Evolution - Chapter 6 Notes
Introduction to Evolutionary Biology
• Evolutionary Biology: Study of the history of life forms on earth
• Evolution: Changes in flora and fauna that have occurred over millions of years
• Context includes evolution of earth, stars, and the universe itself
6.1 Origin of Life
Universe and Earth Formation
• Universe Age: 13.8 billion years old
• Big Bang Theory: Singular huge explosion leading to universe expansion
• Earth Formation: 4.5 billion years ago in the Milky Way galaxy
• Early Earth Conditions:
• No atmosphere initially
• Surface covered with water vapour, methane, CO■, and ammonia
• UV rays broke water into hydrogen and oxygen
• Ozone layer formation
• Oceans formed as water vapour condensed and fell as rain
Theories of Life Origin
1. Panspermia Theory
• Life came from outer space
• Greek thinkers believed spores were transferred to different planets
• Still favoured by some astronomers
2. Spontaneous Generation Theory
• Life arose from decaying matter (straw, mud, etc.)
• Louis Pasteur's Experiment: Proved life comes only from pre-existing life
• Used sterilized flasks to demonstrate controlled conditions
3. Chemical Evolution (Oparin-Haldane Theory)
• Oparin (Russia) and Haldane (England): Proposed chemical evolution
• Life arose from pre-existing non-living organic molecules (RNA, proteins)
• Formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents
4. Miller's Experiment (1953)
• S.L. Miller: Recreated early earth conditions in laboratory
• Setup: Electric discharge in closed flask with CH■, H■, NH■, and water vapour at 800°C
• Results: Formation of amino acids, sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments, and fats
• Significance: Provided evidence for chemical evolution
Timeline of Life
• Life appeared: 500 million years after earth formation (4 billion years ago)
• First non-cellular forms: 3 billion years ago (giant molecules like RNA, proteins)
• First cellular forms: 2000 million years ago (single cells in water environment)
6.2 Evolution of Life Forms - A Theory
• Theory of Special Creation: All organisms created as they are today, diversity unchanged, Earth
~4000 years old
• Darwin's Theory of Evolution:
• Observations from H.M.S. Beagle voyage
• Living forms share similarities with extinct forms
• Extinctions and new forms have occurred
• Gradual evolution of life forms
• Natural Selection (Darwin + Wallace):
• Variation exists in populations
• Fitness = reproductive success
• Nature selects better-adapted individuals
6.3 Evidences for Evolution
• Paleontological Evidence: Fossils in sedimentary rocks, radioactive dating proves sequence of life
• Embryological Evidence:
• Ernst Heckel: common embryonic features in vertebrates (vestigial gill slits)
• Von Baer disproved "ontogeny repeats phylogeny"
• Comparative Anatomy and Morphology:
• Homologous Structures (divergent evolution): Forelimbs of mammals, thorn vs tendril in plants
• Analogous Structures (convergent evolution): Wings of butterfly vs bird, eye of octopus vs
mammal, potato vs sweet potato
• Biochemical Evidence: Similar proteins, genes = common ancestry
• Artificial Selection: Man-made breeding in plants/animals proves variation possible
• Industrial Melanism: White vs black moths before/after industrialisation, also antibiotic/pesticide
resistance
6.4 Adaptive Radiation
• Definition: Evolution of different species from common ancestor in an area
• Examples:
• Darwin's Finches: Beak variation for different diets
• Australian Marsupials: Many marsupials evolved (kangaroo, koala, Tasmanian wolf)
• Convergent Evolution: Placental wolf vs Tasmanian wolf
6.5 Biological Evolution
• Rate of evolution depends on life span (microbes fast, higher organisms slow)
• Darwin vs Lamarck:
• Lamarck: Use/disuse (giraffe neck) – not accepted
• Darwin: Heritable variations selected by nature → new species
• Key concepts: Branching descent + Natural selection
6.6 Mechanism of Evolution
• Sources of variation:
• Hugo de Vries: Mutation theory (large sudden changes → speciation)
• Darwin: Small gradual variations
• Modern view: Both mutations + recombination + drift + natural selection cause evolution
6.7 Hardy-Weinberg Principle
• Allele frequencies remain constant in populations (genetic equilibrium)
• Equation: p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (p = allele A, q = allele a)
• Factors affecting equilibrium:
• Mutation
• Gene flow (migration)
• Genetic drift (Founder effect)
• Recombination
• Natural selection
• Types of selection: Stabilizing, Directional, Disruptive
6.8 Brief Account of Evolution
• mya: First cells
• mya: Invertebrates
• mya: Jawless fish → lobefins → amphibians
• mya: Plants on land
• mya: Reptiles dominate (dinosaurs, ichthyosaurs)
• mya: Dinosaurs extinct
• Mammals evolve: Viviparous, intelligent, continental drift causes distribution
• Coelacanth = living fossil
• Whales, dolphins, seals = aquatic mammals
6.9 Origin and Evolution of Man
• mya: Dryopithecus (ape-like), Ramapithecus (man-like)
• –4 mya: Man-like primates in Africa (walked upright)
• mya: Australopithecus (stone tools, fruit eaters)
• Homo habilis: Brain 650–800 cc, vegetarian, tool user
• mya: Homo erectus (Java man), brain ~900 cc, ate meat
• k–40k years ago: Neanderthal man, brain 1400 cc, used hides, buried dead
• k–10k years ago: Homo sapiens (modern humans), art (Bhimbetka caves), agriculture (~10k yrs
ago)
Summary / Exam Pointers
• Chemical evolution → life
• Natural selection drives evolution
• Evidences: Fossils, anatomy, embryology, biochemistry
• Homologous vs analogous structures
• Hardy-Weinberg principle & factors
• Adaptive radiation examples
• Human evolution timeline
