CHEMISTRY PRACTICAL

EXPERIMENT-1
Aim
To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator:
a. Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
b. Dilute NaOH solution
c. Dilute Ethanoic Acid solution
d. Lemon juice
e. Water
f. Dilute Sodium Bicarbonate solution

Theory
The pH is the measure of the acidic (or basic) power of a solution. It is a scale for measuring hydrogen ion
concentration in a solution. The pH scale varies from 0 to 14. At 25°C (298 K), a neutral solution has pH
equal to 7. A value less than 7 on the pH scale represents an acidic solution whereas basic solution has pH
value more than 7.
pH is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per litre.
pH = -log10[H+]

Chemicals Required
Dilute HCl, Dilute NaOH Solution, Dilute CH3COOH solution, Fresh Lemon juice, Water and Dilute
NaHCO3 solution

Apparatus required
Test tubes, Test Tubes Stand, Dropper, Glass Rod, pH Paper strips and pH colour chart

Procedure

Step 1: Six clean test tubes is placed in a test tube stand.

Step 2: Dilute HCl, Dilute NaOH Solution, Dilute CH3COOH solution, Lemon juice, Water and Dilute
NaHCO3 solution are taken separately in six test tubes and labelled.
Step 3: One or two drops of each test solution on different strips of pH papers are put using a glass rod.
Glass rod used for one sample must be washed with water before used for the other sample.

Step 4: Note the pH by comparing the colour appeared on the pH paper with those on colour chart for pH
paper.
5. For determining the pH of lemon juice, squeeze the fruit and place 1 or 2 drop of the juice on the pH
paper.

Observations

Results and Discussions

As pH depends upon H+ concentration and in an aqueous solution H+ and OH- ion concentrations are
correlated, therefore, every acidic and basic solution shows different colour at different pH.

Precautions
1. The test sample solutions should be freshly prepared and the fruit lemon juice samples should also be
fresh.
2. Glass rod used for one sample should be used for the other sample only after washing it with water.
3. Acids must be handled carefully.
 EXPERIMENT-2
Aim
To study the properties of HCl by its reaction with:
a. Litmus solution (Blue/Red)
b. Zinc metal
c. Solid sodium carbonate

Theory
Acids are compounds that contain hydrogen and which dissolve in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+).
Ions are particles that have an electrical charge. The hydrogen ions give acids their special properties but
they only exist in solution, so an acid only displays its properties when it is dissolved in water. For example,
HCI + aq → 4H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) The more H+ ions are in a solution, the more acidic it will be.
• HCl is an acid which turns blue litmus red
• HCl reacts with zinc metal to form zinc chloride and hydrogen
• HCl reacts with solid sodium carbonate to release CO2 gas
Na2CO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Chemicals Required
Hydrochloric acid, Litmus solution (Blue and Red), Zinc metal, Sodium carbonate, Sodium hydroxide,

Apparatus Required
Test tubes, Test tube stand, Bunsen Burner, Matchstick and Dropper
Procedure and Observations Table
S.No. Procedure Observation

1. Test with Litmus Solution

(a) A little amount of blue litmus solutions is taken in a test (a) Blue litmus turns red.
tube and few drops of HCl is added to it using a dropper.

2. (b) A little amount of red litmus solutions is taken in a test (b) No changes in the colour of red
tube and few drops of HCl is added to it using a dropper. litmus. HCl is an acid having pH
value below 7. 2
3. Reaction with Zn metal
A clean and dry test tube is taken and zinc metal is added to A gas is evolved which burns with
it and placed it on test tube stand. Few drops of HCl is popping sound when a matchstick is
added on Zn pieces with the help of dropper. brought near the mouth of the test
tube. The gas evolved is hydrogen.
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 + H2

4. Reaction with Na2CO3

A small quantity of solid sodium carbonate is taken in a A gas is evolved which turns lime
flask and distilled water is added into it. The flask is corked water milky. The gas produced is
with a double bore cork and a thistle funnel is inserted into carbon dioxide which gives brisk
the flask. Then a beaker containing lime water near the effervescence.
flask is placed. Then one end of the delivery tube is inserted Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
into the flask and the other end into the beaker. HCl is 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
added into the flask through the thistle funnel and the
change in colour of the lime water is observed.
Result
1. Hydrochloric acid turns blue litmus paper to red and shows no effect with red litmus solution.
2. Hydrochloric acid gives hydrogen gas when a piece of zinc is dipped in it.
3. Hydrochloric acid gives carbon dioxide gas with sodium carbonate.

