THERMODYNAMICS

Fundamental of Thermodynamics
❑ Energy
❑Types of Energy
❑ Introduction of Thermodynamics
❑ Application Areas
❑ Review of Basic Definitions
❑ Macro and Microscopic Approach
Energy
• Ability to do work or cause change.
• SI Unit of Energy Joules (J)

3
 Thermodynamics
“Therme” means Heat.
“Dynamics” means Power.

It is a branch of physical science that studies the relationship between heat, work,
temperature, and energy and how energy is transferred and converted from one
form to another.

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Application Areas of Thermodynamics

5
 Microscopic Approach
➢ Statistical approach or Statistical thermodynamics.
➢ Used in Kinetic theory of gas, systems with high vacuum etc.

Macroscopic Approach
➢ Classical thermodynamics.
Applications: Compressor, Heat engine, Turbine, Pumps, Boilers etc.

6
 Microscopic Approach Macroscopic Approach
Micro refers to small or tiny. Macro refers to big and larger perspectives.

This approach is concerned with the This approach is concerned with overall or
individual behaviour of molecules. gross behaviour of molecules.
The large number of variables are To describe such a system only a few
needed to describe such a system, so the properties are needed, so this approach is easy
approach is complicated.
Advanced statistical and mathematical The analysis of macroscopic systems requires
methods are needed to explain the simple mathematical formulae.
changes in the system.

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 Microscopic Approach Macroscopic Approach
The properties are defined for each The properties of the system are their
molecule individually. average values.
This approach is used in the study of This approach is used in the study of
statistical thermodynamics. classical thermodynamics.
It is used in the kinetic theory of It is used in study of applications like
gases and systems with high turbine, compressor, pump etc.
vacuum.

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 Review of Thermodynamic Definition
SYSTEM :
Quantity of matter or region in space, chosen for
SURROUNDINGS
study.
❑ Surroundings:
The region outside the system
SYSTEM
❑ Boundary :
The real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings.
✓Fixed/movable
✓Shared by both -SYSTEM and SURROUNDINGS
✓No thickness
✓No mass/ volume
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 Open System
Open system both mass and energy can cross the selected boundary

Open Mass YES

System
Energy YES

Open system is also called CONTROL VOLUME

The boundary of Open Systems is known as Control Surface.
e.g. Water Heater, Car Radiator, Turbine, Compressor
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 Closed system
Closed system – only energy can cross the selected boundary

Mass NO
m = const.
Energy YES
CLOSED System
Also known as CONTROL MASS

1
 Isolated system
Isolated– no transfer of mass as well as energy

Mass NO
m = const
E = const.
Energy No
Isolated

Thermos Flask
2
State
⬥ Condition of system.

⬥ Identification of the system by measurable or observable characteristics .

Property
➢ Measurable characteristics of the system. (pressure, temp. etc)
➢ Thermodynamics coordinates representing a system

3
• Properties are considered to be either intensive or
extensive.
✓ Intensive properties: Values
independent of the mass of a
system,[Link], pressure,
density, etc

✓ Extensive properties: Values depend

on the size or extent of the system.
e.g. mass,volume

✓ Specific properties: Extensive

properties per unit mass.

( All specific properties are Intensive

Properties)
4
The State Postulate
• The number of properties to fix the state of the system is given by the
state of the postulate.
• The state of postulate requires two independent intensive properties to
define state.

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Process and Cycles:
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.

Path: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.

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 Isochoric
Process
Isobaric
Process

Polytropic
Process
Thermodynamic
Processes

cobalt blue_ball

Process
Isothermal

Isentropic Isothermal
Process Process
❖ Isobaric process: A process during which the pressure (P) remains
constant.
❖ Isothermal process: A process during which the temperature (T)
remains constant.
❖ Isochoric (or isometric) process: A process during which the
specific volume (v) remains constant.

❖ Adiabatic process - a process that has no heat transfer into or out of

the system. It can be considered to be perfectly insulated.
❖ Isentropic process - a process where the entropy of the substance
remains constant.

❖ Polytropic process - when a gas undergoes a reversible process in

which there is heat transfer, it is represented with a straight line, PVn =
constant.
❖ Throttling process - a process in which there is no change in enthalpy,
no work is done and the process is adiabatic.
Quasistatic or quasi-equilibrium process:
A process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close
to an equilibrium state at all times.

