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Concrete Structures
Stresses and Deformations

Third Edition
Also available from Spon Press

Abnormal Loading on Structures Design of Offshore Concrete

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F. K. Garas, K. S. Virdi, R. Matthews & I. Holand, E. Jersin & O. T. Gudmestad
J. L. Clarke
Dynamic Loading and Design of
Autogenous Shrinkage of Structures
Concrete A. J. Kappos
Edited by E. Tazawa
Earthquake Resistant Concrete
Bridge Deck Behaviour Structures
3rd Edition G. G. Penelis & A. J. Kappos
E. C. Hambly Global Structural Analysis of
Buildings
Bridge Loads K. A. Zalka
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Edited by The Concrete Societies of The Wind Loading of Structures
UK, The Netherlands and Germany J. D. Holmes
Concrete Structures
Stresses and Deformations

Third Edition

A. Ghali
Professor, The University of Calgary
Canada

R. Favre
Professor, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL)
Lausanne, Switzerland

M. Elbadry
Associate Professor, The University of Calgary
Canada

London and New York

First published 1986 by E & FN Spon
Second edition first published 1994
Third edition first published 2002
by Spon Press
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Spon Press
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to [Link].”
Spon Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
© 1986, 1994 A. Ghali and R. Favre
© 2002 A. Ghali, R. Favre and M. Elbadry
The right of A. Ghali, R Favre and M. Elbadry to be identified as the
Authors of this Work has been asserted by them in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN 0-203-98752-7 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0–415–24721–7 (Print Edition)

Contents

Preface to the third edition xiv

Acknowledgements xvi
Note xvii
The SI system of units and British equivalents xviii
Notation xx

1 Creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of steel 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Creep of concrete 2
1.3 Shrinkage of concrete 4
1.4 Relaxation of prestressed steel 5
1.5 Reduced relaxation 7
1.6 Creep superposition 8
1.7 The aging coefficient χ: definition 10
1.8 Equation for the aging coefficient χ 11
1.9 Relaxation of concrete 12
1.10 Step-by-step calculation of the relaxation function for concrete 14
1.11 Age-adjusted elasticity modulus 17
1.11.1 Transformed section 17
1.11.2 Age-adjusted flexibility and stiffness 18
1.12 General 18

2 Stress and strain of uncracked sections 20

2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Sign convention 22
2.3 Strain, stress and curvature in composite and
homogeneous cross-sections 22
2.3.1 Basic equations 25
vi Contents

2.4 Strain and stress due to non-linear temperature variation 27

Example 2.1 Rectangular section with parabolic
temperature variation 29
2.5 Time-dependent stress and strain in a composite section 30
2.5.1 Instantaneous stress and strain at age t0 31
2.5.2 Changes in stress and strain during the period t0 to t 33
Example 2.2 Post-tensioned section 37
Example 2.3 Pre-tensioned section 43
Example 2.4 Composite section: steel and post-
tensioned concrete 44
Example 2.5 Composite section: pre-tensioned and
cast-in-situ parts 49
2.6 Summary of analysis of time-dependent strain and stress 57
2.7 Examples worked out in British units 61
Example 2.6 Stresses and strains in a pre-tensioned section 61
Example 2.7 Bridge section: steel box and post-tensioned
slab 64
2.8 General 68

3 Special cases of uncracked sections and calculation

of displacements 69
3.1 Introduction 70
3.2 Prestress loss in a section with one layer of reinforcement 70
3.2.1 Changes in strain, in curvature and in stress due to
creep, shrinkage and relaxation 74
Example 3.1 Post-tensioned section without non-
prestressed steel 75
3.3 Effects of presence of non-prestressed steel 78
3.4 Reinforced concrete section without prestress: effects of
creep and shrinkage 79
Example 3.2 Section subjected to uniform shrinkage 81
Example 3.3 Section subjected to normal force and
moment 83
3.5 Approximate equations for axial strain and curvature
due to creep 85
3.6 Graphs for rectangular sections 85
3.7 Multi-stage prestressing 87
3.8 Calculation of displacements 88
3.8.1 Unit load theory 89
3.8.2 Method of elastic weights 89
 Contents vii