Precautions
1. Hydrochloric acid should be handled with care because it can bum skin and clothes.
2. Only small quantity of chemicals should be used.
3. Hands should be cleaned properly after completing the experiments.
4. All the observations should be noted carefully.

EXPERIMENT-3
Aim
To perform the reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions and classify it on:
i. Combination reaction
ii. Decomposition reaction
iii. Displacement reaction
iv. Double displacement reaction

Theory
(a) Barium chloride and Sodium sulphate reacts in an aqueous solution to give precipitate of barium
sulphate.
Reaction: BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(s) → BaSO4(s) + NaCl(aq)
(c) Since, there is displacement in both the reactants, it is a case of double displacement reaction.

Chemicals Required
Sodium sulphate solution, Barium chloride solution, Dilute HCl

Apparatus Required
Beaker, Test tubes, Glass rod

Procedure

Step 1: Two test tubes are washed and cleaned.

Step 2: About 5 ml of an aqueous solution of barium chloride in one test tube is taken. An equal volume of
sodium sulphate solution is taken in another test tube.
Step 3: A 50 ml beaker is taken.
Step 4: Barium chloride solution is added to the sodium sulphate solution in the beaker.
Step 5: The colour of the precipitate so formed is noted.

Observation
When the solutions of sodium sulphate and barium chloride are mixed a white precipitate is formed which is
insoluble in HCl.

Inference
1. When sodium sulphate chemically reacts with barium chloride in the form of their aqueous solutions,
white precipitate of barium sulphate appears. This confirms the presence of sulphate (SO4)2- ions.
Reaction: BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(s) → BaSO4(s) + NaCl(aq)

Precautions
1. Handle the acids and alkali carefully.
2. Use equal volumes of barium chloride and sodium sulphate solutions.
3. Clean the apparatus thoroughly before using it.
Class : X Practicals Subject: Biology

In your practical notebook, experiments are usually written in a two–page format:

• Left-hand side (LHS):

o Aim / Title

o Apparatus / Materials Required

o Theory / Principle

o Formula (if any)

o Diagram

• Right-hand side (RHS):

o Procedure / Steps

o Observation / Data Table

o Calculations (if required)

o Result / Conclusion

o Precautions

1. Aim

To observe stomata (pores for gas exchange) on a leaf under a light microscope and to calculate stomatal
density and stomatal index.

Apparatus Required

• Fresh dicot leaf (e.g., Tradescantia, Hibiscus, Rosa) — use the lower (abaxial) surface for most
dicots

• Microscope (bright-field) with 10× eyepiece and 10×, 40× objective lenses

• Glass slide and cover slip

• Forceps and fine needle or camel-hair brush

• Razor blade / scalpel (optional)

• Nail polish (clear) or transparent cellophane tape (for epidermal impression method) — OR scalpel for
manual peel method (for soft leaves like Tradescantia)

• Stain: 1% safranin or 1% methylene blue or iodine (optional)

• Dropper, distilled water, blotting paper

• Marker for slide labeling

• Stage micrometer or known field of view (FOV) diameter for calibration (if calculating density per
mm²)

• Compound microscope camera / drawing sheet for sketches (optional)

Theory

Stomata are minute pores on leaf epidermis surrounded by guard cells; they regulate gas exchange and
transpiration. Their number and distribution vary with species and environment. Two commonly used
classroom methods to observe stomata: (A) epidermal peel (direct) and (B) epidermal impression using clear
nail polish (non-destructive).

Procedure

1. Select a fresh leaf. Place it with the lower epidermis facing up.

2. Use a blunt forceps/needle to gently tease off a thin strip of the lower epidermis (a translucent peel).
Be gentle — get a thin, intact peel.

