ECOLOGY NOTES

Ecology: Interaction of organisms with their environment.

The environment simply means the surrounding of an organism. The environment

comprises the living things (or the living organisms) and the non-living things. Living things
are also called Biotic Factors while non-living is called Abiotic Factors. Abiotic factors are the
non-living components in the environment/ecosystem such as gases, light, humidity and
temperature.

Common Ecological Terms.

[i]. Species: A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile/viable offsprings.
[ii]. Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
[iii]. Community: A group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area. A
community is different from a population because it comprises of two (2) or more different species
of organisms.
[iv]. Ecosystem: Is a community in which living and non-living things interact by exchanging and
utilizing substances in a cyclic manner. Examples of ecosystems are;
- A pond, lake or sea.

- Tropical forest.

- Desert

- Soil

[v]. Niche: (also called ecological niche). It is defined as the role/function of an organism in an
ecosystem. Is the way of life of an organism or species in the environment or ecosystem. This
includes how the species survives, reproduces and meets its needs for food and shelter.
[vii]. Habitat: a natural environment where an organism lives and reproduces.

Food Chain.
● A food chain is a pattern of obtaining food through/ by interaction between different
organisms in a habitant. Food chains consist of producers, consumers and decomposers.
Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy in the food chain. Energy in the food chain flows in a
non- cyclical nature.

Producers: (Autotrophs): are organisms that make or produce their own food using
energy from the Sun. Producers are usually plants. The energy stored in plants is later
transmitted to consumers.

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 Consumers: are organisms that eat or consume other organisms for energy.
Consumers belong to different categories. These are First Order Consumers (Herbivores e.g.
Buffaloes, hippos, elephants, doves, butterflies, breams and other plant eating animals),
Second Order Consumers (Carnivores e.g. Lions, some Fish, crocodiles, Lizards, Eagle, and
other fresh eating animals) and Third Order Consumers (e.g. Omnivores)

Herbivores are also called Primary Consumers, Omnivores are called Secondary Consumers while
carnivores falls under Tertiary and Quaternary consumers
Decomposers: these are mainly bacteria and fungi. They decompose bodies of dead plants
and animals. Through decomposition, mineral salts are returned in the soil. The mineral salts
or mineral elements are absorbed by new plants and the cycle continues. Some food chains
are simple. For example, a bird eats grass hopper and the grass hopper eats grass.

The population density of grass hopper will depend on the availability of grass. If the
population of grass hopper increases, it may lead to reduction of grass. This is because the
grass hopper will eat more grass. Therefore most of the grass will starve and die as they will
be less grass to eat later. As a result, the population will also decline. Other examples of food
chains are shown below.

The Trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in the food chain. It is also defined as the
level the organism holds in a food pyramid. Examples of trophic levels are producers (e.g. grass),
primary consumers (herbivores) and secondary consumers (carnivores). Decomposers break down
organic substances.
Trophic levels can be demonstrated in a food pyramid as shown below.

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Food Webs.
A food web (food cycle) is a natural interconnection of food chains. In case of a food chain if a
particular food chain is eliminated, then the organism that depends on such food will face danger of
being extinct due to starvation. But in a food web, organisms may still survive as they may depend
on other food sources. For example, a chicken eat maize grains, insects and lizards. A bird of prey
can eat small birds, snakes and small animals. Below is an example of a food web.

Energy flow in the ecosystem (across different trophic levels)

The energy obtained from the producer is utilised for metabolic processes (such as
movement, maintenance of body temperature, egestion, excretion and other processes)
while part of energy is used for growth or transformed into biomass.

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 Biomass is a biological material from a living or recently living organism. In simple terms,
biomass is any plant or animal material from a living or recently living organism.

Biomass also called Dry Weight of an organism is also defined as the weight of any plant or
animal part after all its water content has been removed by drying

Examples of biomass are wood, sawdust, trees. Producers (e.g. grasses, trees, and shrubs)
have a higher biomass than the animals consuming them.

