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i

“Liebestraum (Dream of Love)” with lyrics by Howard Johnson. © 1932 (renewed) Robbins Music
Corp. All rights controlled by EMI Robbins Catalog Inc. (publishing) and Alfred Music Publishing
Co., Inc. (print). All rights reserved. Used by permission.
i

Dreams of Love
Playing the Romantic Pianist
Ivan Raykoff

i
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research,
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You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Raykoff, Ivan.
Dreams of love : playing the romantic pianist / Ivan Raykoff.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: The Romantic pianist—the solo pianist who plays nineteenth-century piano music—has become an attractive figure in
the popular imagination, considering the innumerable artworks, literary works, and films representing this performer’s seductive
allure. Dreams of Love pursues a wide-ranging interdisciplinary approach to understanding the “romantic” pianist as a cultural
icon, focusing on the role of technology in producing and perpetuating this mythology over the past two centuries. Sound
recording and cinema have shaped the pianist’s music and image since the early twentieth century, but these contemporary media
technologies build upon practices established during the early nineteenth century: the influence of the piano keyboard on early
telegraphs and typewriters, the invention of the solo recital alongside developments in photography, and the ways that piano
design and the placement of the instrument on the stage structure our viewing and listening perspectives. The concept of
technology can be broadened to include the performance of gender and sexuality as further ways of making the pianist into an
attractive cultural figure. The book’s three sections deal with the touch, sights, and sounds of the Romantic pianist’s playing as
mediated through various forms of technology. Analyzing these persistent Liebesträume and exploring how they function can
reveal their meaning for performers, audiences, and music lovers of the past and present too.
ISBN 978-0-19-989267-9 (alk. paper)
1. Pianists—19th century. 2. Pianists—20th century. 3. Piano music—19th century—History and criticism.
4. Piano music—20th century—History and criticism. 5. Popular culture—20th century. 6. Music—Social aspects.
7. Music—Psychological aspects. I. Title.
ML397.R39 2013
786.209—dc23 2013005709

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
This volume is published with the generous support of the Otto Kinkeldey Endowment of the American Musicological Society.
To my parents, who inspired and supported my love for the piano.
This page intentionally left blank
i

Contents

About the Companion Website ix

1. Foreplay 3

Part One | Touch

2. Touching Technologies 21
3. Pianist Envy 45
4. Prosthetic Desires 69

Part Two | Sight

5. Play It Again, Franz 91
6. Embodied Instruments 111
7. Lis(z)tening Looks 131

Part Three | Sound

8. Chopin’s Seductions 153
9. Piano Women, Forte Women 175
10. Virile Virtuosity 199

11. Afterglow 223

notes 235
Index 279

vii
This page intentionally left blank
 About the Companion Website

i
[Link]
in addition to the numerous photographs, drawings, and musical examples
that illustrate this book, further visual and literary representations of the Romantic
pianist’s playing can be accessed via Oxford’s password-protected Companion Web
Site, which provides all the supplementary illustrations and texts (“web fig.”) that do
not appear in the book. This website also features an archive of over one hundred
scenes from Hollywood and foreign films discussed in the book, many of them from
obscure and hard-to-find movies; these videos are indicated by “vid.” numbers in the
text. Readers are encouraged to peruse this multimedia website alongside the book
in order to explore the sights and sounds of the pianist’s playing that the printed
word only begins to describe. To access this website use Music3 as the username and
Book3234 as the password.

ix
This page intentionally left blank
Dreams of Love
This page intentionally left blank
 I don’t like to play the piano, it makes me too attractive.
—Oscar Levant in Humoresque (1946)