3. Transfer the peel onto a clean glass slide. Add 1–2 drops of distilled water.

4. Optional: add one drop of 1% safranin (stain) for 30–60 seconds then rinse carefully with water to
remove excess stain. This stains guard cells and nuclei.

5. Carefully place a cover slip avoiding air bubbles.

6. Observe first at 10× objective (low power) to locate the peel and then switch to 40× objective (high
power) for stomata details.

Microscope Observation

• Start with 10× objective to find the film/peel; focus and center region.

• Move to 40× objective for a clear view of stomata and guard cells (each stoma: two kidney-shaped
guard cells with a pore between them).

• Draw a clear, labelled diagram of what you see (show guard cell, stomatal pore, subsidiary cells if
visible).

• Note whether stomata are more numerous on the lower surface (typical for most dicots).

Recording and Calculations

• Observation table (sample template)

Leaf/sample Surface (upper/lower) Field no. Stomata counted (S) Epidermal cells counted (E) Remarks
Example leaf Lower 1 30 70 —
Example leaf Lower 2 28 64 —
Average
Results

• Observations: Stomata are more abundant on the lower epidermis; guard cells are kidney-shaped
(dicot).

Diagram

• (Include a neat labelled drawing in your notebook of stomata as seen under 40×: show guard cells, stomatal
pore, epidermal cell. Label magnification used and scale if possible.)

Precautions
 • Peel must be thin; too thick will obscure view.

• Avoid air bubbles under the cover slip.

• Do not press too hard with cover slip (may rupture cells).

• Ensure nail polish is fully dry before making an impression.

• Calibrate microscope FOV with a stage micrometer for accurate density calculations.

• Count several fields (at least 3–5) and use the average.

2. Aim

To demonstrate that carbon dioxide (CO₂) is released during respiration.

Theory

During aerobic respiration, glucose is oxidized and CO₂ and water are produced with the release of energy:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⟶ 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

CO₂ can be detected easily because it turns lime water (calcium hydroxide solution, Ca(OH)₂) milky due to
formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃).

Materials

• Two small conical flasks (or test tubes with stoppers)

• Cotton plug or rubber stoppers with glass tubing (if using flasks)

• Lime water (freshly prepared Ca(OH)₂ solution)

• Germinating seeds (e.g., moong/gram wheat) — about 15–20 seeds

• Dead/boiled seeds (same kind) — about 15–20 seeds (control)

• Boiling source and water (to kill/boil control seeds)

• Corks or stoppers

• Delivery tubes (if using flasks)

• Stand and clamp (optional)

• Labels and marker

• Pipette or dropper

• Thermometer (optional)

• Small beaker for lime water

Procedure

1. Prepare germinating seeds

o Soak seeds in water for 8–12 hours, then keep them in a moist, warm place for 2–3 days until
they germinate (small sprouts appear).

2. Prepare boiled (dead) seeds (control)

 o Boil a batch of the same seeds for 10 minutes and then cool. These will not respire actively.

3. Label flasks

o Label one flask A (germinating seeds) and the other B (boiled seeds — control).

4. Set up apparatus (simple glass-tube setup)

o Put about 15–20 germinating seeds into flask A. Pack cotton loosely on top (to allow air but
keep seeds in place).

o Put an equal number of boiled seeds into flask B, pack cotton similarly.

o Fit each flask with a stopper that holds a short delivery tube leading into a small test tube (or
small beaker) containing lime water. Make sure the delivery tube’s end is immersed in the
lime water so that air from the flask bubbles through the lime water.

5. Leave for observation

o Keep both setups at room temperature (or slightly warm). Wait for 1–2 hours (or longer if
temperature is low). For clearer results, leave for 4–6 hours and check periodically.

6. Observe

o Note any change in the lime water for flask A and flask B.

Observation (sample table)

Flask Contents Time elapsed Appearance of lime water Interpretation

A Germinating seeds 0 h Clear Initial

A Germinating seeds 2–4 h Turns milky/cloudy CO₂ present

B Boiled seeds (dead) 0 h Clear Initial

B Boiled seeds (dead) 2–4 h Remains clear No CO₂ produced

Expected result:

Lime water in flask A becomes milky/cloudy; lime water in flask B remains clear.

