
L ∞ (X, L, λ) if and only if
 
u k ∞  M and u k dω → u 0 dω as k → ∞ for all ω ∈ G.
X X

It follows that when F : R → R is continuous, u → F(u) is sequentially weakly

continuous [4] on L ∞ (X, L, λ). Necessary pointwise conditions for a sequence to
be weakly convergent in L ∞ (X, L, λ) are given but examples show that they are not
sufficient. However, a necessary and sufficient pointwise condition for a sequence to
be weakly convergent in L ∞ (X, L, λ), Theorem 8.7, follows from Theorem 5.6 and
the fact that any u ∈ L ∞ (X, L, λ) is a constant ω-almost everywhere in the sense
of finitely additive measures when ω ∈ G. In Sect. 8.3, some quite subtle questions
about the weak convergence of specific sequences are settled using Theorem 8.7.
Chapter 9 deals with refinements of the theory to measure spaces (X, B, λ) where
(X, ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space with measure λ on its Borel σ-algebra
B. Prototypical examples of this setting are when X is an open subset of Rn with
the Euclidian metric and Lebesgue measure and X = N with the discrete topology
and counting measure. The key observation is that G = x0 ∈X ∞ G(x0 ) where, for
distinct points x0 ∈ X ∞ (the one-point compactification of X ), the sets G(x0 ) are
closed in (G, τ ) and disjoint, and elements of G(x0 ) are zero outside every open
neighbourhood of x0 ∈ X ∞ .
In Sect. 9.2, this localisation result leads to a characterization of weakly conver-
gent sequences in terms of the pointwise behaviour of related sequences of functions
in neighbourhoods of points of X ∞ . (Here “pointwise” has its usual λ-almost every-
where meaning which is familiar in any measure space, whereas “localisation” refers
to the behaviour of Borel measures and functions restricted to open neighbourhoods
of points in a topological space.)
Writing R(u), u ∈ L ∞ (X, B, λ), as a union of disjoint compact sets
 
R(u) = R(u)(x0 ) where R(u)(x0 ) = u dω, ω ∈ G(x0 )
x0 ∈X ∞ X

localises the essential range and reflects the fine structure of u at x0 .

As a consequence of Theorem 2.25, if (X, ) is completely separable and (X, B, λ)
has no atoms, there exist u ∈ L ∞ (X, B, λ) such that u(x) ∈ Q (the rational numbers)
for all x ∈ X yet R(u)(x) is the closed interval 0, u for all x. The chapter ends
1 Introduction 5

with an example due to Shargorodsky of a similar phenomenon occurring naturally

in the theory of complex Hardy spaces, see Sect. 9.4.
Chapter 10 first reconciles the general fact that L ∞ (X, L, λ) and C(G, τ ) are
isometrically isomorphic while the dual of L ∞ (X, L, λ) is represented by finitely
additive measures, whereas the dual of C(G, τ ) is represented by regular, real Borel
measures which are σ-additive. It goes on to consider the special case L ∞ (X, B, λ)
where (X, ) is a locally compact Hausdorff space and B denotes the Borel subsets
of X . In that case, elements of L ∞ (X, B, λ)∗ are represented by finitely additive
measures but when restricted to C0 (X, ) they are also represented by Borel measures.
As seen in Chap. 6, Valadier and Hensgen independently noted that Riemann
sums have Banach limits (Definition 2.41) which on L ∞ [0, 1] are represented by
purely finitely additive measures which are not σ-additive, but which coincide with
the Lebesgue integral for continuous functions. That observation is the motivation
for Sect. 10.2 which considers the relation between the finitely additive measures ν
that yield elements of L ∞ (X, B, λ)∗ (Theorem 3.1) and the Borel measures ν̂ that
by Theorem 2.37 (Riesz) represent their restrictions to C0 (X, ). In particular, those
ν for which ν̂ is singular with respect to λ are characterised in Corollary 10.10 and
a minimax formula for ν̂ in terms of ν is given in Theorem 10.11. It follows that ν̂
may be zero when ν  0 if (X, ) is not compact.
When ω ∈ G, either ω̂ ∈ D (a Dirac measures on X ) or ω̂ may be zero if (X, )
is not compact; if (X, ) is compact ω̂ ∈ D. Note from Remark 6.7 that an arbitrary
Hahn–Banach extension to L ∞ (X, B, λ) of a Dirac δ-function acting on C0 (X, )
need not be in G and from Chap. 9 there may be infinitely many extensions that are
in G.
Starting from (and referring to Chap. 2 only when necessary), a self-contained
approach to the pointwise characterisation of weakly convergent sequences is pre-
sented by
• Chapter 3
• Section 4.1
• Chapter 5, up to Corollary 5.7(a)
• Chapter 6 up to Sect. 6.3
• Chapter 7 up to Sect. 7.2
• Chapter 8
To begin, Chap. 2 reviews background material, cites references and fixes notation.
Chapter 2
Notation and Preliminaries


