Lecture Slides

Chapter 2

Materials

The McGraw-Hill Companies © 2012

Pes
n d J. KeithNisbett
 Standard Tensile Test

p=
==>
P
Fig. 2-1

e Used to obtain material characteristics and strengths

e Loaded in tension with slowly increasing P
e Load and deflection are recorded

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 Stress and Strain

The stress is calculated from

P
¢=— (2-1)
AQ

The norma! strain is calculated from

l—1
em : (2-2)
lo

where/f is the original gaugelengthand /1s the currentlength

corresponding to the current P
 Stress-Strain Diagram

Plot stress vs. normal strain Si

Typically linear relation until §_ %

the proportional [imut,pl
No permanent deformation Ductile material
until the e/astic /imiut, el j

point where significant oa €, é, g,

plastic deformationbegins,or Strain
€
where permanent set reaches Si uf
a fixed amount, usually 0.2%
of the original gauge length
Ultimate strength, S,,, Brittle material
defined as the maximum

stress on the diagram

Strain €

Fig. 2—2
 Elastic Relationship of Stress and Strain

Slope of linear section 1s

Young ’s Modulus, or
modulus of elasticity, E
Hooke’s law

oo He

F'1s relatively constant for a

given type of material (e.g.
steel, copper, aluminum)
SeeTable A-5 for typical
values

Usually independent of heat

treatment, carbon content, or
alloying
Engineering stress-strain diagrams
(commonly used) are based on
original area.
Area typically reduces under load, Engineering
particularly during “necking” after i stress-strain

oa Ey E,

Strain €

True stress is based on actual area

corresponding to current P
7rue strainis the sum of the
incremental elongations divided by True
stress
the current gauge length at load P.
' dl /
True Stress-strain
&= — =In—- 2-4

Note that true stresscontinually fu “-

increases all the way to fracture. True strain
 Compression Strength

Compression tests are used to obtain compressive strengths.

Buckling and bulging can be problematic.
For ductile materials, compressive strengths are usually about
the sameas tensile strengths,S,.=S,,,.
For brittle materials, compressive strengths, S.,., are often
uc ?”

greater than tensile strengths, S,,,.

 Torsional Strengths

Torsional strengths are found by twisting solid circular bars.

Results are plotted as a torque-twist diagram.
Shear stressesin the specimen are linear with respect to the radial
location — zero at the center and maximum at the outer radius.

Maximum shear stressis related to the angle of twist by

Fens
= 0 (2-5)

° gis the angle of twist (in radians)

° ris the radius of the bar

© J, 1sthe gaugelength
° Gis the material stiffness property called the shear modulus or
modulus ofrigidity.
 Torsional Strengths

e Maximum shear stress1srelated to the applied torque by

Cmax = 7

° Jis the polar second moment of area of the cross section

© For round cross section, J = 4x2,

stress at the point where the torque-twist diagram becomes

significantly non-linear
© Modulus ofrupture, S,,,correspondsto the torque 7, at the
maximum point on the torque-twist diagram
Tyr
ie
i ~~ (37)
id
 Resilience

e Resilience—Capacity of a
material to absorb energy within
its elastic range

e Modulus ofresilience, Up
° Energy absorbed per unit
volume without permanent
deformation

° Equals the area under the stress-

strain curve up to the elastic Strain
limit

° Elastic limit often approximated

by yield point
 Resilience

e Area under curve to yield point gives approximation

0)

e If elastic region 1slinear,

_ | i S:
NA

a”

material (lower £) has greater resilience

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 Toughness

e Toughness
—capacityof a material to
absorb energy without fracture

¢ Modulus of toughness, u,
° Energy absorbed per unit volume
without fracture

° Equals area under the stress-strain

curve up to the fracture point
O
Strain €
 Toughness

e Area under curve up to fracture point

e Often estimated graphically from stress-strain data

e Approximated by using the average of yield and ultimate
strengths and the strain at fracture
Od

i —— (2-11)