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 Thermodynamic Cycle:
if system under goes two or more processes and returns to its
original state after conclusion of processes.
 Path function
Path functions are those for which the change depends not only on the end states
but also on the path followed
Path functions are inexact differentials

2
 Point function
Point functions are those for which the change depends on only the
end states and not on the path followed
Point functions are exact differentials
 Reversible and Irreversible Process
“Process which retains it’s initial state condition, when direction of process
reversed is called as reversible process.”

➢All reversible processes are ideal.

Example of a reversible process.

❑Frictionless relative motion.
❑Extension & compression of spring.
 Condition for reversible process
No friction.
Heat transfer is through infinitely temperature difference.
No spontaneous changes in the system.
All processes in nature are Irreversible

Quasi-Static Compression and Expansion

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 Irreversible Process

A process does not return back to its original state or if the system does not pass

through equilibrium states such process is called as irreversible or non-quasistatic

process

Burning
 Examples of irreversible process

Relative motion with friction

Combustion
Diffusion
Throttling
Free Expansion
Heat trasfer

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SR. REVERSIBLE PROCESS IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS
No.
1. This process not involve friction. This process involve friction.
2. In this process ,heat not transfer with In this process ,heat transfer with
finite temperature difference. finite temperature difference.
3. In this process ,there is no In this process ,there is
spontaneous chemical reaction. spontaneous chemical reaction.
4. In this process ,no current flow In this process , current flow
through a resistance. through a resistance.
5. In this process ,there no inelastic In this process, there is plastic
deformation takes place. deformation.
Temperature
-> No EXACT Definition.

-> Broad Definition :“Degree of Hotness Cold”

-> This definition is based on our physiological sensation.

-> Hence, may be misleading.
-> e.g. Metallic chair may feel cold than Wooden chair;
even at SAME temperature.
-> Properties of materials change with temperature

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Thermometer Digital Pyrometer

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 Temperature Scale
1. Celsius Scale ( ºC ) – SI System
2. Fahrenheit Scale ( ºF ) – English System
3. Kelvin Scale ( K ) – SI System
[Link] Scale ( R ) – English System

1
 Temperature Scale

Celsius scale:
Ice point at 00C, steam point at1000C,
Anders Celsius
divide into 100 equal parts each part 10C

Fahrenheit scale:
Ice point at 320C, steam point at 2120C,
divide into 180 equal parts

Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit

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Relation between Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale

At -40, both scales gives the same reading

3
Kelvin Scale
also known as Absolute or thermodynamics temperature scale

Rankine Scale William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)

William John Macquorn Rankine

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Mercury in glass thermometer

⬥ In a mercury thermometer, a glass tube is filled

with mercury and a standard temperature scale is
marked on the tube. With temperature changes,
the mercury expands and contracts, and the
temperature can be read from the scale. Mercury
thermometers can be used to determine body, liquid,
and vapour temperature.

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 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Equilibrium: A state of balance with no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces) within the system.

Thermal equilibrium: temperature is the

same throughout the entire system.

Mechanical equilibrium: no change in

pressure at any point of the system with time.

Chemical equilibrium: The chemical

composition of a system does not change with
time; that is, no chemical reactions occur. A closed system
reaching thermal
equilibrium.

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 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic
systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third one, then they are
in thermal equilibrium with each other.

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Thank you
Prerequisites
❑ Types of property
❑ Thermodynamic Equilibrium
❑ Temperature
❑ Point and Path function

Contents
❑ Heat and work
❑ Pdv work
 Heat (Q)
⬥ It is the transient form of energy,
⬥ which is transfer without transfer of mass, from one body to
another body
⬥ from higher temperature to lower temperature.
⬥ Unit: J ,kJ,MJ
⬥ Depends on mass of the system.
⬥ Path function .
⬥ A wall which is impermeable to the flow of heat- Adiabatic wall

⬥ A wall which permits the flow of heat- Diathermic wall

2
 Heat Transfer Rate (q)
⬥ Amount of heat transfer per unit time kJ/s

⬥ Sign Convention
⬥ Heat transfer to the system from surrounding = +ve
⬥ Heat transfer from system to surrounding = -ve

Heat Transfer at constant volume

Heat Transfer at constant pressure

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➢ All our efforts are oriented towards how to convert heat to
work or vice versa:

