UNIT - I

Introduction to Computing:
Computer Systems:
A computer is a system made of two major components: hardware and software. The computer
hardware is the physical equipment. The software is the collection of programs (instructions)
that allow the hardware to do its job.

Computer
System

Hardware Software

Computer Hardware
The hardware component of the computer system consists of five parts: input devices, central
processing unit (CPU) ,primary storage, output devices, and auxiliary storage devices.
 The input device is usually a keyboard where programs and data are entered into the
computers. Examples of other input devices include a mouse, a pen or stylus, a touch screen, or
an audio input unit.

The central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for executing instructions such as arithmetic
calculations,comparisons among data, and movement of data
computers may have one ,two, or more CPUs .Primary storage ,also known as main memory, is
a place where the programs and data are stored temporarily during processing. The data in
primary storage are erased when we turn off a personal computer or when we log off from a
time-sharing system.

The output device is usually a monitor or a printer to show output. If the output is shown on
the monitor, we say we have a soft copy. If it is printed on the printer, we say we have a hard
copy.

Auxiliary storage, also known as secondary storage, is used for both input and output. It is the
place where the programs and data are stored permanently. When we turn off the computer,
or programs and data remain in the secondary storage, ready for the next time we need them.

Computer Software
Computer software is divided in to two broad categories: system software and application
software .System software manages the computer resources .It provides the interface between
the hardware and the users. Application software, on the other hand is directly responsible for
helping users solve their problems.

Software

System Application
software software

System System General Application

Operating support Developmen Purpose Specific
Systems

Fig: Types of software

System Software:

System software consists of programs that manage the hardware resources of a computer and
perform required information processing tasks. These programs are divided into three classes:
the operating system, system support, and system development.

The operating system provides services such as a user interface, file and database access, and
interfaces to communication systems such as Internet protocols. The primary purpose of this
software is to keep the system operating in an efficient manner while allowing the users access
to the system.

System support software provides system utilities and other operating services. Examples of
system utilities are sort programs and disk format programs. Operating services consists of
programs that provide performance statistics for the operational staff and security monitors to
protect the system and data.

The last system software category ,system development software, includes the language
translators that convert programs into machine language for execution ,debugging tools to
ensure that the programs are error free and computer assisted software engineering(CASE)
systems.

Application software

Application software is broken in to two classes :general-purpose software and application

specific software. General purpose software is purchased from a software developer and can
be used for more than one application. Examples of general purpose software include word
processors ,database management systems ,and computer aided design systems. They are
labeled general purpose because they can solve a variety of user computing problems.

Application specific software can be used only for its intended purpose.

A general ledger system used by accountants and a material requirements planning system
used by a manufacturing organization are examples of application-specific software. They can
be used only for the task for which they were designed they cannot be used for other
generalized tasks.

The relation ship between system and application software is shown in [Link] this figure, each
circle represents an interface point .The inner core is hard ware. The user is represented by the
out layer. To work with the system,the typical user uses some form of application software. The
application software in turn interacts with the operating system ,which is apart of the system
software layer. The system software provides the direct interaction with the hard ware. The
opening at the bottom of the figure is the path followed by the user who interacts directly with
the operating system when necessary.
Computer Languages:
To write a program for a computer, we must use a computer language. Over the years
computer languages have evolved from machine languages to natural languages.

-Level Languages

Machine Languages

In the earliest days of computers, the only programming languages available were machine

Instructions in machine language mus

of a computer are made of switches transistors and other electronic devices that can be in one
of two states: off or on. The off state is represented by 0 , the on state is represented by 1.

The only language understood by computer hardware is machine language.

Symbolic Languages:

concept of a special computer program that would convert programs into machine language.
The early programming languages simply mirror to the machine languages using symbols of
mnemonics to represent the various machine language instructions because they used symbols,
these languages were known as symbolic languages.

Computer does not understand symbolic language it must be translated to the machine
language. A special program called assembler translates symbolic code into machine language.
Because symbolic languages had to be assembled into machine language they soon became
known as assembly languages.