Energy reduces as it flows from one trophic level/ species to another.

Primary consumers absorb most of the stored energy in the plant through digestion. Some energy
are converted to body heat. Energy is also lost through expulsion of undigested food and excretion.
Energy that had been used by the primary consumers for growth and storage is then absorbed into
the secondary consumers through digestion. Secondary consumers are consumed by tertiary
consumers depending on the type of food chain.
Final links in a food chain are the decomposers which break down the organic matter of the tertiary
consumer (or whichever the consumer is on the top of the food chain) and release nutrients into the
soil. Saprophytic bacteria and fungi are decomposers and play a vital role in the nitrogen and carbon
cycles.
The ENERGY is passed on from TROPHIC LEVEL to TROPHIC LEVEL and each time, about
90% of energy is lost through maintenance of body temperature, excretion, egestion,
movement and other energy demanding activities. Only 10% of the energy is used for growth
or converted into biomass.

Therefore, primary consumers (herbivores) get about 10% of the energy produced by plants,
while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary consumers get 0.1% of the energy. This
means that the top consumer receives least (lowest) amount of energy. A lot of energy is lost
between trophic levels. Consider the example below (showing energy loses at different
trophic levels).

Example

Below is a food chain demonstrating energy transfer between different trophic levels. If the
green plant produced 10 000 kj of energy through photosynthesis, how much energy will be
obtained by the Hawk?

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 Solution

The Hawk obtained 10kj of energy from the Chicken.

PYRAMIDS OF ENERGY AND BIOMASS

Pyramids are diagrammatic representation showing the movement of biomass and /or energy
through an ecosystem. Below are diagrammatic representations of both pyramids.
Pyramid of Energy.

Pyramid of biomass shows the relationship between biomass and the trophic levels while
pyramid of energy shows between energy and the different trophic levels.

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 Both pyramids are maximum/ large at the base, and they go on decreasing as the trophic
levels moves up wards towards the apex (top). This shows that energy or biomass decreases
as they move from one trophic level to another.

Pyramid of Numbers.
There is also another pyramid called pyramid of numbers. This pyramid shows the number of
organisms at each trophic level. The number of organisms’ decreases at each trophic level starting
with the producers up to the last consumer. Meaning the trophic level with the highest number of
organisms are the producers.

The carbon cycle.

Carbon is an element used in the formation of various organic compounds found in both
plants and animals. For example, carbon is used in the formation of proteins, carbohydrates,
fats and oils. Some activities remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere while other
activities add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

During the process of photosynthesis, green plants obtain carbon in the form of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere. Then they convert the carbon into compounds (such as
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils). Which are later on consumed by animals as food. The
consumed plant compounds become part of animal tissue.

During Respiration, (which carried out by all plants and animals) carbohydrates are broken
down to release energy, carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide gas released from
respiration is added to the atmosphere.

Combustion of fossil fuel and vegetation also results in the production of carbon dioxide
which is added to the atmosphere.

C + O2 = CO2

Decomposition of dead plants and animals by micro-organisms (such as bacteria) leads to

the liberation/ release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. When organisms die, the
carbon compounds that form their bodies are decomposed by micro-organisms and the
carbon in them is oxidized to carbon dioxide which is liberated into the atmosphere. All these
events can be summarised in a diagram called the carbon cycle.

ANSWERED QUESTION
Describe how carbon is recycled within an ecosystem [6].
SOLUTION

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 Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is absorbed by plants by the process of photosynthesis.
The carbon from carbon dioxide is used to synthesise organic compounds such as glucose in
plants. Animals obtain carbon compounds from plants by eating the plants. Both plants and
animals release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by the process of respiration. Decay of dead
plants and animals also release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. By fossilization, fossil fuels
(such as petroleum, natural gas and coal deposits) are formed. The combustion of fossil fuels
release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

Processes of the carbon cycle includes:

[1]. Photosynthesis
[2]. Decomposition
[3]. Fossilization
[4]. Respiration
[5]. Combustion
The Nitrogen Cycle.
Nitrogen forms about 78% of the air. Air including Nitrogen itself diffuses into the soil.
Nitrogen in the air is not directly used by plants. It has to be converted into salts (e.g nitrate
salts and Ammonium salts) that are then absorbed by plants and used to make amino acids,
proteins and other nitrogen containing compounds.