Heat to work Thermal power plant

Work to heat Refrigeration

 Sign Conventions
➢ Work done BY the system is +ve
➢ Work done ON the system is –ve
➢ Heat given TO the system is +ve
➢ Heat rejected by the system is -ve
W W
-VE +VE
Q
Q
+VE -VE
 PdV Work
➢ Displacement work (pdV work)
➢ Force exerted, F= p. A
➢ Work done ,dW = [Link] = p. A dL = [Link]
➢ If the piston moves through a finite distance say 1-2, Then
work done has to be evaluated by integrating
 Area A
PdV Work
Let the Piston be moving from Thermodynamic
P2 V2
P1 V1 Equilibrium State 1 (P1, V1) to State 2 (P2, V2).
Let the values at any intermediate Equilibrium
State 1 State 2
State is given by P and V.
For an Infinitesimal displacement, dL, the

Infinitesimal Work done is;

P1
Quasi-Static dW = F * dL = P*A*dL = PdV
Pressure

Process Path
Similarly, for Process 1 – 2; we can say that;

P2 V2

W1− 2 =  PdV For close system

V1 Volume V V1 7
2
 Similarities between HEAT & WORK :

1. Both are recognized at the Boundary of the System, as they cross

the Boundary. Hence both are Boundary Phenomena.
2. System possesses Energy, but neither Heat nor Work.
3. Both are associated with Process, not State. Heat and Work have
NO meaning in a State.
4. Both are Path Functions.

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 First law of Thermodynamics
⬥ This law of thermodynamics is a particular statement of the general
principles of law of conservation of energy applied to heat & work
transfer.

⬥ The law states that, "Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it
can only be converted from one form to another".

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 Joules Experiment
⬥ During the year (1840 – 1849), James Joule analyzed the statement of
conservation of energy by arrangement shown in the fig.

James Prescott Joule

2
⬥ It consists of a paddle wheel arrangement with the liquid filled in an
insulated container.

⬥ When the weight falls, it supplies the work energy equal to its
potential energy to the paddle wheel &causes it to rotate it.

⬥ This causes the fluid to heat up due to friction between the paddle
wheel & the fluid.

⬥ As a result of work transfer the temperature of the liquid rises, which

is measured with the help of the thermometer.

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The system undergoes a process (1-A-2) as shown.

Now the heat transferred from liquid to

surroundings till the system returns to
original state of pressure and
temperature.

The heat transferred is shown by

process (2-B-1)

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⬥ With such an experiment, joule concluded that in every case, the work
input (W) was always proportional to heat transfer (Q) at the end of the
cycle.
⬥ Mathematically,

⬥ Where J is constant (Mechanical Equivalent of the system)

In MKS unit J=4.187 kJ/k cal

In SI unit J=1J/Nm

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Statement of First Law of Thermodynamics
⬥ When a closed system executes a cyclic process, the algebraic sum of
work transfers is proportional to the algebraic sum of the heat
transfers.
i.e. (Sum W) cycle = (Sum Q) cycle.

⬥ Heat and work are mutually convertible, since the energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, therefore, the total energy conversion associated
with an energy conversion remains constant during a cycle.

⬥ If a closed system goes through a cycle, the algebraic sum of total energy
transfers to it as heat and work is zero Mathematically

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Perpetual Motion Machine 1:
⬥ A machine operating on a cycle and producing work continuously or
periodically without absorption of energy at the same time is known as
perpetual motion machine. Therefore, the first law can also be stated in
following terms,

It is impossible to construct a perpetual motion machine of first kind

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⬥ While studying thermodynamics, we come across processes rather
than cycles. When a system executes a process, the net heat
transfer equals the sum of network transfer and change in stored
energy, dE.
d’ Q = d’ W + dE
⬥ This is known as the First law for a process.
⬥ E=Total energy

E= Internal Energy (U) +Kinetic Energy (KE)+ Potential Energy (PE)

+ others forms of energies

Internal energy (U) is due to molecular motion, position, chemical

composition, atomic structure.
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 d’ Q = d’ W + dE
d’ Q -d’ W =dE
d’ Q -d’ W =dU+d(KE)+d(PE)
For processes 1 to 2 and integrating the above equation
Q -W =ΔU+ Δ(KE)+ Δ(PE)
Neglecting in changes of KE and PE.
Q -W = ΔU
or
Q = W + ΔU ……. For the process.
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⬥ For an isolated system, there are no mass & energy transfer, i.e.
dQ = 0 & dW = 0. Therefore,

(dE)isolated = 0
The total energy of an isolated system remains constant.