The set of natural numbers {1, 2, · · · , } is denoted by N, N0 = N {0}, R is the real
numbers, C  is the complex numbers, Q is the rational numbers, and extended real
numbers, R {+∞, −∞}, are denoted by R. The empty set is denoted by ∅, and a
set with only one element is called a singleton.
For an arbitrary set S, ℘ (S) denotes the collection of all its subsets, including
the empty set ∅ and S itself. A set S is said to be denumerable or countable if there
is an injection from S into N, and uncountable otherwise. If Sk is denumerable for
all k ∈ N, then k Sk is denumerable. If there is an injection from S into the set
{1, 2, · · · , K } for some K ∈ N, S is said to be finite, and infinite otherwise. If S is
an infinite denumerable set, there is a bijection from S onto N.

2.1 Partial Ordering and Zorn’s Lemma

For a non-empty set S and R ⊂ S × S, a relation  on S is defined by writing x  y

if (x, y) ∈ R.

Definition 2.1 (Partial and Total Ordering) A partial ordering on S is a relation

which satisfies the following axioms [12, Sect. I.2]:
(i) x  x for all x ∈ S,
(ii) x  y and y  z implies that x  z for all x, y, z ∈ S,
(iii) x  y and y  x implies x = y for all x, y ∈ S.
If in addition at least one of x  y or y  x holds for every (x, y) ∈ S × S, the partial
ordering  is said to be a total ordering on S. If x  y but x = y, write x ≺ y. 

Example 2.2 The usual ordering ≤ on R is a partial ordering which is a total ordering
on every subset S of R.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 7
J. Toland, The Dual of L ∞ (X, L, λ), Finitely Additive Measures
and Weak Convergence, SpringerBriefs in Mathematics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34732-1_2
8 2 Notation and Preliminaries

Any collection S of subsets of a set is partially ordered by set inclusion, i.e. A  B

if and only if A ⊂ B, but if S is not a singleton it may not be totally ordered. 

Definition 2.3 (Upper Bounds and Maximal Elements) If  is a partial ordering on

S and A ⊂ S,
(i) u ∈ S is an upper bound of A if a  u for all a ∈ A,
(ii) m ∈ A is a maximal element of A if m ⊀ a for all a ∈ A. 

Lemma 2.4 (Zorn) Suppose  is a partial ordering on S and every totally ordered
subset A ⊂ S has an upper bound. The S has a maximal element.

The proof depends on an assumption that for any collection T of subsets of S there
is a set which contains a point from each of the sets in T . More precisely:
The Axiom of Choice
Let S be non-empty and T a non-empty subset of ℘ (S) \ {∅}. Then there exists a
function f : T → S such that f (T ) ∈ T for all T ∈ T .
Conversely, the Axiom of Choice can be proved using Zorn’s lemma. So these two
seemingly different statements are in fact equivalent formulations of a fundamental
axiom of set theory.
Definition 2.5 (Equivalence Relation) A relation ∼ on a set S is called an equiv-
alence relation if for all x, y, z ∈ S, (i) x ∼ x; (ii)x ∼ y ⇔ y ∼ x; (iii) x ∼ y
and y ∼ z ⇒ x ∼ z. The set [x] = y ∈ S : x ∼ y is the equivalence class which
contains x. 

2.2 Algebras and σ-Algebras

For an arbitrary set X , a collection M ⊂ ℘ (X ) is an algebra if

∅ and X are in M,
A ∈ M if and only X \ A ∈ M,
 K
k=1 Ak ∈ M when Ak ∈ M, k = 1, 2, · · · , K , K ∈ N.