O
Strain €
 Resilience and Toughness

Measures of energy absorbing characteristics of a material

Units are energy per unit volume

© Ibf-in/in? or J/m?
Assumes low strain rates

For higher strain rates, use impact methods (See Sec. 2-5)
 Strengths from Tables

e Property tables often only report a single value for a strength

term

e Important to check if it is mean, minimum, or some percentile

e Common to use 99% minimum strength, indicating 99% of the
samples exceed the reported value
 Hardness

e Hardness—The resistanceof a material to penetrationby a

pointed tool
e Two most common hardness-measuringsystems
° Rockwell

> A, B, and C scales

> Specified indenters and loads for each scale
- Hardness numbers are relative

° Brinell

* Hardness number #7, 1sthe applied load divided by the

spherical surface area of the indentation
 Strength and Hardness

e For many materials, relationship between ultimate strength and

Brinell hardnessnumber is roughly linear
e For steels

[Link] kpsi
= (2-21)
3.4Hp MPa

e For cast iron

0.23Hp — 12.5 kpsi

|. 5S8Hp — 86 MPa

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 Example 2-2
It is necessary to ensure that a certain part supplied by a foundry always meets or
exceeds ASTM No. 20 specifications for cast iron (see Table A—24).What hardness
should be specified?

Solution
From Eq. (2-22), with (S,)min= 20 kpsi, we have

Fe ee
0.23 0.23

If the foundry can control the hardness within 20 points, routinely, then specify
145 < Hg < 165. This imposes no hardship on the foundry and assuresthe designer
that ASTM grade 20 will always be supplied at a predictable cost.

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 Material Numbering Systems

e Common numbering systems

© Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
e American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
© Unified Numbering System (UNS)
e American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) for cast
irons
 UNS Numbering System

e UNS system established by SAE in 1975

e Letter prefix followed by 5 digit number
e Letter prefix designatesmaterial class
° G-—carbonand alloy steel
° A— Aluminum alloy
° C —Copper-based alloy
o S — Stainless or corrosion-resistant steel
 UNS for Steels

e For steel, letter prefix is G

e First two numbers indicate composition, excluding carbon content
G10 Plain carbon G46 Nickel-molybdenum
G11 Free-cuttingcarbonsteelwith G48 Nickel-molybdenum
more sulfur or phosphorus G50 Chromium

G13 Manganese G51 Chromium

G23 Nickel G52 Chromium
G25 Nickel Gol Chromium-vanadium
G31 Nickel-chromium G86 Chromium-nickel-molybdenum
G33 Nickel-chromium G87 Chromium-nickel-molybdenum
G40 Molybdenum G92 Manganese-silicon
G4] Chromium-molybdenum G94 Nickel-chromium-molybdenum
G43 Nickel-chromium-molybdenum

e Secondpair of numbers indicates carbon content in hundredths of

a percent by weight
e Fifth number is used for special situations
e Example: G52986 is chromium alloy with 0.98% carbon

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 Alloy Steels

e Chromium

e Nickel

e Manganese
e Silicon

e Molybdenum
e Vanadium

e Tungsten

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 Corrosion-Resistant Steels

e Stainless steels

° Iron-base alloys with at least 12 % chromium

° Resists many corrosive conditions

e Four types of stainless steels

° Ferritic chromium

° Austenitic chromium-nickel

° Martensitic

© Precipitation-hardenable
 Casting Materials

e Gray Cast Iron

e Ductile and Nodular Cast Iron

e White Cast Iron

e Malleable Cast Iron

e Alloy Cast Iron

e Cast Steel

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 Nonferrous Metals

Aluminum

Magnesium
Titanium

Copper-based alloys
° Brass with 5 to 15 percent zinc
> Gilding brass, commercial bronze, red brass
° Brass with 20 to 36 percent zinc
> Low brass, cartridge brass, yellow brass
> Low-leaded brass, high-leaded brass (engraver’s brass), free-
cutting brass
> Admiralty metal
> Aluminum brass
° Brass with 36 to 40 percent zinc
> Muntz metal, naval brass
° Bronze

* Silcon bronze, phosphor bronze, aluminum bronze, beryllium

bronze
 Plastics

e Thermoplastic—any plastic that flows or is moldablewhen heat

is applied
e Thermoset-—a plastic for which the polymerization process 1s
finished in a hot molding press where the plastic 1sliquefied
under pressure
 Hardness Elongation Dimensional Heat Chemical
Rockwell Wh Stability Resistance Resistance Processing
ABS group 2-8 0.10—0.37 60-110R 3-50 Good * Fair EMST
Acetalgroup 8-10 0.41-0.52 80-94M 40-60 Excellent Good High M
Acrylic 5-10 0.20-0.47 92—110M 3-75 High * Fair EMS
Fluoroplastic —0.50—7 50-80D 100-300 High Excellent Excellent MPR’
group