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 Formulae to Remember
[Link] Cyclic Process or thermodynamic cycle -

𝜕𝑄 = 𝜕𝑊 ORσ 𝑄 = σ 𝑊&∆𝑈 = 0
Fig. Cycle

[Link] Thermodynamic Non Flow (closed )Process

Q=W+∆𝑼

3. Internal Energy
∆𝑼 = mCv∆𝑇
Fig. Thermodynamic Process
1
Work and Heat
Sign Conventions
❑ Closed system work
2
W=‫׬‬1 𝑃𝑑𝑉

❑ Change in Internal
energy
2
ΔU=‫׬‬1 𝑚 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑇
❑ Heat transfer at const. Press
Q=𝑚 𝐶𝑝 Δ𝑇
❑ Heat transfer at const. Vol
Q=𝑚 𝐶𝑣 Δ𝑇
2
Question1- A stationary mass of gas is compressed without friction from an initial
state of 0.4 m3 and 0.1 MPa to a final state of 0.2 m3 and 0.1 MPa; the pressure
remaining constant during the process. If there is a transfer of 45 kJ of heat from
the gas during the process, Evaluate change in the internal energy of the gas.

Solution:

➢ Given V1=0.4 m3, P1=0.1 Mpa

V2=0.2 m3, P2=0.1 Mpa

Q = - 45 kJ……….. heat transfer from the system

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 Thermodynamic Work for non-flow [closed] processes;
2
W=‫׬‬1 PdV=P [V2-V1]

= 0.1x 103 * [0.2 - 0.4] (1 Mpa = 1000 kPa)

= - 20 kJ
From First Law of thermodynamics for non -flow processes;

Q = W+ ΔU

ΔU = Q-W = -45 - [20]

ΔU = - 25 kJ
Negative sign indicates that the internal energy of the gas decreases by
4
25 kJ during the compression process.
 Question 2- A system undergoes frictionless non-flow process according to law
P=(4.5)/V+2 where P is in bar and V in m3/kg. During the process, volume changes
from 0.12 m3/kg to 0.04 m3/kg and temperature increases from 100° C to 233 ° C. The
internal energy of the fluid varies dU=CvdT where Cv=0.71kJ/kg.
Find the heat transfer and its direction for fluid of mass 10 kg

Solution:
Given: pressure-volume relation P= 4.5/V+2
Volumes v1= 0.12 m3/kg,
v2 = 0.04 m3/kg
Temperatures T1=100 °C+273=373 K
T2 =233 °C+273=506 K
Internal energy dU = Cv dT
Sp. Heat at constant Vol Cv=0.71 kJ/kgK 5
 Thermodynamic Work for non-flow [closed] processes;
2
W=‫׬‬1 PdV
1bar =105 N/m2 (Pa) = 100 kN/m2
=105 * ∫ [4.5/V+2 ] dV

=105 * [4.5 (ln v2/v1)+ 2(𝑣2 − 𝑣1)] 0.04

0.12

W = - 510375 J/kg
= - 510.375 kJ/kg

Internal energy is given by

2
W=‫׬‬1 Cv dT
= 0.71 [ 506 – 373 ]
6
= 94.43 kJ/kg
 From First Law of thermodynamics for non -flow processes;

Q = W+ ΔU
= - 510.375 kJ/kg + 94.43 kJ/kg

Q = - 415.94 kJ/kg

For 10 Kg mass total heat transfer

Q= m* Q per kg
= - 415.94 * 10
Q = - 4159.4 kJ
Negative sign indicates that heat is rejected or transfer from the system 7
 Question:- In an IC engine, during the compression stroke, heat rejected to the
cooling water is 50 kJ/kg, and work input is 100 kJ/kg. Calculate the change in
internal energy of the working fluid starting by stating that whether it is a gain in
internal energy or loss of internal energy

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 Question:- During a thermodynamic cycle heat transfer during various processes
is: 120 kJ, -16kJ, - 48 kJ and 12 kJ find the net work done during the cycle

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 Question:- A Cylinder containing the air compresses the system, the cycle is
completed as follows:
1. 82000 N-m of work is done by the piston on the air during the compression
stroke, and 45kJ of heat is rejected to the surroundings.
2. During the expansion stroke 100000 N-m of work is done on the piston by the air;
calculate the quantity of heat added to the system.

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Prerequisites
❑Open system, control volume.
❑Properties like pressure, temp.,volume

Contents
❑ Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFFE)
❑ Application of SFEE

1
 Steady Flow System
⬥ Is defined as the system in which mass flow rate into the system is equal to
mass flow rate out from the system.

Continuity Equation (Mass Balance equation) 2

Flow Work or Flow Energy
Work required to push 1kg of fluid in control
volume

This Work is required to move the fluid into a system called Flow Work.