Chemical Reaction (of the test)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ⟶ CaCO3(s)↓(milky) + H2O(l)

Result

Germinating seeds release carbon dioxide during respiration, which turns lime water milky. Boiled seeds
(control) do not release CO₂ (or release negligible amounts), so the lime water remains clear.

Conclusion

The experiment shows that carbon dioxide is produced during respiration in living (germinating) seeds. This
demonstrates that respiration is taking place and CO₂ is one of the products.

Precautions

1. Use freshly prepared lime water (old lime water can give false results).
 2. Ensure airtight connections so the air exhaled from the flask passes through the lime water.

3. Do not allow water from the flask to enter and dilute the lime water; the delivery tube end should be
below the lime water surface but not allow backflow.

4. Use equal numbers/masses of seeds in both test setups for a fair comparison.

5. Keep temperature similar for both flasks. Colder temperature slows respiration — results may take
longer.

6. Handle hot/boiled seeds with care; allow cooling before sealing.

3. Aim:

To demonstrate that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

Theory:

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare food (glucose) in the presence of sunlight,
chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, and water. If any one of these factors is absent, photosynthesis will not take
place.

Materials Required:

• A healthy potted plant

• Potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution or soda lime (to absorb CO₂)

• Conical flask

• Split cork

• Iodine solution

• Beaker, water, spirit lamp

Procedure:

1. Keep a potted plant in darkness for 24 hours to destarch the leaves.

2. Select one leaf and insert a part of it inside a conical flask containing KOH solution. (KOH absorbs
CO₂). The rest of the leaf remains outside the flask.

3. Place the setup in sunlight for a few hours.

4. Pluck the leaf and boil it in water, then in alcohol to remove chlorophyll.

5. Wash the leaf in warm water to soften it, and then test it with iodine solution.

Observation:

• The part of the leaf kept inside the flask (without CO₂) does not turn blue-black with iodine.

• The part of the leaf outside the flask (with CO₂) turns blue-black.

Result:

This proves that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

Physics practical’s

Class 10

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

Experiment – 1

Note: on ruled side of copy (aim, material required, procedure ,precautions

with pen.

On plain side of copy (aim, material required, circuit diagram, observation

table, conclusions, result)

Aim
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the
current (I) passing through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph
between V and I.

Circuit Diagram:

Materials Required

A battery, an insulated copper wire (cut into 10 pieces), a key, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, a resistor and a piece of
sand paper.

Procedure

1. Keep the devices as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect them with the connecting wires and keep the key open.
3. Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter.
4. Check the +ve and -ve terminals of voltmeter before connecting it in the circuit.
5. Once the circuit is connected, insert the key and check the rheostat, adjust its slider and see whether the ammeter and
voltmeter readings are shown.
6. By using the slider of rheostat take three different readings of current 1 and voltmeter V.
7. Record your observations in the observation table.

8. Calculate resistance of a given resistor by formula .

9. Plot a graph of voltmeter reading and current reading. On x axis take V and on y axis take I.
10. Resistance increases with increase in temperature of pure metals.

Observation Table

A. Least count of ammeter and voltmeter

Physics practical’s

S. No. Ammeter (A) Voltmeter (V)

1. Range 0 – 0.5 A 0-0.1 V

2. Least Count 0.01 A 0.01 V

3. Zero Error (e) 0 0

4. Zero Correction 0 0

B. For reading of ammeter and voltmeter

Current in Ampere (I) Potential difference in Volts (V)

(Ammeter Reading) (Voltmeter Reading)

S. No. Resistance in Ohms R = V/I(Ω)

Observed Corrected Observed Corrected

1. 0 0.02 0 0.04 R1 =2 Ω

2. 0 0.03 0 0.06 R2 = 2 Ω

3. 0 0.04 0 0.08 R3 = 2Ω
Physics practical’s

NOTE: USE GRAPH PAPER ,FILL IT AND THEN PIN ON THE PAGE

Conclusions

1. The value of R is found to be same and constant in all three readings.

2. The resistance of a resistor is ratio of potential difference V and current I.
3. The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V∝I. This verifies Ohm’s law.