Symbolic language uses symbols or mnemonics to represent the various ,machine language
instructions.

High Level Languages:

Symbolic languages greatly improved programming effificiency; they still required programmers
to concentrate on the hardware that they were using. Working with symbolic languages was
also very tedious because each machine instruction has to be individually coded. The desire to
improve programmer efficiency and to change the focus from the computer to the problem
being solved led to the development of high-level language.

High level languages are portable to many different computers, allowing the programmer to
concentrate on the application problem at hand rather than the intricacies of the computer.
High-level languages are designed to relieve the programmer from the details of the assembly
language. High level languages share one thing with symbolic languages, They must be
converted into machine language. The process of converting them is known as compilation.

The first widely used high-level languages, FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation)was created by
John Backus and an IBM team in 1957;it is still widely used today in scientific and engineering
applications. After FORTRAN was COBOL(Common Business-Oriented Language). Admiral
Hopper was played a key role in the development of the COBOL Business language.

C is a high-level language used for system software and new application code.

ALGORITHM:

Algorithms was developed by an Arab mathematician. It is chalked out step-by-step

approach to solve a given problem. It is represented in an English like language and has some
mathematical symbols like ->, >, <, = etc. To solve a given problem or to write a program you
approach towards solution of the problem in a systematic, disciplined, non-adhoc, step-by-step
way is called Algorithmic approach. Algorithm is a penned strategy(to write) to find a solution.
Example: Algorithm/pseudo code to add two numbers

Step 1: Start
Step 2:Read the two numbers in to a,b
Step 3: c=a+b
Step 4: write/print c
Step 5: Stop.

FLOW CHART :
A Flow chart is a Graphical representation of an Algorithm or a portion of an Algorithm.
Flow charts are drawn using certain special purpose symbols such as Rectangles, Diamonds,
Ovals and small circles. These symbols are connected by arrows called flow lines.

(or)

The diagrammatic representation of way to solve the given problem is called flow chart.

The following are the most common symbols used in Drawing flowcharts:

Oval Terminal start/stop/begin/end.

Parallelogram Input/output Making data available

For processing(input) or
recording of the process
information(output).

Rectangle Process Any processing to be

Done .A process changes or

moves [Link] assignment
operation.
Diamond Decision Decision or switching

type of operations.

Circle Connector Used to connect

Different parts of flowchart.

Arrow Flow Joins two symbols

and also represents flow of

execution.

NGUAGE:
C language facilitates a very efficient approach to the development and implementation
of computer programs. The History of C started in 1972 at the Bell Laboratories, USA where
Dennis M. Ritchie proposed this language. In 1983 the American National Standards Institute

C is the programming language most frequently associated with UNIX. Since the 1970s, the bulk
of the UNIX operating system and its applications have been written in C. Because the C
language does not directly rely on any specific hardware architecture, UNIX was one of the first
portable operating systems. In other words, the majority of the code that makes up UNIX does
not know and does not care which computer it is actually running on. Machine-specific features
are isolated in a few modules within the UNIX kernel, which makes it easy for you to modify
them when you are porting to a different hardware architecture.
C was first designed by Dennis Ritchie for use with UNIX on DEC PDP-11 computers. The
language evolved from Martin Richard's BCPL, and one of its earlier forms was the B language,
which was written by Ken Thompson for the DEC PDP-7. The first book on C was The C
Programming Language by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie, published in 1978.

In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established a committee to

standardize the definition of C. The resulting standard is known as ANSI C, and it is the
recognized standard for the language, grammar, and a core set of libraries. The syntax is slightly
different from the original C language, which is frequently called K&R for Kernighan and Ritchie.
There is also an ISO (International Standards Organization) standard that is very similar to the
ANSI standard.

It appears that there will be yet another ANSI C standard officially dated 1999 or in the early
2000 years; it is currently known as "C9X."