3
 Enthalpy
It is a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content
of a system.

It is equal to the internal energy of the system plus the product

of pressure and volume.
H=U+p.V
For unit mass, we can write
h=u+pv
“h” is a specific enthalpy
“u” represents the specific internal energy =( Cv.T)
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 Steady Flow Energy Equation
⬥ Energy Balance Equation
⬥ Consider the control volume shown in the following figure

5
 Assumptions:
⬥ The mass flow rate through out the system remains constant.
⬥ The rate of heat transfer is constant.
⬥ The rate of working substance at any point within the system is same at all
times.
⬥ The rate of work transfer is const.
⬥ There is no change in the chemical composition of the system. Thus, no
chemical reactions are involved.
⬥ Consider K.E.,[Link] flow energy.

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 Total energy flow rate entering = Total energy flow rate leaving
m [ KE1+ PE1+h1]+ [net heat transfer rate] = m [ KE2+ PE2+h2]+ [net work transfer rate]

1 2 1 2
Q + U 1 + p1V1 + + mC1 + mgZ1 = W + U 2 + p2V2 + + mC2 + mgZ 2
2 2
1 2 1 2
Q + H 1 + mC1 + mgZ 1 = W + H 2 + mC2 + mgZ 2
2 2
Considering unit mass of the substance,
(OR)
2 2
Q C W C
+ h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + 2 + gZ 2
m 2 m 2
 2 2
Q W C − C1
− = ( h2 − h1 ) + ( 2 ) + g ( Z 2 − Z1 )
m m 2

2 2
. . . C − C1
Q − W = m[(h2 − h1 ) + ( 2 ) + g ( Z 2 − Z1 )]
2

. . .
Q − W = m[(h) + (K .E.) + (P.E.)]
This equation is known as the Energy balance equation
(or)
Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)
Applications of First law applied to flow processes

1) Nozzle
2) Diffuser
3) Compressor
4) Turbine
5) Throttling device
6) Boiler
7) Evaporator
8) Condenser
9) Water turbine
10) Water pump
 Nozzle / Diffuser
The rate of heat transfer is negligible since
the velocity of flow is high Q=0
No work done W=0
Change in P.E is negligible ∆ P.E.=0

2 2
Q C1 W C2
+ h1 + + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

𝑪22 − 𝑪12
𝒉1 − 𝒉2 =
2
 Compressor Change in P.E is negligible ∆ P.E.=0
Small Change in velocity , ∆K.E.=0
Compressor is well insulated, ∆Q=0

2 2
Q C W C2
+ h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

𝑾 = 𝒎(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉1 )
 Turbine
Change in P.E is negligible

Small Change in velocity , ∆K.E.=0

2 2
Q C W C2
+ h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

𝑾 = 𝒎(𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉2 )
Throttling device Change in P.E is negligible ∆ P.E.=0
Small Change in velocity , ∆K.E.=0
No heat transfer, Q=0
No work done, W=0

2 2
Q C W C2
+ h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

𝒉𝟏 = 𝒉2
Boiler Change in P.E is negligible ∆ P.E.=0
Small Change in velocity , ∆K.E.=0
No work done, W=0

2 2
Q C W C2
+ h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

𝑸 = 𝒎 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉 𝟏
Evaporator Change in P.E is negligible ∆ P.E.=0
Small Change in velocity , ∆K.E.=0
No work done, W=0

2 2
Q C W C2
+ h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

𝑸 = 𝒎 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
Condenser Change in P.E is negligible ∆ P.E.=0
Small Change in velocity , ∆K.E.=0
No work done, W=0

2 2
Q C W C2
+ h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

Q = (h1 − h2 )
Water Turbine No heat transfer, Q=0
Neglecting Internal energy, ∆ U=0

C1 since
2 2
Q W C2
+ h1 + + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

 C1  
2
C2 
2
 p1v + Z 1 g +  =  p2 v + Z 2 g +  +W
 
2    2 
 
Centrifugal Water Pump No heat transfer, Q=0
Neglecting Internal energy, ∆ U=0

2 2
Q C W C2
+ h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

 C1  
2
C2 
2
 p1v1 + Z 1 g +  =  p 2 v2 + Z 2 g +  −W
 
2    2 
 
Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device that utilizes the
Seebeck effect to convert thermal energy into electrical energy

The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon

where a temperature difference
between two dissimilar electrical
conductors or semiconductors
creates a voltage difference between
them

Fig: Seebeck effect

Working Principle
The fundamental principle behind a thermocouple is the
Seebeck effect. When two dissimilar metals are joined at two
junctions and these junctions are held at different
temperatures, a voltage (EMF) is generated in the circuit.
This voltage is proportional to the temperature difference
between the junctions. The hot junction is placed where the
temperature is to be measured, while the other, cold junction,
is kept at a known reference temperature (e.g., an ice bath)
 Types of Thermocouples:
Type J:
Composed of Iron and Constantan, suitable for temperatures from -
40°C to 750°C.