Example 3.4 Simple beam: derivation of equations for

displacements 92
Example 3.5 Simplified calculations of displacements 93
3.9 Example worked out in British units 95
Example 3.6 Parametric study 95
3.10 General 98

4 Time-dependent internal forces in uncracked structures:

analysis by the force method 100
4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 The force method 103
4.3 Analysis of time-dependent changes of internal forces
by the force method 105
Example 4.1 Shrinkage effect on a portal frame 108
Example 4.2 Continuous prestressed beam constructed
in two stages 109
Example 4.3 Three-span continuous beam composed of
precast elements 113
Example 4.4 Post-tensioned continuous beam 116
4.4 Movement of supports of continuous structures 121
Example 4.5 Two-span continuous beam: settlement of
central support 125
4.5 Accounting for the reinforcement 128
Example 4.6 Three-span precast post-tensioned bridge 128
4.6 Step-by-step analysis by the force method 136
4.7 Example worked out in British units 141
Example 4.7 Two-span bridge: steel box and
post-tensioned deck 141
4.8 General 144

5 Time-dependent internal forces in uncracked structures:

analysis by the displacement method 146

5.1 Introduction 146

5.2 The displacement method 147
5.3 Time-dependent changes in fixed-end forces in a
homogeneous member 149
Example 5.1 Cantilever: restraint of creep displacements 152
5.4 Analysis of time-dependent changes in internal forces in
continuous structures 153
viii Contents

5.5 Continuous composite structures 154

5.6 Time-dependent changes in the fixed-end forces in a
composite member 156
5.7 Artificial restraining forces 158
Example 5.2 Steel bridge frame with concrete deck:
effects of shrinkage 160
Example 5.3 Composite frame: effects of creep 164
5.8 Step-by-step analysis by the displacement method 172
5.9 General 175

6 Analysis of time-dependent internal forces with conventional

computer programs 176
6.1 Introduction 177
6.2 Assumptions and limitations 177
6.3 Problem statement 179
6.4 Computer programs 179
6.5 Two computer runs 184
6.6 Equivalent temperature parameters 186
6.7 Multi-stage loading 188
6.8 Examples 188
Example 6.1 Propped cantilever 188
Example 6.2 Cantilever construction method 192
Example 6.3 Cable-stayed shed 193
Example 6.4 Composite space truss 197
Example 6.5 Prestressed portal frame 201
6.9 General 205

7 Stress and strain of cracked sections 207

7.1 Introduction 208
7.2 Basic assumptions 209
7.3 Sign convention 209
7.4 Instantaneous stress and strain 210
7.4.1 Remarks on determination of neutral axis position 213
7.4.2 Neutral axis position in a T or rectangular fully
cracked section 214
7.4.3 Graphs and tables for the properties of transformed
fully cracked rectangular and T sections 216
Example 7.1 Cracked T section subjected to bending moment 234
Example 7.2 Cracked T section subjected to M and N 236
 Contents ix

7.5 Effects of creep and shrinkage on a reinforced concrete

section without prestress 237
7.5.1 Approximate equation for the change in curvature
due to creep in a reinforced concrete section
subjected to bending 243
Example 7.3 Cracked T section: creep and shrinkage
effects 243
7.6 Partial prestressed sections 246
Example 7.4 Pre-tensioned tie before and after cracking 250
Example 7.5 Pre-tensioned section in flexure: live-load
cracking 254
7.7 Flow chart 249
7.8 Example worked out in British units 260
Example 7.6 The section of Example 2.6: live-load
cracking 260
7.9 General 262