Precautions

1. The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and the insulation of their ends should be removed using the sand
paper.
2. Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance may introduce in the circuit.
3. Connections should be made as per the circuit. Before closing the circuit show the connections to the teacher to take the
readings.
4. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resister such that the current enters at the positive terminal and
leaves at the negative terminal of the ammeter.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected in parallel to resistor.
6. Calculate the least count of voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
7. The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark when no current flows through the circuit.
8. Current should be passed through the circuit for a short time while taking observations; otherwise current would cause
unnecessary heating in the circuit. Heating may change the resistance of resisters.
Physics practical’s

Experiment no 2

Aim
To determine the focal length of (i) concave mirror (ii) convex lens by obtaining the image of a distant object.

A) FOR CONCAVE MIRROR

Materials Required
A concave mirror, a measuring scale, a screen a mirror holder and mirror stand.

Procedure

1. Select a distant object from the laboratory window (distance should be more than 50 ft).
2. Fix the concave mirror on the mirror stand placed on the table, facing the distant object.
3. Place the screen in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. Move the screen back and forth until a clear, sharp image
of the distant object is obtained on the screen.
4. Measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen with a metre scale. This distance is the focal length of
the given concave mirror. Record the focal length.
5. Repeat the above procedure twice and record the readings. Take three readings and calculate the average focal length.

Observation Table

S.No. Position of concave mirror (M) Position of screen (S) Focal length/ = (M – S) cm

1. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

2. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

3. 60 cm 50 cm 10 cm

Calculation
Mean value of focal length of concave mirror =

Result
The focal length of the given concave mirror = 10 cm

Precautions

1. The distant object must be well illuminated to produce a well illuminated and distinct image.
2. Always place the concave mirror near an open window.
3. The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.
4. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object, incident on the concave mirror.
5. The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to the measuring scale.
6. The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the measuring scale for precise measurements.

B) FOR CONVEX LENS

Physics practical’s

(ii) To determine focal length of a given convex LENS

Materials Required
Wooden bench, convex lens, a lens holder, a screen fixed to a stand, a measuring scale; etc.

Procedure

1. Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding the lens and screen horizontally on a table, so that the lens and screen are
not disturbed.
2. Keep the lens in a holder facing a distant object say tree branches.
3. Fix the screen on another holder and keep it on the bench.
4. Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that a sharp image of the given distant object falls on it.
5. Note down the position of the lens in the table and the screen, and find the differences and record the same. The
difference will give the focal length of the given convex lens.
6. Focus the lens towards various distant objects and repeat the experiment to find the position of sharp image and thereby
the focal length.
7. Add all the focal lengths found out and find the mean value of the focal length of the convex lens

Observation Table

S.No. Position of convex lens (L) Position of screen (S) Focal length/= (L – S) cm

1. 60 cm 50 cm f1 = 10 cm

2. 60 cm 50 cm f2 = 10 cm

3. 60 cm 50 cm f3 = 10 cm

Calculation
Mean value of focal length of convex lens =

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens = 10 cm

Precautions

1. Convex lens should be placed vertically.

2. There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the distant object incident on the common lens.
3. In order to get a well illuminated and distinct image, it must be ensured that the distanct object is well illuminated.
4. The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to the measuring scale.
Physics practical’s

EXPERIMENT 3

AIM :
To trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of incidence. Measure the angle
of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and interpret the result.

Materials Required
A drawing board, 4-6 all pins, white sheet of paper, rectangular glass slab, a protractor, a scale, a pencil and thumb pins.

Procedure

1. Take a soft drawing board. Fix a white sheet on it with the help of thumb pins.
2. Place the rectangular glass slab in the centre of the white paper and draw its outline boundary with pencil.
3. Mark this rectangular figure obtained as ABCD.
4. On one side of this figure, i.e., AB take one point E, draw a perpendicular EN and label it as normal ray.
5. With the help of a protractor draw one angle of 30° with the EN. Fix two pins P and Q on the ray of this angle, the distance
between the pins should be more than 4-5 cm.
6. Put the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
7. See through the glass slab from side CD and fix pin R and S such that when seen through the glass slab all
the pins lie in straight line, [i.e., Pins P, Q, R and S should lie in straight line when seen through the glass slab], ‘
8. Now, remove the pins P, Q, R and S one by one and draw small circles around the pin points.
9. Remove the glass slab.
10. Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F.
Draw perpendicular to CD at point F as N’M’.
11. Join points E and F with the pencil.
12. Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e., the incident angle, refracted angle and emergent angle.
13. Extend ray PQ with scale and pencil in dotted line. It will be parallel to ray FRS. The distance between these two parallel
rays is called lateral displacement (d).
14. Measure the lateral displacement.
15. Repeat the above procedure for angles 45° and 60°.
Physics practical’s