Nylon 8-14 0.18-0.45 = 112-120R 10-200 Poor Poor Good CEM

Phenylene 7-18 0.35-0.92 115R,106L 5-60 Excellent Good Fair EFM
oxide

Polycarbonate 8-16 0).34—0.86 62—91M 10-125 Excellent Excellent Fair EMS

Polyester 8-18 0.28-1.6 65—90M 1-300 Excellent Poor Excellent CLMR
Polyimide 6—50 88-120M
_ Verylow Excellent Excellent Excellent’ CLMP
Polyphenylene 14-19 0.11 122R 1.0 Good Excellent Excellent M
sulfide

Polystyrene 1.5-12 0.14—0.60 10-90M 0.5-60 Poor Poor EM

group

Polysulfone 10 0.36 120R 50-100 Excellent Excellent Excellent’|EFM

Polyvinyl 1.5-7.5 0.35-0.60 65-85D 40-450 Poor Poor EFM
chloride

*Heat-resistant grades available.

"With exceptions.
C Coatings L Laminates R Resins E Extrusions M Moldings S Sheet F Foams P Pressand sinter methods T Tubing

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 SG E Hardness Elongation Dimensional Heat Chemical
Dd
edt Mpsi Rockwell Wf Stability Resistance Resistance Processing
Alkyd 3-9 0.05—0.30 99M* vee Excellent Good Fair M
Allylic 4—10 vee 105—120M vee Excellent Excellent Excellent CM
Amino 5-8 0.13-0.24 110-120M 0.30-0.90 Good Excellent* Excellent* LR
group

Epoxy 5-20 =0.03-0.30* 80—120M 1-10 Excellent Excellent Excellent CMR

Phenolics 5-9 0.10—0.25 70-95E vee Excellent Excellent Good EMR
Silicones 5-6 vee 80-90M vee vee Excellent Excellent CLMR

*With exceptions.
C Coatings L Laminates R Resins E Extrusions M Moldings S Sheet F FoamsP Pressandsintermethods T Tubing

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 Composite Materials

e Formed from two or more dissimilar materials, each of which

contributes to the final properties
e Materials remain distinct from each other at the macroscopic
level

e Usually amorphous and non-isotropic

e Often consists of /aminates of fillerto provide stiffness and
strength and a matrix to hold the material together
e Common filler types:
|4
&
vf
& |a" 4
4aag
afAy 4 a”Ag
¢Af. i &

NYeehyae “¢Ne
« oe
=
- |

8
4
ae
¥ "

- F +=
+e,
3
Sie
Ay o*y
me
iy
aa2
Le
» tC
Cd
nevy-
"W ar 2 mill
¥ # a v ¢

es
=a*Sia,s 4

a: ¢
a

a
Particulate Randomlyoriented Unidirectionalcontinuous Wovenfabric
composite short fiber composite fiber composite composite

Fig. 2-14 Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design

Family Classes Short Name
Metals Aluminum alloys Al alloys
(the metals and alloys of Copper alloys Cu alloys
engineering) Leadalloys Leadalloys
Magnesium alloys Megalloys
Nickel alloys Ni alloys
Carbon steels Steels
Stainless steels Stainless steels

Tin alloys Tin alloys

Titanium alloys Ti alloys
Tungsten alloys W alloys
Lead alloys Pb alloys
Zinc alloys Zn alloys

(continued)

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 Material Families and Classes (Table 2-4)

Family Classes Short Name

Ceramics Alumina AloO3

Technical ceramics (fine Aluminum nitride AIN
ceramics capable of Boron carbide Bac
load-bearing
application) Gin eariae SiC
Silicon nitride Si3Ny4
Tungsten carbide WC
Nontechnical ceramics Brick Brick
(porousceramics
of Concrete Concrete
construction) Stone Stone

Glasses Soda-lime glass Soda-lime glass

Borosilicate glass Borosilicate glass
Silica glass Silica glass
Glass ceramic Glass ceramic

(continued)

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 Material Families and Classes (Table 2-4)