8 Displacements of cracked members 264

8.1 Introduction 265
8.2 Basic assumptions 266
8.3 Strain due to axial tension 266
Example 8.1 Mean axial strain in a tie 271
8.4 Curvature due to bending 271
8.4.1 Provisions of codes 274
Example 8.2 Rectangular section subjected to bending
moment 275
8.5 Curvature due to a bending moment combined with an
axial force 276
Example 8.3 Rectangular section subjected to M and N 278
8.5.1 Effect of load history 280
8.6 Summary and idealized model for calculation of
deformations of cracked members subjected to N and/
or M 281
8.6.1 Note on crack width calculation 284
8.7 Time-dependent deformations of cracked members 284
Example 8.4 Non-prestressed simple beam: variation of
curvature over span 285
Example 8.5 Pre-tensioned simple beam: variation of
curvature over span 290
8.8 Shear deformations 293
x Contents

8.9 Angle of twist due to torsion 293

8.9.1 Twisting of an uncracked member 294
8.9.2 Twisting of a fully cracked member 295
8.10 Examples worked out in British units 298
Example 8.6 Live-load deflection of a cracked
pre-tensioned beam 298
Example 8.7 Parametric study 299
8.11 General 301

9 Simplified prediction of deflections 303

9.1 Introduction 303
9.2 Curvature coefficients, κ 304
9.3 Deflection prediction by interpolation between
uncracked and cracked states 306
9.3.1 Instantaneous and creep deflections 308
9.3.2 Deflection of beams due to uniform shrinkage 309
9.3.3 Total deflection 313
9.4 Interpolation procedure: the ‘bilinear method’ 314
9.5 Effective moment of inertia 315
Example 9.1 Use of curvature coefficients: member in
flexure 315
9.6 Simplified procedure for calculation of curvature at a
section subjected to M and N 318
9.7 Deflections by the bilinear method: members subjected
to M and N 320
Example 9.2 Use of curvature coefficients: member
subjected to M and N 323
9.8 Estimation of probable deflection: method of ‘global
coefficients’ 325
9.8.1 Instantaneous plus creep deflection 325
9.8.2 Shrinkage deflection 327
Example 9.3 Non-prestressed beam: use of global
coefficients 330
Example 9.4 Prestressed beam: use of global coefficients 330
9.9 Deflection of two-way slab systems 332
9.9.1 Geometric relation 333
9.9.2 Curvature-bending moment relations 335
9.9.3 Effects of cracking and creep 336
Example 9.5 Interior panel 338
Example 9.6 Edge panel 341
 Contents xi

9.9.4 Deflection of two-way slabs due to uniform shrinkage 345

Example 9.7 Edge panel 345
9.10 General 348

10 Effects of temperature 349

10.1 Introduction 350
10.2 Sources of heat in concrete structures 351
10.3 Shape of temperature distribution in bridge cross-sections 352
10.4 Heat transfer equation 354
10.5 Material properties 357
10.6 Stresses in the transverse direction in a bridge cross-section 357
10.7 Self-equilibrating stresses 360
10.8 Continuity stresses 361
Example 10.1 Continuous bridge girder 363
10.9 Typical temperature distributions in bridge sections 366
10.10 Effect of creep on thermal response 368
Example 10.2 Wall: stresses developed by heat of
hydration 371
10.11 Effect of cracking on thermal response 374
10.12 General 378

11 Control of cracking 380

11.1 Introduction 380
11.2 Variation of tensile strength of concrete 381
11.3 Force-induced and displacement-induced cracking 382
11.3.1 Example of a member subjected to bending 384
11.3.2 Example of a member subjected to axial force
(worked out in British units) 387
11.4 Advantage of partial prestressing 391
11.5 Minimum reinforcement to avoid yielding of steel 391
11.6 Early thermal cracking 393
11.7 Amount of reinforcement to limit crack width 394
11.7.1 Fatigue of steel 395
11.7.2 Graph for the change in steel stress in a
rectangular cracked section 395
Example 11.1 Non-prestressed section: crack width
calculation 397
11.8 Considerations in crack control 399
11.9 Cracking of high-strength concrete 401
xii Contents