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 Nitrogen is converted to some mineral salts in several ways. One way is the conversion of
nitrogen gas into salts by nitrifying bacteria. The nitrifying bacteria are found in the soil and
the process by which they convert nitrogen into salts is called Nitrification or Nitrogen
Fixation. Some nitrogen fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas to nitrites while others convert
nitrites to nitrates. The nitrites in form of ions are then absorbed from the soil by the plants.
Some nitrifying bacteria are free living in the soil while others are found in root nodules (small
swelling on the roots). The nitrates absorbed by plants are used in the formation of amino
acids and other nitrogen containing compounds.

Animals later on feed on this plant and convert the plant proteins into animal proteins. The
animals produce waste materials (which contain nitrogen) such as urea and faeces from the
plant materials they eat. Eventually the animals die and their bodies decay and decompose.

Putrifying Bacteria converts the waste of plant, animals and their dead bodies into
ammonium compounds. Then some nitrifying bacteria (such as Nitrosomonas) convert the
ammonium compounds into nitrites. The nitrites are then converted into nitrates by other
nitrifying bacteria (e.g. Nitrobacter). In this way nitrates are once again made available to the
plants.

Some nitrate compounds are broken down to release nitrogen (which escapes into the
atmosphere) by denitrifying bacteria.

Nitrogen is also introduced into the soil by lightening. In this process the nitrogen in the
atmosphere is converted to nitrogen dioxide which reacts with rain water to form nitrous

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acid. The nitrous acid is then converted to dilute nitric acid which seeps into the soil forming
nitrates in the process.

Apart from lightening, the manufacturing process called Haber process used in fertiliser
production involves the conversion of nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH3). Some artificial
inorganic fertilisers add nitrates directly into the soil.

The Water Cycle (Hydrologic cycle)

Firstly, the water on the surface of the earth (in lakes, oceans, seas, rivers and streams) is
evaporated by the heat from the sun. Water from the plants is also lost by the process called
Transpiration. Then the water in the form of water vapour in the sky forms the clouds.
Clouds are made up of tiny water droplets or ice crystals. Usually, a mixture of both. Tiny
water molecules/ droplets are suspended in air attached to smaller dust particles and
sometimes even gases.

Clouds are formed by condensation due to very low/ cold temperature in the sky.
Condensation is the change of state from gas (e.g. water vapour) to liquid state. After
condensation the water then falls from the atmosphere/ sky as rain, snow, sleet or hail which
is called precipitation. Precipitation can fall as rain, snow, or hail depending on the
atmospheric temperature. Mostly it usually falls as snow and melts on the way down to form
rains. The water then collects into the lakes, oceans or other water reservoirs. From there, it
evaporates again and the cycle continues.

Therefore, the water cycle is simply a cycle that describes a continuous movement of water
on, above and below the surface of the earth. Below is a diagrammatic representation of
water cycle.

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The Pond Lake Ecosystem (water body ecosystem)
The pond and lake are fresh water systems just like other ecosystems, the pond/lake has
two main components, namely abiotic components/factors and biotic components/ factors.

Abiotic factors: Abiotic component of pond includes water, dissolved minerals, soil/sand, stones/
rocks, energy from the sun, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Sun light is the main source of energy.
Biotic Factors.
The biotic components of pond include producers, Primary consumers, secondary consumers,
tertiary consumers and decomposers. We find aquatic plants, fish, Tadpoles, water beetles,
phytoplankton and many other organisms and various food chains.
In terms of water depth, there are three (3) zones in a lake or pond these are the shallow
water region, mid water region and the deep-water region. In the shallow water region, there
are numerous rooted plants. In the mid water region, which ranges from shallow water to
deep water, there is good light penetration and many small organisms such as insects and
their larvae and algae are found. In the deep-water parts, there is no effective light
penetration the organisms found in the deep-water parts include snails, crabs and worms.