Family Classes Short Name

Polymers Acrylonitrile butadienestyrene ABS
(the thermoplastics and Cellulose polymers CA
thermosetsof engineering) lonomers lonomers
Epoxies Epoxy
Phenolics Phenolics
Polyamides (nylons) PA
Polycarbonate PC
Polyesters Polyester
Polyetheretherkeytone PEEK
Polyethylene re
Polyethylene terephalate PET or PETE
Polymethylmethacrylate PMMA
Polyoxymethylene(Acetal) POM
Polypropylene PP
Polystyrene PS
Polytetrafluorethylene PTFE
Polyvinylchloride PY¥C

(continued)
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 Material Families and Classes (Table 2-4)

Family Classes Short Name

Elastomers Butyl rubber Butyl rubber
(engineering rubbers, natural EVA EVA
and synthetic) Isoprene Isoprene
Natural rubber Natural rubber

Polychloroprene (Neoprene) Neoprene

Polyurethane PU
Silicon elastomers Silicones

Hybrids Carbon-fiberreinforcedpolymers CFRP

Composites Glass-fiberreinforcedpolymers GFRP
SiC reinforced aluminum Al-SiC

Foams Flexible polymer foams Flexible foams

Rigid polymer foams Rigid foams
Natural materials Cork Cork
Bamboo Bamboo
Wood Wood

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 Young’s Modulus for Various Materials
1000
1—_——Tungsten carbides
i Nickel all
It we aeieneieCast
iron,gray
x r, if I ' a ?
100Low-alloy
steel ; | | "|1__——
Titanium
alloys
Copper alloys

10

Wood,
typical
along
grain
— po Reyer

S |
Oo
Z
=}
1 Acrylonitrilebutadiene
styrene(ABS)
at ||

s 0.1

Polyurethane —_

le-3 aa

——

Fig 2 ] 5 Flexible
polymer
foam
(VLD)
le-4

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 ceramics }

Composites

100
oan
_-~ Mg

- =-

ne = P

10 = >" Sutaral
Longitudinal co wii
& wave
speedbe - MEESEA
-a
0 nee - --7 Woo
_
g fF _10*m/s ==

3 Rigid
polymer
=
“ _ foams
% -
.
2 10! pe"

[ -

“7. _| Polyurethane .- 73%

or” ' Pa ae minimum

mass
. - -- soprene [ Neoprene, if design
?

> Flexible
polymer ef
| Bd Elastomers
4
7 /
9 -
104 amie v MFA
C4
| T T T T .. * ts T T T T TY fT 4 T T T rowgt TJ T T T T
0.01 1 10

Density
p,Mg/m°?
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 Specific Modulus

Specific Modulus —ratio of :

Young’s modulus to density, |” vmser
“ihe

GPa
E,
modulus
g's
Also called specific stiffness
Useful to minimize weight ("7 wm»

limitation of deflection, wee

stiffness, or natural “Le
frequency |
Parallel lines representing
different values of F/ ¢
allow comparison of
specific modulus between
materials

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 WC

4
4
Walloys. -

100 3
Cu alloys
4 ass
o-'Meg Metals --7~
- -

an

10 = ont
i - Je

nN S on e = - site
& - materials je
v --" an

of loadin EO .
E _ foams ugar “tre
a ae F
— ' e - Polymers or on pln?
= -” ——

4 ao 7 at
1 None
s : wwe ie 7 a
= y ” " Nilic > piaog are

e
if L
= Poly
urethane
ae ee
PS54
an “i
Guidelines
for
Cl ) I] ) er — 7 aft
Neoprene,ie fi minimum
mass
design
10 *+- 7 Z
J ; , Fa
Flexible polymer me:
foams ge. Elastomers
-
ae Buty! ,
> = pee rubber /
10°m/s oo € MFA
C4
10-*
4 Pp tyjee apa [Link] MFA
C4
0.01 0.1 | 10

Densityp, Mg/m*

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 The Performance Metric

The performance metric dependson (1) the

functional requirements, (2) the geometry, and (3)
the material properties.

requirements /'/° \parametersG/’ \propertiesM

The function is often separable,

P= fi(F)- fa(G)- f3(M)

f (M)1s called the material efficiency coefficient.