BASIC STRUCTURE OF C LANGUAGE:

The program written in C language follows this basic structure. The sequence of sections
should be as they are in the basic structure. A C program should have one or more sections but
the sequence of sections is to be followed.

1. Documentation section

2. Linking section

3. Definition section

4. Global declaration section

5. Main function section

Declaration section

Executable section

6. Sub program or function section

1. DOCUMENTATION SECTION : comes first and is used to document the use of logic or reasons
in your program. It can be used to write the program's objective, developer and logic details.
The documentation is done in C language with /* and */ . Whatever is written between
these two are called comments.

2. LINKING SECTION : This section tells the compiler to link the certain occurrences of keywords
or functions in your program to the header files specified in this section.

e.g. #include <stdio.h>

3. DEFINITION SECTION : It is used to declare some constants and assign them some value.

e.g. #define MAX 25

Here #define is a compiler directive which tells the compiler whenever MAX is found in
the program replace it with 25.

4. GLOBAL DECLARATION SECTION : Here the variables which are used through out the
program (including main and other functions) are declared so as to make them global(i.e
accessible to all parts of program)

e.g. int i; (before main())

5. MAIN FUNCTION SECTION : It tells the compiler where to start the execution from

main()

point from execution starts

main function has two sections

1. declaration section : In this the variables and their data types are declared.

2. Executable section : This has the part of program which actually performs the task we
need.

6. SUB PROGRAM OR FUNCTION SECTION : This has all the sub programs or the functions
which our program needs.
 /* simple program in c */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

} /* End of main */

C-TOKENS :
Tokens are individual words and punctuations marks in English language sentence. The
smallest individual units are known as C tokens.

OPERATORS
E.g. +, -, *

E.g. [ ], { }
SPECIAL SYMBOLS

STRINGS
C TOKENS

CONSTANTS
E.g. -

IDENTIFIERS
E.g. rate,no_of_hours

KEY WORDS E.g. int, printf

 A C program can be divided into these tokens. A C program contains minimum 3 c
tokens no matter what the size of the program is.

KEYWORDS :
There are certain words, called keywords (reserved words) that have a

purpose and not as identifiers.

The following table shows the

Auto Break Case Char Const Continue

Default Do Double Else Enum Extern

Float For Goto If Int Long

Register Return Short Signed Sizeof Static

Struct Switch Typedef Union Unsigned void

Volatile While

IDENTIFIERS :
Names of the variables and other program elements such as functions, array,etc,are
known as identifiers.

There are few rules that govern the way variable are named(identifiers).

1. Identifiers can be named from the combination of A-Z, a-z, 0-9, _(Underscore).

2. The first alphabet of the identifier should be either an alphabet or an underscore.

digit are not allowed.

3. It should not be a keyword.

Eg: name,ptr,sum

After naming a variable we need to declare it to compiler of what data type it is .

The format of declaring a variable is

 Data-type id1, id2,.....idn;

where data type could be float, int, char or any of the data types.

id1, id2, id3 are the names of variable we use. In case of single variable no commas are
required.

eg float a, b, c;

int e, f, grand total;

char present_or_absent;

ASSIGNING VALUES :

When we name and declare variables we need to assign value to the variable. In some
cases we assign value to the variable directly like

a=10;

in our program.

In some cases we need to assign values to variable after the user has given input for
that.

eg we ask user to enter any no and input it

/* write a program to show assigning of values to variables */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int a;

float b;

printf("Enter any number\n");

b=190.5;

scanf("%d",&a);

printf("user entered %d", a);

 printf("B's values is %f", b);

CONSTANTS :
A quantity that does not vary during the execution of a program is known as a constant
supports two types of constants namely Numeric constants and character constants.

NUMERIC CONSTANTS:

1. Example for an integer constant is 786,-127

2.

constant.

indicates unsigned long. for example 123456789u is a Unsigned constant and

1234567891ul is an unsigned long constant.

4. The advantage of declaring an unsigned constant is to increase the range of storage.

5. Floating point constants contain a decimal point or an exponent or both. For Eg :

123.4,1e-2,1.4E-4,[Link] suffixes f or F indicate a float constant while the absence of

f or F indicate the double, l or L indicate long double.