[i]. Producers
The producers in the pond lake ecosystem includes algae, green plants and other aguatic
plants such as Hyrila, Arolla and many other. These plants are either floating or suspended or
rooted at the bottom.

The green plants are able to photosynthesise with the use of solar energy which is
converted to chemical energy. Food formed by green plants is utilised by all living organisms
feeding on them.

Oxygen released by producers (green plants) during photosynthesis is used by all living
organisms for respiration and the carbon dioxide released from respiration by aquatic plants
is used for photosynthesis by aquatic plants.

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[ii]. Consumers.
In a pond ecosystem, the primary consumers are the larvae of frogs, tadpoles, fishes and
other aquatic animals which consume plants and algae as their food.

Secondary consumers (frogs, big fishes, water snakes and crabs) feed on herbivorous
aquatic animals which are the primary consumers.

Primary and secondary consumers may also feed on Zooplankton (tiny aquatic
invertebrates) and Phytoplankton (microscopic plant like organisms).

In the pond, besides the secondary consumers, there are consumers of highest order, such
as water bird, turtles etc.

[iii]. Decomposers.
When aquatic plants and animals dies, a large number of bacteria and fungi attack their
bodies converting the organic substances into simpler inorganic compounds and elements.
These microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) are called decomposers. The chemical elements
liberated by decomposers are again utilised by green plants in their nutrition.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON THE ECOSYSTEM

[1].Effects Of Agriculture On The Ecosystem
[i]. Traditional farming methods such as Chitemene System destroy vegetation for animals.
Chitemene System involves massive deforestation.
[ii]. Large scale farming uses large pieces of land which might be needed by animals for food and
shelter.
[iii]. Continuous use of artificial (chemical fertilizers) reduces soil fertility.
[iv]. Spraying of insecticides also kills harmless organisms such as bees, butterflies and others which
are important in their ecosystems.
For example DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichlroethane) is an insecticide which is also absorbed by plants.
It accumulates in plant tissues and when the plants are eaten by the animals, the chemical
accumulates in the animal tissues. The amount of these chemical particles (residues) increases from
one level of the food chain on the next with the highest is being the last consumer. Since this
insecticide (DDT) is poisonous, its accumulation can result to death of the organisms.
[v]. Settlements. The building of infrastructure displaces animals.
Consequences of deforestation on soil stability and climate.
Deforestation leads to soil erosion. Soil erosion washes away the nutrient-rich top soil. Soil erosion
also contributes to the pollution of adjacent water bodies such as rivers, lakes etc. Therefore, it
affects the emergency and growth of plants.
[2]. Poaching. Human beings kill wild animals for meet (food), skins, tusks and horns (for money).

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Poaching can result to depletion/ reduction of this animal population if not stopped.
[3]. Game tanching/farming. Game ranching is the keeping of wild animals/non domesticated
animals in their natural environment. Game ranches are usually large enclosed areas of land. Game
ranching also involves introducing animals to a new habitant and this result to competition for food
with the other animals that existed in that particular habitant. This can lead to death of some animal
species and over grazing which can cause soil erosion.
[4]. Effects of industrialisation on the environment.
Mining activities and many chemical plants produce waste substances which affect the
environment by polluting the air, water and land/ soil.

Air and Land Pollution

Common air pollutants from industries are sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These
gases can dissolve in rain water and for acids that pollute the soil and make it acidic. Some
micro-organisms and some plants do not survive in acidic soils. This may cause a reduction
in the number of plants as well as animals which feed on them. Even carbon monoxide is a
pollutant.

Some industries (e.g. mining and quarrying) produce a lot of smoke and dust which usually
block stomata on plant leaves. This makes absorption of carbon dioxide and sun light more
difficult. As such, vegetation growth is poor leading to food shortage for herbivores.