If M is an algebra and A, B ∈ M, it follows that A B ∈ M, A \ B ∈ M and M
is closed under finite unions and intersections.
A σ-algebra, denoted by L, is an algebra with the additional property that

Ak ∈ L, k ∈ N, implies k∈N Ak ∈ L.
Hence, a σ-algebra is closed under complementation, and countable unions and
intersections.
Examples.
For any set X , {∅, X } and ℘ (X ) are σ-algebras.
With X = [0, 1), the collection of unions of finitely many intervals of the form
[a, b), 0 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ 1, is an algebra, but not a σ-algebra.
2.2 Algebras and σ-Algebras 9

M ⊂ ℘ (N), defined by A ∈ M if and only if either A or N \ A is finite, is an

algebra. Clearly,
 the singletons {2n + 1} ∈ M for all n ∈ N0 . So M is not a σ-algebra
because n∈N0 {2n + 1} ∈ / M.
On the other hand, saying A ∈ L if and only if A or X \ A is denumerable defines
a σ-algebra L on any set X. (When X is uncountable, L = ℘ (X ).)
 It is obvious that if Lκ , κ ∈ K, where K is an arbitrary set, are σ-algebras, L :=
κ∈K Lκ is also a σ-algebra. Therefore, since ℘ (X ) is a σ-algebra, for any V ⊂ ℘ (X )
the intersection of all σ-algebras which contain V is the smallest σ-algebra containing
V, called the σ-algebra generated by V.
In particular, an algebra M generates a σ-algebra, denoted by M in [35]. Another
special case arises when (X, ) is a topological space,  ⊂ ℘ (X ) being the collection
of open sets in X . Then the σ-algebra generated by  is called the Borel σ-algebra
of (X, ), often denoted by B and elements of B are called Borel subsets of X .

2.3 Measurable Sets and Measurable Functions

A measurable space is a pair (X, L) where X = ∅ is arbitrary and L ⊂ ℘ (X ) is

a σ-algebra. Elements of L are referred to as measurable sets and a function u :
X → R is said to be measurable if
 
x : u(x) > α ∈ L for all α ∈ R.

The set of measurable functions has the following properties.

(i) If u n , n ∈ N, is measurable and u n (x) → u(x) for all x ∈ X ,
u is measurable.
(ii) If {u n } is a sequence of extended real-valued measurable functions,

u(x) := inf u n (x) and u(x) := sup u n (x), x ∈ X, are measurable.

n n

(iii) If u is measurable, u ± are measurable where u ± (x) := sup{±u(x), 0}, so that

u ± (x) ≥ 0, x ∈ X , and

u = u + − u − and |u| = u + + u − . (2.1)

(iv) If u, v are real-valued and measurable, c ∈ R and g : R → R is continuous,

then cu, g(u) = g ◦ u, u ± , uv, u + v are measurable.
(v) If u is non-negative and measurable, there is a sequence {ϕn } of non-negative
measurable functions on X with
(a) 0 ≤ ϕn (x) ≤ ϕn+1 (x) ≤ u(x), x ∈ X, n ∈ N,
(b) u(x) = limn ϕn (x), x ∈ X ,
(c) ϕn is real-valued with only finitely many values for each n ∈ N.
10 2 Notation and Preliminaries

The characteristic function χ A of a set A ∈ L, defined by


1 if x ∈ A
χ A (x) = ,
0 otherwise

is a measurable function. Finite linear combinations of characteristic functions

K
ϕ(x) = ak χ Ak , ak ∈ R, Ak ∈ L, K ∈ N, (2.2)
k=1

are called simple functions and are measurable. The functions ϕn in (v) above are
non-negative simple functions.

2.4 Measures and Real Measures

In the measure theory literature, subtly different meanings are often assigned by
different authors to the same terminology. For example, in [15, Chap. 3, p. 85] a
signed measure may have infinite values, whereas in [28, Sect. 6.6, p. 119] it may
not. See also Remark 2.38. For this reason, the terminology chosen for subsequent
chapters is described in some detail below.
Definition 2.6 (Measures) In a measurable space (X, L), a measure λ is an extended
real-valued function on L with
 λ(X ) > 0, λ(∅) = 0, λ(A) ≥ 0 for all A ∈ L, and
when E k ∈ L, k ∈ N, and E i E j = ∅, i = j,

λ Ek = λ(E k ). (2.3)
k∈N k∈N

When L is a σ-algebra this identity is referred to as the σ-additivity of λ. Some texts

use the term “positive measure” for what here is referred to as a measure. 
The triple (X, L, λ) is called a measure space. A measure is said to be finite if
λ(X ) < ∞, and σ-finite if X = n∈N X n where X n ∈ L and λ(X n ) < ∞ for all n.
In a measure space a set E ∈ L is null, written as E ∈ N , if λ(E) = 0, and a property
is said to hold λ-almost everywhere if the exceptional set where it does not hold is
null. A measure space is said to be complete if A ⊂ B ∈ N implies that A ∈ N .
Definition 2.7 In a measure space (X, L, λ), a sequence {u k } of measurable func-
tions is said to converge in measure to a measurable function u if for all α > 0

λ {x : |u k (x) − u(x)| > α} → 0 as k → ∞. 