1
Foreplay

i
There’s something seductive about pianists. Certain sights of the instru-
ment getting played hold our gaze and make us long to see and hear more (fig. 1.01).
Certain classics of the piano repertoire excite our listening pleasure—the “Moon-
light” or “Appassionata” Sonata, Carnaval or “La campanella,” “Träumerei” or Islamey,
Rachmaninoff ’s Second Concerto or Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue, to name a favor-
ite few. Familiar stories about legendary pianists of the nineteenth century stimulate
our fantasies—Frédéric Chopin’s elegance and delicacy and his romance with
George Sand; Franz Liszt’s womanizing and his virtuosity and the Lisztomania he
inspired; Robert Schumann’s injured hand and his insanity; Clara Schumann’s mu-
sical artistry, her influential career, her passionate friendship with Johannes Brahms
as well as her unceasing devotion to her late husband’s memory. Celebrated pianist-
icons populate the twentieth century too—think of Paderewski’s great head of hair,
Liberace’s bejeweled fingers, Glenn Gould’s eccentric humming, and so on.
“The unimaginative seldom pause before a modern piano to reflect that it has a
romantic history,” Eric Blom asserts in his aptly titled book The Romance of the Piano
(1928).1 Literary works, visual culture, movies, and popular songs have long refer-
enced the instrument’s sensual and seductive connotations, as in Irving Berlin’s
classic song “I Love a Piano,” originally written for a 1915 Broadway musical. The
lyrics proclaim, “I love to hear somebody play upon a piano, a grand piano, it simply
carries me away!”2 A similar message comes across in the German popular song
“Man müßte Klavier spielen können” from the 1941 musical film Immer nur Du!
3
4i Dreams of Love

Figure 1.01 Louis Jourdan plays for Joan Fontaine in Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948).

(You, Only You). The refrain encourages men to learn how to tickle the ivories in
order to gain a definite romantic advantage:

Man müßte Klavier spielen können, One should know how to play the
piano!
Wer Klavier spielt hat Glück bei den Fraun. Whoever plays it has luck with
women,
Weil die Herrn, die Musik machen können, Because men who can make music
Schnell erobern der Damen Vertraun. Q uickly gain the ladies’ trust.3

Whether it is the grand piano on the concert stage or the family spinet gracing the
living room, the instrument’s allure intersects with its aura of sophistication as a sig-
nifier of class and cultural values. These associations work together in Arman’s “Sym-
phony of Love” piano pin from the 1990s, which features a large heart emerging
from beneath the grand piano lid (web fig. 1.02).
These associations influence how we’ve come to understand the Romantic pianist
too. As Sidney Harrison asserts in his book Grand Piano (1976), “the story of the
piano cannot be told without touching on the Great Pianist as Great Lover.”4 Mark
Mitchell’s book Virtuosi: A Defense and a (Sometimes Erotic) Celebration of Great
 Foreplay j5
Pianists (2000) channels “the spirit of virtuosity itself: adrenaline, perversity, nos-
talgia, the personal and the expressive, and above all, a pervasive love.”5 The stereotype
of the Romantic pianist/lover has become iconic in its own right—consider Schro-
eder, who plays Beethoven and inspires Lucy’s infatuation in Charles M. Schulz’s
comic strip series Peanuts (fig. 1.03). “It’s always been my dream that I’d marry a man
who plays the piano,” Lucy sings along as he plays the first movement of Beethoven’s
“Moonlight” Sonata in the musical You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown (1967).6
Whether depicting historical personalities, fictional characters, or even caricatures,
such representations condense the manifold attributes of an iconic figure (the
solitary genius Beethoven, the sensitive and susceptible Chopin, the virtuoso/lover
Liszt) into familiar evocative signifiers of meaning and feeling (such as romance,
pleasure, and desire), creating reproducible icons and tropes that perpetuate those
meanings and stimulate those feelings again and again. Thus the Romantic pianist
becomes an alluring cultural fetish.
Could there be something to Sigmund Freud’s claim, stated in his Introductory
Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1915), that in dreams “the satisfaction obtained from one’s
own genitals is signified by all kinds of playing, including piano-playing”?7 Suzanne
Cusick wonders about that almost erotic attraction associated with the piano, its
music, and its great performers in her provocative 1993 essay on sexuality and mu-
sical pleasure: “What on earth is going on in a concert hall during a piano recital?
When the pianist is on a raised stage, in a spotlight while we are in the dark . . . are
we observers of a sexual act? Are we its object? Why, exactly, are we in the dark?”8
What makes the Romantic pianist such a sensual, even sexual figure in the popular
imagination?
Dreams of Love is a series of reflections on these questions. The premise of the
book is that the solo concert pianist plays more than just a musical role in culture