CHARACTER CONSTANTS:

value of a character constant is the numerical value of the character in the machines character
set. certain character constants can be represented by escape \
sequences look like two characters but represent only one.

The following are the some of the examples of escape sequences:

Escape sequence Description

\a Alert

\b Backspace

\f Form feed

\n New Line

\r Carriage return

\t Horizontal Tab

\v Vertical Tab

String constants or string literal is a sequence of zero or more characters surrounded by

t a part of the string.

To distinguish between a character constant and a string that contains a single character

\
a string in C is an array of characters terminated by NULL.

There is one another kind of constant i.e Enumeration constant , it is a list of constant
integer values.

Ex.: enum color { RED, Green, BLUE }

The first name in the enum has the value 0 and the next 1 and so on unless explicit
values are specified.

If not all values specified , unspecified values continue the progression from the last
specified value. For example

Enum months { JAN=1, FEB,MAR,

Where the value of FEB is 2 and MAR is 3 and so on.

Enumerations provide a convenient way to associate constant values with names.

VARIABLES :
 A quantity that can vary during the execution of a program is known as a variable. To
identify a quantity we name the variable for example if we are calculating a sum of two
numbers we will name the variable that will hold the value of sum of two numbers as 'sum'.

DATA TYPES :
To represent different types of data in C program we need different data types. A data type
is essential to identify the storage representation and the type of operations that can be
performed on that data. C supports four different classes of data types namely

1. Basic Data types

2. Derives data types
3. User defined data types
4. Pointer data types

BASIC DATA TYPES:

All arithmetic operations such as Addition , subtraction etc are possible on basic data
types.

E.g.: int a,b;

Char c;

The following table shows the Storage size and Range of basic data types:

TYPE LENGTH RANGE

Unsigned char 8 bits 0 to 255

Char 8 bits -128 to 127

Short int 16 bits -32768 to 32767

Unsigned int 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295

Int 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648

Unsigned long 32 bits 0 to 4,294,967,295

Enum 16 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648

Long 32 bits -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,648

Float 32 bits 3.4*10E-38 to 3.4*10E38

Double 64 bits 1.7*10E-308 to 1.7*10E308

Long double 80 bits 3.4*10E-4932 to 1.1*10E4932

DERIVED DATA TYPES:

De
examples for derived data types.

Ex: int a[10];

Char name[20];

USER DEFINED DATATYPES:

C Provides a facility called typedef for creating new data type names defined by the
user. For Example ,the declaration ,

typedef int Integer;

makes the name Integer a synonym of [Link] the type Integer can be used in declarations
,casts,etc,like,

Integer num1,num2;

Which will be treated by the C compiler as the declaration of num1,num2as int variables.
POINTER DATA TYPES:

Pointer data type is necessary to store the address of a variable.

INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS :

The simplest of input operator is getchar to read a single character from the input
device.

varname=getchar();

you need to declare varname.

The simplest of output operator is putchar to output a single character on the output
device.

putchar(varname)

The getchar() is used only for one input and is not formatted. Formatted input refers to an input
data that has been arranged in a particular format, for that we have scanf.

scanf("control string", arg1, arg2,...argn);

Control string specifies field format in which data is to be entered.

arg1, arg2... argn specifies address of location or variable where data is stored.

eg scanf("%d%d",&a,&b);

%d used for integers

%f floats

%l long

%c character

for formatted output you use printf

printf("control string", arg1, arg2,...argn);

/* program to exhibit i/o */

#include<stdio.h>
main()

int a,b;

float c;

printf("Enter any number");

a=getchar();

printf("the char is ");

putchar(a);

printf("Exhibiting the use of scanf");

printf("Enter three numbers");

scanf("%d%d%f",&a,&b,&c);

printf("%d%d%f",a,b,c);

OPERATORS :

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform certain mathematical or

logical manipulations. They form expressions.