Water pollution.
Many industries produce waste that can be poisonous when emptied into water. Some of
the waste provides nutrients to water plants. This plant starts to multiply in numbers. Some
result/ effect are obtained when sewage from domestic systems is emptied in streams and
rivers. The plants growth and populations increase in rivers and streams. As the plants die
and decay, the micro-organisms (which are mostly bacteria) feed on these dead plants and
start to increase in numbers. This is called Eutrophication.

The over growth of these water plants and the activities of micro-organisms (e.g. bacteria)
due to their increase in number, results to high consumption of dissolved Oxygen. This can
lead to aquatic animals such as fish to dying due to lack of oxygen. The oxygen will be used
mostly by the micro-organisms for respiration. The overgrowth of these water plants/ weeds
can also reduce light penetration to microscopic plants (called phytoplankton) which are
food for many types of fish. In this way, the food chain is disrupted and animal populations
can be reduced.

Oils from oil producing (areas like) industries cause disastrous effects on eco systems. Oil
spillage on water bodies results to air not diffusing into water. As a result, fish and other
aquatic organisms suffocate/ die due to lack of Oxygen.

Prevention of air pollution.

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 i. Locating industries away from residential areas

ii. Planting more trees.

iii. Converting sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid by passing it through water.

iv. Using filters in chimneys.

v. Using smokeless sources of energy such as solar energy.

prevention of water pollution.

Dumping of domestic sewage, industrial wastes, detergents and chemicals like insecticides and
herbicides in water causes water pollution. The following are the prevention measures.
i. Treating sewage and industrial waste before dumping them into river bodies

ii. Recycling some waste materials instead of dumping them.

Prevention of land pollution.

It is caused by solid wastes like fly ash, chemicals like fertilizers, pesticides, polythene bags, city
wastes and crop residues. It can be prevented by:
i. Proper disposal off of wastes like polythene bags.

ii. Using the natural animal wastes as fertilizers instead of artificial/ chemical fertilizers.

Basic Components Of The Soil.

The soil comprises of humus (organic matter), air, water, inorganic particles, minerals and micro-
organisms.
Water is important for transporting nutrients to growing plants and soil organisms

Humus provides the essential elements and water for growth of plants.

Air contains Oxygen, Carbon dioxide and Nitrogen. Oxygen is used for respiration by plant
roots and some micro-organisms. Nitrogen is converted to nitrates by nitrogen fixing
bacteria in the soil.

Micro-organisms e.g. earth worms, decompose law organic matter releasing nutrients into
the soil.

Inorganic particles. This comprises of sand, silt and clay soils.

Type of particle Diameter in mm.

Sand 0.05-2.00

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 Silt 0.002-0.05

Clay Less than 0.002

Among the three soil particles, the largest particles are sand particles. Loam soil is
combination of sand, silt and clay soils.

Earth worms prefer cool moist loamy soil because they breathe through the skin and need
moisture. They prefer a near neutral pH of about 6.0-7.0. Earth worms add nutrients to the
soil by converting dead plants and leaves into nutrients for the soil.

As earth worms are more in the soil, they create air and water passages in the soil so that
plants can access air and water in the soil. Minerals supply nutrients to green plants.

CONSERVATION.
Conservation is the protection and management of the environment. The environment comprises of
animals and plant species. Therefore, conservation can also be defined as the protection and
management of plant and animal species.
Importance of conserving plant and animal species.
Since many species are threatened by extinction because of human disturbance, there is need to
protect this environment for:
[i]. For Ecological Balance (Balance of nature).
Because nature is a balanced relationship of the plants, animals and other living organisms that
make up a natural community. For example, in order to control the number of organisms, the
(herbivores) must be preyed upon by predators. If the herbivores are not eaten by carnivores, their
population can rapidly increase to an extent where all the vegetation will be wiped out. As a result
herbivores will starve to death. The population size of organisms depends on the food available.
Balance of nature is usually disturbed by human activities.
[ii]. For Tourism.
National parks contain rare animal species. Because of such animals in parks, tourists are attracted
to come for viewing. They may also go with valuable animal products. In this way a country earns
money (foreign exchange).
[iii]. For Preserving/protecting endangered species
Endangered species are species of animals or plants that are at risk of extinction/ permanent
disappearance. For example, elephants and black rhinos are threatened with extinction due to
poaching. All species are important as some of the threatened species may in future be found useful
in medicine.
Recycling of Materials