16. Diagram

ABCD = Glass slab

EN and FM’ = Normal rays
P, Q, R, S = All pins ∠PEN = ∠i = incident angle = 30°
∠MEF = ∠r = refracted angle
∠SFM’= ∠e = emergent angle = 30° ~ 31°
d = lateral displacement.

Observations Table

Angle of incidence
Angle of refraction Angle of emergence ∠i – ∠e
S.No.
∠r = ∠MEF ∠e = ∠SFM’ ∠PEN – ∠SFM’
∠i = ∠PEN

1. 30° 28° 30° 0°

2. 45° 43° 44.8° 0.2°

3. 60° 56° 59.8° 0.2°

During performing this experiment, ∠i – ∠e may not be zero at times as shown above due to human error.
Physics practical’s

Conclusion

1. The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.

2. The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence because light is travelling from rarer to denser optical medium.
3. The lateral displacement remains the same for different angles of incidences.
4. When the light ray travels from optically rarer medium (air) to optically denser medium (glass) the light bends towards the
normal.

Precautions

1. The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
2. The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
4. All pins base should lie in straight line.
5. While fixing the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, care should be taken to maintain a distance of about 5 cm between the
two pihs.
6. Draw thin lines using a sharp pencil.
7. Use a good quality protractor having clear markings.
8. Place the protractor correctly to measure the angles.
9. Perpendiculars should be drawn correctly.

Sources of Error

1. The glass slab should not have any air-bubbles.

2. All measurement of angles using protractor should be done accurately.
Physics practical’s

EXPERIMENT 4

Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.

Materials Required
A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale, protractor, drawing board.

Procedure

1. Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its triangular base. Trace the outline of the prism using a pencil.
3. Draw a thin line NEN normal (perpendicular) to face AB of the prism. Also draw a straight line PE making an angle
preferably between 30° and 60° as shown in figure.
4. Fix two pins at a distance of 5 cm from each other on the line PE as shown in the figure, later mark these points of pins as
P and Q.
5. Look at the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q, through the other face of the prism, i.e., AC.
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S vertically such that the feet of pins at R and S appear to be on the same straight line
as the feet of the images of the pins P and Q when viewed through the face AC of the prism.
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.
8. Join and produce a line joining R and S, let this line meet the prism at point F.
9. Extend the direction of incident ray PQE till it meets the face AC. Also extend (backwards) the emergent ray SRF so that
these two lines meet at a point G.
10. Mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of emergence ∠e and ∠D as shown in the figure.
11. Repeat the experiment for more angle of incidence preferably between 30° and 60°.

Observations

1. The light ray enters the prism at surface AB, bends towards the normal on refraction.
2. At surface AC of the prism, this light ray bends away from the normal because it travels from a glass to air.
3. The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the direction of the incident ray. This angle
is called the angle of deviation (∠D).

Conclusion

1. The light ray, i.e., the incident ray first bends towards the normal when it gets refracted in the prism and while leaving the
prism it bends away from the normal.
2. The angle of deviation first decreases with the increase in angle of incidence ∠i. It attains a minimum value then
increases with further increase in angle of incidence.

Precautions

1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. Use soft board and pointed pins.
3. The pins should be fixed at a distance of 5 cm or more.
Physics practical’s

4. The pins should be fixed vertically and immediately encircled after they are removed.
5. While viewing the col-linearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance from the pins so that all of them
can be seen simultaneously. The col-linearity of all the four pins can be confirmed by moving the head slightly to either
side while viewing them. They all appear to move together.
6. The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
7. Proper arrows should be drawn for the incident ray, refracted ray and emergent ray.