11.10 Examples worked out in British units 402

Example 11.2 Prestressed section: crack width calculation 402
Example 11.3 Overhanging slab: reinforcement to
control thermal cracking 403
11.11 General 406

12 Design for serviceability of prestressed concrete 407

12.1 Introduction 407
12.2 Permanent state 408
12.3 Balanced deflection factor 408
12.4 Design of prestressing level 409
12.5 Examples of design of prestress level in bridges 413
Example 12.1 Bridges continuous over three spans 413
Example 12.2 Simply-supported bridges 415
Example 12.3 Effects of variation of span to thickness
ratio on βD 416
12.6 Transient stresses 419
12.7 Residual opening of cracks 419
12.8 Water-tightness 421
12.9 Control of residual crack opening 422
12.10 Recommended longitudinal non-prestressed steel in
closed-box bridge sections 422
12.11 Residual curvature 422
12.12 General 426

13 Non-linear analysis of plane frames 428

13.1 Introduction 428
13.2 Reference axis 429
13.3 Idealization of plane frames 429
13.4 Tangent stiffness matrix of a member 431
13.5 Examples of stiffness matrices 434
Example 13.1 Stiffness matrix of an uncracked
prismatic cantilever 434
Example 13.2 Tangent stiffness matrix of a cracked cantilever 437
13.6 Fixed-end forces 439
13.7 Fixed-end forces due to temperature 440
13.8 Numerical integration 442
13.9 Iterative analysis 443
13.10 Convergence criteria 445
 Contents xiii

13.11 Incremental method 446

13.12 Examples of statically indeterminate structures 447
Example 13.3 Demonstration of the iterative analysis 447
Example 13.4 Deflection of a non-prestressed concrete slab 452
Example 13.5 Prestressed continuous beam analysed
by the incremental method 454
13.13 General 456

14 Serviceability of members reinforced with fibre-reinforced polymers 457

14.1 Introduction 457
14.2 Properties of FRP reinforcements for concrete 458
14.3 Strain in reinforcement and width of cracks 459
14.4 Design of cross-sectional area of FRP for
non-prestressed flexural members 460
14.5 Curvature and deflections of flexural members 463
14.6 Relationship between deflection, mean curvature and
strain in reinforcement 464
14.7 Ratio of span to minimum thickness 466
14.7.1 Minimum thickness comparison between
members reinforced with steel and with FRP 467
14.7.2 Empirical equation for ratio of length to
minimum thickness 468
14.8 Design examples for deflection control 469
Example 14.1 A simple beam 469
Example 14.2 Verification of the ratio of span to deflection 470
14.9 Deformability of sections in flexure 471
14.10 Prestressing with FRP 472
14.11 General 473

Appendix A: Time functions for modulus of elasticity, creep,

shrinkage and aging coefficient of concrete 474
A.1 CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 (MC-90) 474
A.1.1 Parameters affecting creep 475
A.1.2 Effect of temperature on maturity 475
A.1.3 Modulus of elasticity 476
A.1.4 Development of strength and modulus of
elasticity with time 476
A.1.5 Tensile strength 477
A.1.6 Creep under stress not exceeding 40 per cent of
mean compressive strength 477
xiv Contents

A.1.7 Effect of type of cement on creep 479

A.1.8 Creep under high stress 479
A.1.9 Shrinkage 479
A.2 Eurocode 2–1991 (EC2–91) 480
A.3 ACI Committee 209 481
A.3.1 Creep 482
A.3.2 Shrinkage 483
A.4 British Standard BS 8110 485
A.4.1 Modulus of elasticity of concrete 485
A.4.2 Tensile strength of concrete 485
A.4.3 Creep 486
A.4.4 Shrinkage 486
A.5 Computer code for creep and aging coefficients 486
A.6 Graphs for creep and aging coefficients 488
A.7 Approximate equation for aging coefficient 489