Type K:
Made from Chromel and Alumel alloys, offering a wide temperature
range (-200°C to 1350°C).

Type T:
Utilizes Copper and Constantan, primarily used for low-temperature
measurements (-200°C to 350°C).
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Type E:
Made of Chromel and Constantan, offering a high EMF output and
good corrosion resistance.

Type N:
Utilizes Nicrosil and Nisil alloys, designed for high-temperature and
oxidizing environments.

Type R and Type S:

Both use Platinum and Rhodium, suitable for very high temperatures
(up to 1600°C).

Type B:
Made from Platinum (6% Rhodium) and Platinum (30% Rhodium), 6
designed for very high-temperature applications.
Numerical on SFEE
Problem 1
10 kg of fluid per minute goes through a reversible steady flow process. The
properties of fluid at the inlet are: p1=1.5 bar, ρ1 = 26kg /m3,C1= 110 m/s and
u1= 910 kJ/kg and at the exit are p2= 5.5 bar, ρ2= 5.5kg/m3,C2=190 m/s and u2
= 710kJ /kg .During the passage, the fluid rejects 55 kJ/s and rises through
55 meters.
Determine:
(1) The change in enthalpy (Δh);
(2) Work done during the process (W).
Given: Find:
1) Δh;
𝐦ሶ = 10 kg/min
2) W.
p1=1.5 bar,
ρ1 = 26kg /m3,
C1= 110 m/s
u1= 910 kJ/kg ,
p2= 5.5 bar,
ρ2= 5.5kg/m3,
C2=190 m/s
u2 = 710kJ /kg
Q= - 55 kJ/s
 2 2
Q C1 W C2
+ h1 + + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2

𝐡𝟏 = 𝐮𝟏 + 𝐩𝟏𝐯𝟏 𝐡𝟐 = 𝐮𝟐 + 𝐩𝟐𝐯2
p1=1.5 bar p2= 5.5 bar,
ρ1 = 26kg /m3 ρ2= 5.5kg/m3
u1= 910 kJ/kg u2 = 710kJ /kg

𝐡𝟏 = 𝟗𝟏𝟓. 𝟕𝟕 𝐤𝐉/𝐤𝐠 𝐡𝟐 = 𝟖𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐉/𝐤𝐠

∆𝒉 = 𝒉𝟐 −
𝒉𝟏= - 105.77 kJ/kg
 2 2
Q C1 W C2
+ h1 + + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2
𝑸 𝑾 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝟐
− = + 𝒈 𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
𝒎 𝒎 𝟐
−𝟓𝟓 𝑾 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟐 −𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟐 (𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟓𝟓 − 𝟎
− = + + −𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟕𝟕
𝟏𝟎
( ) 𝒎 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟔𝟎
𝑾
−𝟑𝟑𝟎 − = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 + −𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟕𝟕
𝒎
𝑾
= −𝟐𝟑𝟔. 𝟕𝟕 𝐤𝐉/𝐤𝐠 𝑾 = −𝟑𝟗. 𝟒𝟔 𝐤𝐖
𝒎
Problem 2
In a gas turbine unit, the gases flow through the turbine is 15 kg/s and the
power developed by the turbine is 12000 kW. The enthalpies of gases at the
inlet and outlet are 1260 kJ/kg and 400 kJ/kg, respectively, and the velocity of
gases at the inlet and outlet are 50 m/s and 110 m/s, respectively.
Calculate:
i) The rate at which heat is rejected to the turbine, and
ii) The area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume of the gases at
the inlet is 0.45 m3/ kg.
Given: Find:
𝐦ሶ = 15 kg/sec 1) heat is rejected to the turbine (Q);
v1=0.45 m3/kg 2) Area (A).
P=12000 kW
h1 = 1260 kJ/kg,
h2=400 kJ/kg
C1= 50 m/s
C2=110 m/s
 2 2
Q C1 W C2
+ h1 + + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2
𝑸 𝑾 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝟐
− = + 𝒈 𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
𝒎 𝒎 𝟐