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 Recycling of materials of materials is the process of changing waste/ used materials into
new useful products. Materials which can be recycled include, glass, plastics, metals, water
and paper. Some materials cannot be recycled. Therefore, substances which are recycled are
usually non-biodegradable substances.

Biodegradable substances. Are materials that decompose through action of bacteria, fungi
and other living organisms e.g. food and tree leaves.

Non-biodegradable are materials which do not decompose/ decay e.g. plastics and metals.

Importance of recycling of water.

[i]. Water recycling can reduce and prevent pollution by leaving pollutants at the treatment plant.
[ii]. Water recycling reduces the extraction of water that may be needed by wild life.
[iii]. For use in irrigation farming and industries. Recycled water can be used where farming depends
on irrigation water and industries because they need large volumes of water and levels of water
purity are not very important.
Importance of Recycling Paper.
[i]. It conserves natural resources.
[ii]. It saves energy
[iii]. Helps to reduce pollution.
Generally recycling is cheaper and consumes less energy. It also helps to reduce pollution.
Importance of sustainable use of resources.
Sustainable use of resources is the use of natural resources at a rate that the earth can renew them.
Therefore, a sustainable resource is something that can be used over and over without running out.
For example, trees can be used for wood then replaced by planting new ones.
It is important because it conserves natural resources for future generations

Bee keeping and game cropping are examples of sustainable use of resources and not over
fishing and over hunting.

BIO-DIVERSITY

Bio-diversity refers to variety of living organisms on earth or in a particular habitat. For

example in a pond, we have a variety of organisms such as snails, toads, fish, frogs, dragon
flies, water boatmen and other organisms.

Importance of Biological Diversity.

[i]. Some plants and animals are sources of food
[ii]. Some plants and animals are sources of medicine
[iii]. for aesthetic value. Rich biodiversity can easily beautify the environment.

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[iv]. for research purposes
[v]. it can be a source of foreign exchange by attracting international tourists.
[vi]. For equilibrium of organisms in the ecosystem.
Human activities that reduce biodiversity
● Deforestation

● Over-fishing

● Over-hunting

● Urbunisation

● Pollution

● Poarching

● Charcoal production

● Introduction of invensive/foreign species

● Extinction of species

Characteristics of some organisms found in the ecosystem

[i]. Viruses.
A virus is a small infectious agent that reproduces inside the living cells of other organisms

[i]. They multiply inside the hosts cells and feed on the same host cells. they are parasitic.
[ii]. They have only RNA or DNA as their genetic material.
[iii]. Mutations are a part of their existence.
[iv]. Viruses do not possess a cell membrane or metabolise on their own
[v]. Viruses are not considered living organisms although they contain nucleic acids and proteins.
[vi]. Viruses are not made up of cells but are simpler than bacteria cells. Viruses are microscopic.

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[vii]. Viruses are inactive outside of an organism but become active inside body cells. Outside the
living cells, viruses are not alive, they cannot grow, move or treproduce.
[viii]. Viruses have a core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat or capside, some have
envelopes.
[ix]. They have no organelles.

[2]. Bacteria. They have the following characteristics.

[i]. They are prokaryotic (meaning they have no membrane bound organelles e.g. nucleus without
nuclear membrane).
[ii]. They are unicellular organisms
[iii]. Are rod shaped or viral shaped e.g.