Figure 1.03 Schroeder and Lucy in Peanuts (1979). © Peanuts Worldwide LLC.
6i Dreams of Love

over the past two centuries. Through many familiar and widely disseminated repre-
sentations of practicing, performing, and listening to music, the pianist also plays
within much broader systems of meaning linking music to aspects of identity, modes
of relationship, concepts of gender and sexuality, and the dynamics of desire and
erotic attraction. These meanings have become so deeply ingrained in everyday cul-
ture that we often take them for granted without questioning their origins or their
functions, even as they continue to produce—and endlessly reproduce—the my-
thologies of the Romantic pianist. Oscar Levant’s quip in Humoresque points to the
spellbinding allure frequently associated with the Romantic pianist, but what actu-
ally makes this figure attractive? Levant assumes the object position (“it makes me”),
implying that there is something other than the performer himself—perhaps the
instrument, or the act of playing it, or its sights and sounds—that creates and medi-
ates this allure. Perhaps the music itself turns a performer into an attractive object, as
opposed to our common assumption that a performer attractively shapes the music
he or she plays. There are certain forms of power at work in musical performance
that make the pianist an entrancing figure in concert halls and salons since the early
nineteenth century, and in films and on television since the early twentieth century.
To paraphrase Marshall McLuhan’s famous dictum: what medium is the attractive
message of the Romantic pianist’s playing?
The typical definition of technology—making and using tools, machines, and in-
struments in science, industry, and the arts—does not usually include making love,
but nevertheless “the erotic encounter is inevitably enframed by technologies, from
architecture to etiquette,” asserts Dominic Pettman in Love and Other Technologies
(2006). Novels, poems, works of art, and works of instrumental music are neces-
sarily mediated by technologies, the creative tools and means of making art: “Paint-
brushes, pianos, fountain pens, and laptop computers—these are what we use in
place of Hephaestus’s instruments to forge an encounter.” Pettman actually pursues
a broader definition of technology that embraces “specific relationships involving
power, knowledge, and discourse.” A handshake, like a kiss or a lingering glance,
functions as an unspoken “technique of interaction” between people that can create
a bond of intimacy; spoken and written language (such as the phrase “I love you”) is
a technology of verbal communication that engenders personal relationships. To
extend these ideas to musical performance, which is another form of expressive com-
munication through physical gesture and the nonverbal language of music, this
broadened definition of technology includes the power play of attractions between
the Romantic pianist and the viewer-listener. It also includes the cultivation of the
pianist’s “touching” touch, the discourse around “virile” virtuosity, and modes of
affective feeling enacted through the Romantic piano repertoire. In this perspective,
making music is not so different from making love, and impassioned acts of musical
 Foreplay j7
performing and listening also involve “technologies which are powered by the manic
dynamics of simulation and stimulation.”9
Considering love as technology engages a well-established theoretical framework
that understands sex and gender as social constructions even more than as biological
realities. Common assumptions about what makes a man (or manliness and mascu-
linity) and/or a woman (or femininity) are more functions of the verb “to make”
than the nouns that follow it; or put another way, gender involves technologies for
making/producing, learning/practicing, and enacting/performing these culturally
determined meanings and values. Teresa de Lauretis, following Michel Foucault,
considers gender as “the product of various social technologies . . . and of institution-
alized discourses, epistemologies, and critical practices, as well as practices of daily
life.”10 According to Lenore Manderson, technologies of sexuality involve “objects
and processes; practices, institutions and regulations; ideologies and their encodings
that shape and sanction social actions and relations; . . . therefore, to write of tech-
nology requires inevitable reflection on the ideological and ideational structures
that inform specific objects and their uses in different cultural and interpersonal
settings.”11 Dreams of Love considers the piano as another gender technology and
music-making as another institutionalized technique for engendering power rela-
tions in society.
This book also connects technological forces to the mythologies that shape these
cultural meanings. In Mythologies (1957), Roland Barthes defines “myth” as a system
of communication with ideological functions that transform history (our ideas
about the way things were) into nature (the way things must have always been).
“Myth is constituted by the loss of the historical quality of things: in it, things lose
the memory that they once were made,” he explains. The elusive primary materials of
the past (such as Franz Liszt’s music along with his playing mannerisms, physical
appearance, personality, relationships, and so on) are represented and reenacted by
performers, biographers, critics, publishers, novelists, artists, and other creative in-
terpreters. All these representations gradually coalesce into patterns of meaning
which are continually re-presented to take on the appearance of “reality” through
the naturalizing process of myth. Then, Barthes adds, “all that is left for one to do is
to enjoy this beautiful object without wondering where it comes from. Or even
better: it can only come from eternity.”12
Mythology’s attractions often cause us to overlook the mechanisms that actually
produce these images and stories. Indeed, Barthes writes, “myth is not defined by the
object of its message, but by the way in which it utters this message.”13 As a mythic
cultural icon, the Romantic pianist was invented nearly two centuries ago in Europe
during the first decades of the Industrial Revolution, and it remains one of the most
compelling mechanisms for representing and reproducing these attractions today.
8i Dreams of Love