𝑪𝟐 𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝟐
𝑸 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝒎ሶ + 𝒈 𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
𝟐
𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟐 −𝟓𝟎𝟐
𝑸 − 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎 − 𝟏𝟐𝟔𝟎
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑸 = −𝟖𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑾
 𝒎ሶ = 𝝆 × 𝑨 × 𝑪

𝟏
𝟏𝟓ሶ = × 𝑨𝟏 × 𝑪𝟏
𝒗𝟏
𝟏
𝟏𝟓ሶ = × 𝑨𝟏 × 𝟓𝟎
𝟎. 𝟒𝟓
𝑨𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝟐
Problem 3
In a steam plant 1 kg of water per second is supllied to the [Link]
enthalpy and velocity of water entering the boiler are 800 kJ/kg & 5 m/[Link]
water receives 2200 kJ/kg of heat in the boiler at constant pressure. The
steam after passing through the turbine comes out with a velocity of 50 m/s,
and its enthalpy is 2520 kJ/kg. The inlet is 4 m above the turbine exit.
Assuming the heat losses from the boiler and the turbine to the
surroundings are 20 kJ/s. Calculate the power developed by the turbine.
Consider the boiler and Turbine as single system.
Given: Find:
𝐦ሶ = 1 kg/sec 1) Power developed by the turbine (W);
h1 = 800 kJ/kg,
C1= 5 m/s
Q supplied = 2200 kJ/kg
C2= 50 m/s
h2 = 2520 kJ/k
Z2= 4 m
Q rejected = 20 kJ/kg
 2 2
Q C1 W C2
+ h1 + + gZ 1 = + h2 + + gZ 2
m 2 m 2
𝑸 𝑾 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝟐
− = + 𝒈 𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
𝒎 𝒎 𝟐

𝑪𝟐 𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝟐
𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝑾 = 𝒎ሶ + 𝒈 𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
𝟐
𝟓𝟎𝟐 −𝟓𝟐
𝟐𝟏𝟖𝟎 − 𝑾 = 𝟏 + 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝟎 − 𝟒 + 𝟐𝟓𝟐𝟎 − 𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑾 = 𝟒𝟓𝟖. 𝟖 𝒌𝑾
Problem 3
12 kg of air per minute is delivered by a centrifugal air compressor. The inlet
and outlet conditions of air are C1= 12m/s, p1=1bar, v1= 0.5 m3/kg and
C2= 90m/s ,p2 = 8 bar, v2= 0.14 m3/kg. The increase in enthalpy of air passing
through the compressor is 150 kJ/kg and heat loss to the surroundings is
700kJ/min.
Find:
i) Motor power required to drive the compressor;
ii) Ratio of inlet to outlet pipe diameter.

Assume that inlet and discharge lines are at the same level.
Given: Find:
𝐦ሶ = 12 kg/min = 0.2 kg/sec 1) Power required (W);
P1=1 bar 2) Ratio of diameter (d1/d2)
C1= 12 m/s
V1= 0.5 m3/kg Q C
2
W C
2
P2= 8 bar + h1 + 1 + gZ 1 = + h2 + 2 + gZ 2
XC2= 90 m/s m 2 m 2
V2=0.14m3/kg
h2-h1= 150 kJ/kg 𝑸 𝑾 𝑪𝟐 𝟐 −𝑪𝟏 𝟐
Q loss = 700 kJ/min = − = + 𝒈 𝒁𝟐 − 𝒁 𝟏 + 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏
Z1= Z2 𝒎 𝒎 𝟐

𝟗𝟎𝟐 −𝟏𝟐𝟐
−𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 − 𝑾 = 𝟎. 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑾 = −𝟒𝟐. 𝟒𝟔 𝒌𝑾
 Ratio of diameter (d1/d2)
𝒎ሶ = 𝝆𝟏 × 𝑨𝟏 × 𝑪𝟏 = 𝝆𝟐 × 𝑨𝟐 × 𝑪𝟐
𝑨𝟏 × 𝑪𝟏 𝑨𝟐 × 𝑪𝟐
=
𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟐
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 × 𝑪𝟐
=
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟐 × 𝑪 𝟏

𝑨𝟏 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟗𝟎 𝒅𝟐𝟏
= = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟕𝟖 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟕𝟖
𝑨𝟐 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟐 𝒅𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝟏
= 𝟓. 𝟏𝟕
𝒅𝟐
 Questions on Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
Q1 Distinguish between:
I. Intensive and Extensive properties.
II. Process and cycles
III. Open system and closed system

Q2. Define the following terms

I. Point and Path function
II. Thermodynamics Equilibrium
III. State Postulate
IV. Internal Energy

Q3. Explain the following concepts of thermodynamics:

I. Thermodynamics cycle
II. Flow work
III. P-dV work.

Q4. Define and explain on the P-v diagram

I. Thermodynamics state
II. Thermodynamics Process and
III. Thermodynamics Cycle.

Q5. Discuss the important points of similarities and differences between heat
and work.