[3]. Fungi.
[i]. Are eukaryotic (meaning they have membrane bound organelles).
[ii]. Are multicellular
[iii].They reproduce by spores (and can be asexual or sexual).
[iv]. No chloroplast.
[v]. Cell walls made of chitin
[vi]. They carry saprophytic nutrition e.g. mushrooms and yeast.

[4]. Insects.
[i]. 3 body regions (head, thorax and abdomen)
[ii]. 3 pairs of legs (6 legs)
[iii]. One pair of antennae. In some insects.
[iv]. Most of them have 2 pairs of wings, compound eyes and tracheal system for respiration.

[5]. Fish.
[i]. Are ectothermic (cold blood organisms that depend on temperature for their body heat)

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[ii]. Have a lateral line
[iii]. Have a two chambered heart
[iv]. Have gills for respiration
[v]. No external ears
[vi]. No eye lids
Note: for more information check in your notes of classification of organisms.

[6]. Amphibian
Amphibians are animals with the following characteristic.
- They are partially terrestrial and partially aquatic (live on both land and water)

- Their skin lacks scales but have glands

- They carry out external fertilisation.

- They undergo metamorphosis

- Adult use lungs for breathing although some use skin for breathing. Young ones usually use
gills for breathing. Examples include frogs, toads, salamanders and newts.

[7]. Reptiles. (e.g. lizards, snakes, tortoise and crocodiles). They have the following characteristics;
- They have tough skin with scales

- They are terrestrial animals (live on land)

- Carry internal fertilization and lays eggs.

- They have lungs for breathing

Reptiles, fish and amphibians are cold blooded animals because they cannot
maintain the temperature on their own.

[8]. Mammals. Mammals are animals with mammary glands and their skins have hairs and sweat
glands e.g. humans, lions, cattle, whales, bats and monkeys.
[9]. Flowering plants (angiosperms).
- angiosperms are plants that have flowers mainly for reproduction

- they all produce seeds and are found inside fruits

- Have well developed roots, stem, vascular system and leaves.

- They can either be monocotyledons (monocots) or dicotyledons (dicots)

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[10]. Non flowering plants.
- These are plants that do not produce flower or seeds. Examples are algae, fungi,
bryophytes and other plants.

Task/assignment.
Explain how the following organisms are adapted to their environment.
[i]. Fish
[ii]. Insects
[iii]. Mammals
[iv]. Plants
The Impact of Human Activities On the Biodiversity of Organisms.
Over fishing, hunting and charcoal production can lead to reduced biodiversity as well increased
extinction of some endangered animal and plant species.
POPULATION
Biologically, the word population means the total number of organisms of the same species
living in a same area or habitat.

In humans, implies the total number of people living in a defined geographical area such as
a city, town, district, country at a particular time.

Factors Causing Change in Population Size (Population dynamics)

[i]. Birth Rate: is the number of individuals born per 1000 individuals per year. If birth rate is higher
than mortality rate, the population increases. Birth rate is also called crude birth rate because only
live births (babies) born in a population are considered
[ii]. Immigration. Is the movement of people into place. Immigration results in the increase in the
population size.
[iii]. Emigration. Is the movement of people from a place to settle somewhere else, when people
emigrate, they decrease the population within the area.
[iv]. Mortality. Is the number of deaths in a population over a period of time. Death rate is the number
of individuals that die per 1000 population in a year. Diseases, natural catastrophe and wars all lead
to increase in mortality.
[v]. Fertility rate. Is the average number of children born to each woman over the course of her life
and fecundity is the capacity of a woman or man to produce live progeny or offspring. Lack of
fecundity is called infecundity or sterility. Fertility rate and fecundity determines birth rate.
Population data is usually presented in form of graphs, histograms, tables and pie charts.
[vi]. Urbanisation. Movement of people from rural to cities and urban areas resulting to growth and
development of cities. People shift in search of economic opportunities, access to better education
and health care as well as improved infrastructure.

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Urbanisation may lead to social, economic and environmental changes.
Urbanisation can lead to changes in population size through migration, lower birth rates and
reduced death rates in urban areas.

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