A sequence of measurable functions which converges in measure has a subsequence

which converges pointwise λ-almost everywhere [15, Thm. 2.30].
2.4 Measures and Real Measures 11

Definition 2.8 (Atom) A ∈ L is an atom if A ∈

/ N and A ⊃ B ∈ L implies that
either λ(B) = 0 or λ(B) = λ(A). 
Remark 2.9 An atom A in a σ-finite measure space has finite measure. If λ(A) < ∞
and u is a bounded measurable function let
 
a = inf b ∈ R : λ({x ∈ A : u(x) ≤ b}) = λ(A) .
 
Then λ {x ∈ A : u(x) ≤ a} = λ(A) and λ {x ∈ A : u(x) < a} = 0, since λ
is σ-additive and λ {x ∈ A : u(x) ≤ a − 1/k} = 0 for all k. In other words u = a,
a constant, λ-almost everywhere on A. The next result is used in Sect. 2.5. 
Lemma 2.10 If (X, L, λ) has no atoms, for all G ∈ L with λ(G) > 0 and >0
there exists a subset E ∈ L of G with λ(E) ∈ (0, ].
Proof Since there are no atoms, the given G can be replaced by a subset, also denoted
by G ∈ L, with λ(G) ∈ (0, ∞). Let > 0. Now since G is not an atom, there exists
E 1 ⊂ G, E 1 ∈ L, with λ(E 1 ) ∈ (0, λ(G)). If λ(E 1 ) > for all such E 1 it follows that
λ(E 1 ) > and λ(G \ E 1 ) > . Since there are no atoms, by the same argument there
exists E 2 ⊂ G \ E 1 with λ(E 2 ) > and λ(G \ (E 1 E 2 )) > . By induction there
is a sequence {E k } ⊂ L of disjoint subsets of G with λ(E k ) > . Since λ(G) < ∞
this is false. Hence, there exists E ⊂ G, E ∈ L with λ(E) ∈ (0, ]. 
Remark 2.11 Lemma 2.10 implies the Darboux property of atomless measures [8,
Cor. 1.12.10] which is apparently stronger: If (X, L, λ) has no atoms and λ(F) > 0
for some F ∈ L, then for any a ∈ (0, λ(F)) there exists E ∈ L with E ⊂ F and
λ(E) = a. (The prototype is due independently to Fichtenholz [13] and Sierpiński
[30].) 
Definition 2.12 (Regular Borel Measure) When B is a Borel σ-algebra on a topo-
logical space (X, ), a measure λ on B is called a Borel measure. For B ∈ B, a Borel
measure is said to be
 
outer regular on B if λ(B) = inf λ(U ) : B ⊂ U ∈  ,
 
inner regular on B if λ(B) = sup λ(K ) : K ⊂ B, K compact .

A Borel measure which is both outer and inner regular on every B ∈ B is called
regular. 
Example 2.13 (Dirac Measures) For any measurable space (X, L) and x ∈ X , let
δx be defined on L by δx (E) = 1 if x ∈ E and δx (E) = 0 otherwise. Then δx is a
measure, called a Dirac measure at x, and (X, L, δx ) is a finite, complete measure
space in which {x} is an atom. 
Example 2.14 (Counting Measure on N) Let X = N, L = ℘ (N) and define λ(E) as
the number of elements in E ⊂ N if E is finite, and λ(E) = +∞ if E is infinite. Then
(N, ℘ (N), λ) is a σ-finite, complete measure space, λ is called counting measure and
every singleton {n}, n ∈ N, is an atom. 
12 2 Notation and Preliminaries

Example 2.15 (Lebesgue Measure on Rn ) Let B denote the Borel subsets of X = Rn

with the standard metric and (Rn , B) the corresponding measurable space. Then
although there is a unique σ-finite measure λ on B which coincides with the
n-dimensional volume of balls in Rn , it is not complete. However, a complete, σ-finite
measure space (Rn , L, λ) is defined as follows:
 
L= B A : B ∈ B, A ⊂ B  ∈ B, λ (B  ) = 0 ,

λ B A = λ (B), B A ∈ L.

This is the classical Lebesgue measure space and λ is Lebesgue measure on Rn .

Thus every Borel measurable function is Lebesgue measurable, and every Lebesgue
measurable function is equal almost everywhere to a Borel measurable function.
To see that Rn with Lebesgue measure has no atoms, supposeE ∈ L and
λ(E) > 0. Now define a function f : [0, ∞) → R by f (r ) = λ E Br where
Br denotes the ball of radius r centred at 0 in Rn . From the σ-additivity of λ, it
follows that f is continuous with f (0) = 0 and f (r ) → λ(E) > 0 as r → ∞. So,
by the intermediate value theorem, there exists r̂ with
 
λ E Br̂ = f (r̂ ) = λ(E)/2 ∈ (0, λ(E)),

which shows that E is not an atom.