There is a certain kind of cultural work going on whenever the pianist plays beautiful
music and the viewer-listener feels pleasure. The techniques and technologies that
produce these sights and sounds are hardly accidental—they are studied, learned,
practiced, rehearsed, and performed as deliberately and persuasively as possible,
even if their motivations are often veiled through a discourse of “the sublime” or as-
sertions about “art for art’s sake” by performers and scholars invested in an ideology
of “transcendental” (and essentially Romantic) meaning. As Stuart Hall elaborates:
“The meaning of a cultural symbol is given in part by the social field into which it is
incorporated, the practices with which it articulates and is made to resonate. What
matters is not the intrinsic or historically fixed objects of culture, but the state of play
in cultural relations.”14 Dreams of Love explores these technological and theoretical
factors that inform the Romantic pianist’s attraction, highlighting the state of play—
and the playfulness—in many cultural representations of this mythic figure over the
past two centuries.
The Romantic pianist performs an “attraction” in two distinct senses of that word.
On one hand, the act of performing music involves an element of lively spectacle.
“The attraction that binds the virtuoso to his public seems much the same as that
which draws the crowds to the circus,” writes Claude Debussy in a 1901 review; “we
always hope that something dangerous is going to happen.”15 Like sporting events,
magic shows, beauty pageants, and circus attractions, musical performance is a theat-
rical entertainment that ideally holds our attention with its dynamic interplay of
sights and sounds. The other kind of attraction involves lively sensation, a dynamic
exchange of energy through physical or psychological processes, like a magnetic or
charismatic attraction. This stimulation may be a private sense of pleasure in playing a
favorite recording or the communal experience of a thrilling concerto performance
shared by the pianist, conductor, orchestra members, and audience. It can occur when
a compelling interpretation sends shivers down our spine or when an exciting climac-
tic finale makes the audience burst into tumultuous applause. Writing in 1862, the
French critic Oscar Comettant made fun of the virtuoso’s sensational effects with the
story of a famous German pianist who paid a woman in the audience to faint—just
before a particularly difficult passage in the music—in order to deflect attention away
from his inadequate technique. But she neglected to swoon at the correct moment,
having inadvertently fallen asleep, so he decided to faint right then himself ! “People
crowded around the pianist, who became doubly phenomenal through his electric
execution and his frail and susceptible organisation. They carried him out into the
green room. The men applauded as if they meant to bring down the ceiling; the
women waved their handkerchiefs to manifest their enthusiasm; and the ‘fainteress,’
on waking, fainted, perhaps really, with despair at not having pretended to faint.”16
The stimulation of the body and the senses is key to this visceral dynamic of attraction.
 Foreplay j9
Spectacle and sensation work together to make the Romantic pianist’s attraction.
“What the audience sees is a theatrical icon of the inspired musician,” or spectacle,
Lawrence Kramer writes about bravura virtuosity; “what it hears is a highly charged
extension of the performer’s touch, breath, rhythm,” or sensation.17 This dynamic
interplay of sight, sound, and physicality counters certain ingrained assumptions
about “serious” or high-art music since at least the mid-nineteenth century. “At stake
here is a contradiction between the means and ends of producing the century’s tech-
nically difficult and spiritually ambitious art music,” Kramer elaborates. “The music
is supposed to possess independent symbolic value and cultural authority, but it can
be transmitted to a wide audience only by means of public spectacles that threaten
to subordinate music to the histrionics of performance. With music involving solo-
ists, the danger comes mainly from the charismatic performer who takes control of
the audience’s emotions and debases music by associating it with the visual, the un-
canny, and the bodily.” Anxieties about “debasing” great music’s aesthetic value and
autonomy through spectacle and sensation seem part of an outmoded cultural ideol-
ogy that still informs attitudes toward musical performance in some “serious” music
circles. But this playfulness has a notable pedigree. Kramer writes that “Liszt seems
to have been one of the first to realize how a star could be born from the marriage of
technical wizardry and sexual magnetism,” and “the desire to be touched at the
quick—touched personally—by the star performer is basic to the dynamics of mod-
ern mass entertainment that Liszt’s virtuoso career helped to launch.”18
The title of this book recalls Franz Liszt’s Liebesträume (Dreams of Love), a set of
three nocturnes for piano published in 1850. The best-known of these short pieces is
the third one, in A-flat major; it is Liszt’s transcription of his own song “O lieb, so
lang du lieben kannst” (Oh love, so long as you can love), a setting of a poem by Fer-
dinand Freiligrath about experiencing love to the fullest before one dies. Not only
has the title of this piece inspired at least four movies—the German Liebesträume
(1935), in which Liszt’s composition brings together two young lovers; the French
Rêves d’amour (1947), about Liszt and Countess Marie d’Agoult; the Hungarian-
Soviet coproduction Szerelmi álmok—Liszt (1970), about Liszt and Princess Car-
olyne Sayn-Wittgenstein (fig. 1.04); and the Hollywood thriller Liebestraum (1991),
about another adulterous affair—but the melody itself has been recycled numerous
times into sentimental love songs. One adaptation published in 1932 by the music-
publishing division of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios proclaims, “My dream of love
will linger on for ever altho’ we are far apart. My dream of love will linger tho’ I know
it may not come true, sweetheart” (see front endpage).19 The final duet from the oper-
etta Chonita, a Gypsy Romance (also from 1932) begs, “Oh, come, my love, and waken
from its dreaming my restless, yearning heart, to ecstasy, to bliss beyond compare, to
hope, to joy, that never shall depart” (see back endpage).20 Three decades later yet
10 i Dreams of Love