Appendix B: Relaxation reduction coefficient χr 534

Appendix C: Elongation, end rotation and central deflection of a

beam in terms of the values of axial strain and curvature at a
number of sections 538

Appendix D: Depth of compression zone in a fully cracked T section 542

Appendix E: Crack width and crack spacing 544

E.1 Introduction 544
E.2 Crack spacing 546
E.3 Eurocode 2–1991(EC2–91) 547
E.4 CEB-FIP 1990(MC-90) 548
E.5 ACI318-89 and ACI318-99 550
E.6 British Standard BS 8110 552

Appendix F: Values of curvature coefficients κs, κφ and κcs 555

Appendix G: Description of computer programs provided at

[Link]/concretestructures 568
G.1 Introduction 568
G.2 Computer program CREEP 569
G.2.1 Input and output of CREEP 569
G.2.2 FORTRAN code 569
G.2.3 Example input file for CREEP 570
 Contents xv

G.3 Computer program SCS (Stresses in Cracked Sections) 570

G.3.1 Input and output of SCS 570
G.3.2 Units and sign convention 571
G.3.3 Example input file for SCS 571
G.4 Computer program TDA (Time-Dependent Analysis) 571
G.4.1 Input data 572
G.4.2 Units and sign convention 573
G.4.3 Prestressing duct 573
G.4.4 Example input file for TDA 573

Further reading 575

Index 577
Preface to the third edition

Concrete structures must have adequate safety factor against failure and must
also exhibit satisfactory performance in service. This book is concerned with
the checks on stresses and deformations that can be done in design to ensure
satisfactory serviceability of reinforced concrete structures, with or without
prestressing. The following are qualities which are essential for a satisfactory
performance:

1 No excessive deflection should occur under the combined effect of pre-

stressing, the self-weight of the structures and the superimposed dead
load.
2 Deflections and crack width should not be excessive under the above
mentioned loads combined with live and other transitory loads, settle-
ment of support and temperature variations. This makes it necessary to
control stress in the reinforcement, which is one of the main parameters
affecting width of cracks. Durability of concrete structures is closely
linked to the extent of cracking.

Because of creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of prestressed

reinforcement, the stresses in the concrete and in the reinforcement vary with
time. In addition, when the structure is statically indeterminate the reactions
and the internal forces are also time dependent. The strains and consequently
the displacement change considerably with time due to the same effects and
also due to cracking. The purpose of this text is to present the most effective
methods for prediction of the true stresses and deformations during the life
of the structure.
The mechanical properties that enter in calculation of stress and strain are
the modulus of elasticity, creep and shrinkage of concrete and modulus of
elasticity of reinforcements. These properties differ from project to project
and from one country to another. The methods of analysis presented in the
text allow the designer to account for the effects of variance in these param-
eters. Appendix A, based on the latest two European codes, British Standards
and American Concrete Institute practice, gives guidance on the choice of
 Preface to the third edition xvii

values of these parameters for use in design. Appendix E, also based on the
same sources, deals with crack width and crack spacing.
The methods of analysis of stresses and deformations presented in the
chapters of the text are applicable in design of concrete structures regardless
of codes. Thus, future code revisions as well as codes of other countries may
be employed.
Some of the examples in the text are dimensionless. Some examples are
worked out in the SI units and others in the so-called British units, customary
to engineers in the USA; the input data and the main results are given in
both SI and British Units. It is hoped that the use of both systems of units
will make the text equally accessible to readers in all countries. Working out
different examples in the two systems of units is considered more useful than
the simpler task of working each example in both units.
In the second edition, a chapter discussing control of cracking was added.
Four new chapters are added in the third edition. The new Chapter 6 explains
how linear computer programs, routinely used by almost all structural engin-
eers, can be employed for analysis of the time-dependent effects of creep,
shrinkage and relaxation. Chapter 12 discusses the choice of amount and
distribution of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcements to achieve
best serviceability. Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars and strands are
sometimes used as reinforcement of concrete in lieu of steel. Chapter 14 is
concerned with serviceability of concrete structures reinforced with these
materials. The effect of cracking on the reactions and the internal forces of
statically indeterminate reinforced concrete structures requires non-linear
analysis discussed in Chapter 13.
The analysis procedures presented in the text can in part be executed using
computer programs provided on [Link]/concretestructures, for
use as an optional companion to this book. The new Appendix G describes
the programs on the website and how they can be used.
Mr. S. Youakim, doctoral candidate, and Mr. R. Gayed, [Link]. student, at
the University of Calgary prepared the figures and checked the revisions in
the third edition; Mrs. K. Knoll-Williams typed the new material. We are
grateful to them as well as to those who have helped in the earlier editions.