If Ω ∈ L, a typical case
 being when Ω is an open subset of R , the restriction
n

of λ to the σ-algebra {Ω E : E ∈ L} creates a complete measure space which is

denoted by (Ω, L, λ). 

Definition 2.16 (Real Measures) In a measurable space (X, L), a real measure [28,
Sects. 1.8 and 6.6] is a real-valued function μ (not necessarily one-signed) on L with
μ(∅) = 0 and

μ Ei = μ(E i ) when E i ∈ L and E i E j = ∅, i = j ∈ N.
i∈N i∈N

Since the left side is independent of the ordering of i ∈ N, the sum of the series on
the right is the same if i is replaced by σ(i), where σ is a permutation of N. Hence,
the series is absolutely convergent. 

For a real measure μ and E ∈ L let

 ∞ ∞


|μ|(E) = sup |μ(E i )| : E = E i , E i ∈ L, E j E j = ∅, i = j ∈ N .
i=1 i=1

Then |μ(E)| ≤ |μ|(E), E ∈ L, and |μ| is a measure in the sense of Definition 2.6
[28, Thm. 6.2] with |μ|(X ) < ∞ [28, Thm. 6.4]. Hence μ± are real measures where
2.4 Measures and Real Measures 13

0 ≤ μ+ := 21 (|μ| + μ) and 0 ≤ μ− := 21 (|μ| − μ), (2.4)

whence

μ = μ+ − μ− and |μ| = μ+ + μ− , 0 ≤ μ± (E) ≤ |μ|(X ) < ∞, E ∈ L.

|μ| is called the total variation of μ, μ± are the positive and negative parts of μ, and
μ = μ+ − μ− is the Jordan decomposition of μ.
Theorem 2.17 (Hahn Decomposition [28, Thm 6.14])  Let μ be a real
measure on a
σ-algebra L. Then there exist A± ∈ L such that A+ A− = X , A+ A− = ∅ and
for E ∈ L,  
μ+ (E) = μ(A+ E), μ− (E) = −μ(A− E)

where μ± are defined in (2.4).

Definition 2.18 (Absolute Continuity and Singularity) A real measure μ is abso-
lutely continuous with respect to a measure λ, written as

μ  λ if and only if λ(E) = 0 implies |μ|(E) = 0

and singular with respect to λ, written as

λ ⊥ μ if and only if λ(E) + |μ|(X \ E) = 0 for some E ∈ L. 

This notation will be generalised in Definition 4.6 and Remark 4.7 to accommodate
finitely additive measures that are not σ-additive. In Chap. 4, real measures on L are
seen as examples of finitely additive measures, in which context they are denoted by
Σ(L).
Remark 2.19 Note that in [15, Chap. 7] the term “signed measure” allows μ to take
one, but not both, of the values ±∞. Thus in that terminology a real measure would
be a signed measure but a signed measure might not be a real measure. 
Example 2.20 Any finite linear combination of finite measures is a real measure. A
class of real measures that are absolutely continuous with respect to λ will be defined
in Remark 2.27. 
Definition 2.21 (Regular Real Borel Measures) Let B denote the Borel σ-algebra
of a locally compact Hausdorff space (X, ). Then a real Borel measure μ is said to
be regular if both the measures μ± are regular in the sense of Definition 2.12: for all
B∈B
   
μ± (B) = inf μ± (U ) : B ⊂ U ∈  = sup μ± (K ) : K ⊂ B, K compact ,

where μ± are defined by (2.4). 

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Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 16: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 19: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Topic 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Practice Problem 20: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 21: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 22: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 23: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 24: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Chapter 4: Critical analysis and evaluation
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 34: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 36: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Summary 5: Critical analysis and evaluation
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 6: Historical development and evolution
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 51: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 53: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 57: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 58: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 7: Practical applications and examples
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 63: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 66: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Exercise 8: Historical development and evolution
Example 70: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 72: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 74: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Unit 9: Best practices and recommendations
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 81: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 83: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 83: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 85: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 86: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Exercise 10: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Practice Problem 90: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 91: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 92: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 97: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 98: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 11: Fundamental concepts and principles
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 101: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 101: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 103: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 109: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 12: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 110: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 111: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 117: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 117: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 120: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Unit 13: Practical applications and examples
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 121: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 123: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 124: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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