Write the topic sentences for each of the following paragraphs.

PARAGRAPH 1

Firstly, they live in or on a host, and do it harm. The depth to which they penetrate the
host varies, as indeed does the damage. Fleas, leeches and lice live on the surface and
cause super cial injury. Athlete's foot is a skin disease caused by a fungus living in the
surface layers of the foot. The parasite of sleeping sickness is found in the host's blood
wriggling between blood corpuscles. Secondly, parasites show some simpli cation of
body structures when compared with free-living relatives. Sacculina (a relative of the crab)
shows loss of limbs and is reduced to a mass of reproductive tissue within the abdomen
of its crustacean host. Dodder, a plant parasite, lacks leaves, roots and chlorophyll.
Thirdly, although all organisms show adaptations to their way of life, in the case of
parasites they are often associated with a complex physiological response, e.g. the ability
to survive in regions almost devoid of available oxygen, such as adult liver ukes, or the
hooks and suckers of adult tapeworm. Lastly, parasites exhibit a complex and e cient
reproduction, usually associated in some way with the physiology of the host, e.g. rabbit
eas are stimulated by the level of sex hormone in their host.

PARAGRAPH 2
In 1920 an average of 2.75 pounds of waste were produced each day by each individual
in the United States. Today the quantity of waste produced is 53 pounds per person, and
by 1980 it is estimated that this will rise to 8 pounds per person. One year's rubbish from
10,000 people covers an acre of ground to the depth of 10 feet. In one year Americans
throw away 48 thousand million cans, 26 thousand million bottles, 430 million tons of
paper, 4 million tons of plastic and 100 million tyres which weigh almost a million tons.

PARAGRAPH 3
That it might be experienced in any other way seems unnatural and strange, a feeling
which is rarely modi ed even when we begin to discover how really di erently it is
handled by some other people. Within the West itself certain cultures rank time much
lower in over-all importance than we do. In Latin America, for example, where time is
treated rather cavalierly, one commonly hears the expression, "Our time or your time?"
"Hora americana, hora mejicana?”

PARAGRAPH 4
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 From the late 1870s onwards, cheap American corn began to arrive in the country in large
quantities, along with refrigerated meat and fruit from Australia and New Zealand, and in a
period when both farmers and businessmen were complaining of depression, standards
of living rose higher than they had ever done. The change began each day, as Victorian
writers frequently pointed out, with the food on the breakfast table - with eggs and bacon
as staple fare for the middle classes - and went on through tea, high or low, to multi-
course dinners or sh-and-chip suppers. The poor were eating better as well as the rich.
The annual per capita consumption of sugar, which had increased from 18 lb. to 35 lb.
between the Queen's accession and 1860, rose to 54 lb. in 1870-99 and 85 lb. in
1900-10; that of tea, which along with beer had now become a national drink, went up
from 1½ lb, rst to 4¼ lb and then to 6 lb.

PARAGRAPH 5
The rst is the way in which living cells develop an energy currency. This, like ordinary
money, can be used to exchange one vital commodity for another. The second is the use
of substances called enzymes as go-betweens to reduce the amount of energy needed to
make many chemical reactions essential to life take place fast enough.

PARAGRAPH 6
At rst it was little more than a trickle. For a long time the Norman conquerors did not mix
much with their Saxon subjects. There are plenty of indications of this; for the languages,
too, moved side by side in parallel channels. The custom of having one name for a live
beast grazing in the eld and another for the same beast, when it is killed and cooked, is
often supposed to be due to our English squeamishness and hypocrisy. Whether or not
the survival of this custom through ten centuries is due to the national characteristics in
question it would be hard to say, but they have certainly nothing to do with its origin. That
is a much more blame-less a air. For the Saxon neatherd who had spent a hard day
tending his oxen, sheep, calves and swine, probably saw little enough of the beef,
mutton, veal, pork and bacon, which were gobbled at night by his Norman masters. There
is something a little pathetic, too, in the thought that the homely old word, stool, could be
used to express any kind of seat, however magni cent, until it was, so to speak, hustled
into the kitchen by the smart French chair. Even the polite, however, continued to use the
old word in the idiom ‘to fall between two stools’.
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