Figure 1.04 Poster for Szerelmi álmok—Liszt (1970) starring Imre Sinkovits as Franz Liszt and
Ariadna Sengelaya as Carolyne Sayn-Wittgenstein. Szerelmi álmok is Hungarian for “dreams of love.”
György Cziffra recorded the Liszt piano works for the soundtrack; Sviatoslav Richter recorded the
music by Beethoven and Chopin.

another arrangement was inspired by Song without End (1960), a Hollywood feature
film about Liszt’s life: “My dream of love was only an illusion, ’til it came true with
you.”21 These numerous adaptations of the same tune with similarly hackneyed lyrics
illustrate the perpetual replaying of the music and meanings associated with the
Romantic pianist since these “dreams” were first conceived in the mid-nineteenth
century.22
Pianists love to play this “Liebestraum” almost as much as audiences love to hear
it, at least judging by its innumerable performances in Hollywood and foreign films
over the decades. Arthur Rubinstein plays the piece in his living room for the docu-
mentary Of Men and Music (1951), but he also plays it in Follow the Boys (1944), a
 Foreplay j 11
wartime musical entertainment movie that imagines all the listeners around the
globe who tune in to his performance on the radio; this is music for the intimacy of
the parlor as well as the public world (vid. 1.01). Greta Garbo’s character plays the
piece in Romance (1930) but breaks down in tears: “My dream has gone!” (vid. 1.02).
Pierre Blanchar’s character plays the piece for a lovely but elusive woman he meets at
one of his performances in the 1939 French film Nuit de décembre (Night in Decem-
ber) (fig. 1.05)—and twenty years later, a young woman he notices bears an uncanny
resemblance to her; could this young woman be his own daughter? In The Brute
Man (1946), Jane Adams plays a blind woman who plays the same piece to capture a
serial killer, another application of its useful attraction (vid. 1.03). Stella Raff (Elaine
Hamill) makes a rather pointed critique after Daubenny Carshott (Lloyd Hughes)
plays the piece for her in Vengeance of the Deep (1938): “Do you always make love by
playing other men’s music?” (vid. 1.04).23 Oscar Levant plays “Liebestraum” while his
lyricist seduces a starlet in The I Don’t Care Girl (1953), and José Iturbi inspires some
admiration when he performs it in Three Daring Daughters (1948) (vid. 1.05). Claude
Stroud plays it at least five times at a party as Bette Davis’s character drinks her sor-
rows away in All about Eve (1950), Roger Daltrey as Franz Liszt plays it in paradise in
Lisztomania (1975), and Earl Bostic’s swing version plays along while two lovers have
sex in Liebestraum (1991) (vid. 1.06). In Rêves d’amour, Pierre Richard-Willm as

Figure 1.05 Pierre Blanchar and Renée Saint-Cyr in Nuit de décembre (1939). Collection
Cinémathèque Française.
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