Q6. Define a thermodynamic system and surroundings. Give a classification of

systems, for example

Questions on First law & SFEE

Q7. With sketch, write down the application of the Steady Flow energy
equation to:
I. Nozzle
II. Boiler
III. Turbine
IV. Pump
V. Condenser
Q8. Derive the Steady flow energy equation (SFEE)
Q.9 Explain Joules peddle wheel experiment and state the first law of
thermodynamics.

Q10. Define the PMM-I and converse of PMM-I

Numerical On Steady Flow Energy Equation
Q.11 Explain working of thermocouple? What are the different types of
thermocouples?
Q11. 10 kg of fluid per minute goes through a reversible steady flow process. The
properties of fluid at the inlet are: p1=1.5 bar, ρ1 = 26kg /m3,C1= 110 m/s and
u1= 910 kJ/kg and at the exit are p2= 5.5 bar, ρ2= 5.5kg/m3,C2=190 m/s and u2
= 710kJ /kg .During the passage, the fluid rejects 55 kJ/s and rises through 55
meters.
Determine:
(1) The change in enthalpy (Δh);
(2) Work done during the process (W).

Q12. In a gas turbine unit, the gases flow through the turbine is 15 kg/s and the
power developed by the turbine is 12000 kW. The enthalpies of gases at the
inlet and outlet are 1260 kJ/kg and 400 kJ/kg, respectively, and the velocity of
gases at the inlet and outlet are 50 m/s and 110 m/s, respectively.
Calculate:
i) The rate at which heat is rejected to the turbine, and
ii) The area of the inlet pipe given that the specific volume of the gases at
the inlet is 0.45 m3/ kg.

Q.13 In a steam plant 1 kg of water per second is supllied to the [Link] enthalpy
and velocity of water entering the boiler are 800 kJ/kg & 5 m/[Link] water
receives 2200 kJ/kg of heat in the boiler at constant pressure. The steam after
passing through the turbine comes out with a velocity of 50 m/s, and its
enthalpy is 2520 kJ/kg. The inlet is 4 m above the turbine exit. Assuming the
heat losses from the boiler and the turbine to the surroundings are 20 kJ/s.
Calculate the power developed by the turbine. Consider the boiler and Turbine
as single system.

Q.14 12 kg of air per minute is delivered by a centrifugal air compressor. The inlet
and outlet conditions of air are C1= 12m/s, p1=1bar, v1= 0.5 m3/kg and
C2= 90m/s ,p2 = 8 bar, v2= 0.14 m3/kg. The increase in enthalpy of air passing
through the compressor is 150 kJ/kg and heat loss to the surroundings is
700kJ/min.
 Find:
i) Motor power required to drive the compressor;
ii) Ratio of inlet to outlet pipe diameter.
Assume that inlet and discharge lines are at the same level.

Q.15 At the inlet to a certain nozzle the enthalpy of fluid passing is 2800 kJ/kg, and
the velocity is 50 m/s. At the discharge end the enthalpy is 2600 kJ/kg. The
nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible heat loss from it.
(1) Find the velocity at exit of the nozzle. (Ans: 634.4 m/s)
(2) If the inlet area is 900 cm2 and the specific volume at inlet is
0.187m3/kg, find the mass flow rate.(Ans:24.06 kg/sec)
(3) If the specific volume at the nozzle exit is 0.498 m3/kg ; find the exit
area of nozzle.(Ans:0.018887 m2)

Q.16 In a test of water cooled air compressor, it is found that the shaft work required
to drive the compressor is 175 kJ/kg of air delivered and the enthalpy of air
leaving is 70 kJ/kg greater than that entering and that the increase in enthalpy
of circulating water is 92 kJ/kg. Compute the amount of heat transfer to the
atmosphere from the compressor per kg of air. (Ans: -13 kJ/kg)

Q.17 A stream of gases at 7.5 bar, 750°C and 140 m/s is passed through a turbine of
a jet engine. The stream comes out of the turbine at 2.0 bar, 550°C and 280
m/s. The process may be assumed adiabatic. The enthalpies of gas at the entry
and exit of the turbine are 950kJ/kg and 650 kJ/kg of gas respectively.
Determine the capacity of the turbine if the gas flow is 5 kg/s.(Ans:1353kW)