A. Ghali
R. Favre
M. Elbadry
Calgary, Canada
Lausanne, Switzerland
January, 2002
Acknowledgements

This book was produced through the collaboration of A. Ghali with R. Favre
and his research group, mainly during sabbatical leaves spent at the Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne. For completion of the work on
the first edition, A. Ghali was granted a Killam Resident Fellowship at the
University of Calgary for which he is very grateful.
The authors would like to thank those who helped in the preparation
of the first edition of the book. In Lausanne, Dr M. Koprna, Research
Associate, reviewed parts of the text and collaborated in writing Chapter 8
and Appendix A; Mr J. Trevino, Research Assistant, made a considerable
contribution by providing solutions or checking the numerical examples
and preparing the manuscript for the publisher; Mr B.-F. Gardel prepared
the figures. In Calgary, Mr M. Elbadry and Mr A. Mokhtar, graduate
students, checked parts of the text, Mr B. Unterberger prepared by computer
the graphs of Appendix F; Miss C. Larkin produced an excellent typescript.
The authors deeply appreciate the work of Dr S. El-Gabalawy of the
Department of English at the University of Calgary, who revised the
manuscript.
Figures A.1 and A.2 are reproduced with permission of BSI under licence
number 2001SK/0331. Complete standards can be obtained from BSI
Customer Services, 389 Chiswick High Road, London W4 4AL (tel: 020
8996 9001).
Note

It has been assumed that the design and assessment of structures are
entrusted to experienced civil engineers, and that calculations are carried out
under the direction of appropriately experienced and qualified supervisors.
Users of this book are expected to draw upon other works on the subject
including national and international codes of practice, and are expected to
verify the appropriateness and content of information they draw from this
book.
The SI system of units and
British equivalents

Length
metre (m) 1 m = 39.37 in
1 m = 3.281 ft

Area
square metre (m2) 1 m2 = 1550 in2
1 m2 = 10.76 ft2

Volume
cubic metre (m3) 1 m3 = 35.32 ft3

Moment of inertia
metre to the power four (m4) 1 m4 = 2403 × 103 in4

Force
newton (N) 1 N = 0.2248 lb

Load intensity
newton per metre (N/m) 1 N/m = 0.06852 lb/ft
newton per square metre (N/m2) 1 N/m2 = 20.88 × 10−3 lb/ft2

Moment
newton metre (N-m) 1 N-m = 8.851 lb-in
1 N-m = 0.7376 × 10−3 kip-ft
1 kN-m = 8.851 kip-in

Stress
newton per square metre (pascal) 1 Pa = 145.0 × 10−6 lb/in2
1 MPa = 0.1450 ksi

Curvature
(metre) − 1 1 m−1 = 0.0254 in−1
 The SI system of units and British equivalents xxi

Temperature change
degree Celsius (°C) 1 °C = (5/9) °Fahrenheit

Energy and power

joule (J) = 1 N-m 1 J = 0.7376 lb-ft
watt (W) = 1 J/s 1 W = 0.7376 lb-ft/s
1 W = 3.416 Btu/h

Nomenclature for decimal multiples in the SI system

109 giga (G)
106 mega (M)
103 kilo (k)
10−3 milli (m)
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