C operators can be classified as

1. Arithmetic operators

2. Relational operators

3. Logical operators

4. Assignment operators

5. Increment or Decrement operators

6. Conditional operator
 7. Bit wise operators

8. Special operators

1. ARITHMETIC OPERATORS : All basic arithmetic operators are present in C.

operator meaning

+ add

- subtract

* multiplication

/ division

% modulo division(remainder)

An arithmetic operation involving only real operands(or integer operands) is called real
arithmetic(or integer arithmetic). If a combination of arithmetic and real is called mixed mode
arithmetic.

2. RELATIONAL OPERATORS : We often compare two quantities and depending on their

relation take certain decisions for that comparison we use relational operators.

operator meaning

< is less than

> is greater than

<= is less than or equal to

>= is greater than or equal to

== is equal to

!= is not equal to
It is the form of

ae-1 relational operator ae-2

3. LOGICAL OPERATORS : An expression of this kind which combines two or more relational
expressions is termed as a logical expressions or a compound relational expression. The
operators and truth values are

op-1 op-2 op-1 && op-2 op-1 || op-2

non-zero non-zero 1 1

non-zero 0 0 1

0 non-zero 0 1

0 0 0 0

op-1 !op-1

non-zero zero

zero non-zero

5. ASSIGNMENT OPERATORS : They are used to assign the result of an expression to a variable.
The assignment operator is '='.

v op=exp

v is variable

op binary operator

exp expression

op= short hand assignment operator

short hand assignment operators

use of simple assignment operators use of short hand assignment operators

a=a+1 a+=1

a=a-1 a-=1

a=a%b a%=b

6. INCREMENT AND DECREMENT OPERATORS :

++ and == are called increment and decrement operators used to add or subtract.

Both are unary and as follows

++m or m++

--m or m--

The difference between ++m and m++ is

if m=5; y=++m then it is equal to m=5;m++;y=m;

if m=5; y=m++ then it is equal to m=5;y=m;m++;

7. CONDITIONAL OPERATOR : A ternary operator pair "?:" is available in C to construct

conditional expressions of the form

exp1 ? exp2 : exp3;

It work as

if exp1 is true then exp2 else exp3

8. BIT WISE OPERATORS : C supports special operators known as bit wise operators for
manipulation of data at bit level. They are not applied to float or double.

operator meaning

& Bitwise AND

 | Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise exclusive OR

<< left shift

>> right shift

~ one's complement

9. SPECIAL OPERATORS : These operators which do not fit in any of the above classification are
,(comma), sizeof, Pointer operators(& and *) and member selection operators (. and ->). The
comma operator is used to link related expressions together.

sizeof operator is used to know the sizeof operand.

/* programs to exhibit the use of operators */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int sum, mul, modu;

float sub, divi;

int i,j;

float l, m;

printf("Enter two integers ");

scanf("%d%d",&i,&j);

printf("Enter two real numbers");

scanf("%f%f",&l,&m);

sum=i+j;

mul=i*j;
 modu=i%j;

sub=l-m;

divi=l/m;

printf("sum is %d", sum);

printf("mul is %d", mul);

printf("Remainder is %d", modu);

printf("subtraction of float is %f", sub);

printf("division of float is %f", divi);

/* program to implement relational and logical */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int i, j, k;

printf("Enter any three numbers ");

scanf("%d%d%d", &i, &j, &k);

if((i<j)&&(j<k))

printf("k is largest");

else if i<j || j>k

if i<j && j >k

printf("j is largest");

else

printf("j is not largest of all");

 }

/* program to implement increment and decrement operators */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int i;

printf("Enter a number");

scanf("%d", &i);

i++;

printf("after incrementing %d ", i);

i--;

printf("after decrement %d", i);

/* program using ternary operator and assignment */

#include<stdio.h>

main()

int i,j,large;

printf("Enter two numbers ");

scanf("%d%d",&i,&j);

large=(i>j)?i:j;

printf("largest of two is %d",large);