Maximizing or minimizing 4 (4) allows the material

choice to be used to optimize P.
 Performance Metric Example

Requirements: light, stiff, end-loaded cantilever beam with

circular cross section

Mass m of the beam is chosen as the performance metric to

minimize

Stiffness 1sfunctional requirement

Stiffness is related to material and geometry
fF

()
 Performance Metric Example
3

From beamdeflectiontable, 6= a
3EI

Ff <3EI

4 2

64 Art

Sub Eq. (2-26) into Eq. (2-25) and solve for A

Ark \'/°

The performance metric 1s

m = Alp (2-28)

Sub Eq. (2-27) into Eq. (2-28),

IT

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 Performance Metric Example

Separating into the form of Eq. (2-24),

P= filF)- f2(G)- f3(M) (2-24)

A(G =(P”)

To minimize m, needto minimize £, (VM),or maximize

E1/2
M =— (2-31)
p

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 Performance Metric Example
1000
e M1Scalled [Link] Modulus—density
| Ceramics
il dex Search Composites4
100 region
e For this example, B= as Increasingvalues
e ° Qn of index 1/2

e Use guidelinesparallel °& ,,

to E'”/p 3 Woods
. &

e Increasing M@,moveup % |
and to the left =

e Good candidates for this

example are certain Elastomers
MFA 04

woods, composites, and , 10 100

ceramics Density,
Mg/m?
Fig. 2-17

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 1000
e Additional constraints
Modulus—density Ceramics
Metals
can be added as needed
Search Composites
100
region
e For example, if it is
desired that & > 50 GPa,
—
oS

add horizontal line to

Modulus

limit the solution space E = 50 GPa

e Wood is eliminated as a
Polymers

viable option
0.1

Elastomers

0.01
0.1 10 100

Density,
Mg/m*

Fig. 2-18

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 Metals and polymers yield strength
Composites sic\|ALO, omer.
Al alloys
" Metals
N1alloys

1000
+} Elastomers
tensiletearstrength Mo discs AL Ni) AV “XK alloys
Composites
tensile
failure Polymers
: and ae
GFRP ‘Vie
VU A , VY\Tungsten
ae
elastomers i\ 1i A 3 :

NCR r\ Copper
alloys

// to grain - Says KAN]

Natural |
x materials (nV
= ye
s 10 Rigidpolymer ~% | ———_ W@W 7
= foams yl ) Zinc alloys Pe o”
5 1 ) Leadalloys 4° 4% ,-7
a ty i a -
‘ 4.7 ae
/ leo"
XK. nN lie

WoodrubberDllicone 2753 Guide

linesfor
1 tograin elastomers
»“ar “~~minimum
mass
-
ge ¢ a design
at oe
-7 Jaf
-7 ae is
P< 7 /
ee S| gin
_~ Flexible polymer 7 P SP
| -~ - foams &# 7
Lo agit ” | MFA
D4
0.1 1 10
a

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 100003
j| Strength-density Ceramics
Si,N, Ti alloys Metals
1 Composites Sic Steels
|
|| Metals and polymers yield strength ’ 1 Ni alloys

+)Elastomers
tensiletearstrengt ) a
9 elastomers Bl 4 |/ carbide
e e@ e e y . Copper

° ° ° = materials a ~) J

e ° ° Ei ° E : J .7Zinc
#7alloys
elastomers ; woe
- Lead
alloys
ft?"
@
* Butyl
Silic rae"4 Pt Guide
Woodrubber >Hicone
————
lines
for CFF
L to grain minimum mass

e
Cork °
7““- ay
7 4
design

e ee
wee? SH ap“ te

a = -

= T -" =" T al T

Density
p, Mg/m?

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° ° 10000
4ilo . Cc -
eramics

1 Composites sic\ |ALO,/ Steels, ‘

1 Composites
tensile
failure Polymers
and ~ Bi V ¥ /_\Tungsten

1003 alloys

oa | materials d
e = 1 sf
oH 7
a 7 2

5=
:
j1 foams vead¢ |¢foe
alloys,¢ 7 -

— 1 r ele e

.
4
]
Wood
rubber
Sion
| to grain
--5g4
elastomers 27 #7
ide
minimum mass
— ] oP at
-

01-4 ler” Uf at
~ @ ee e of
I § v. a ¢
5 ih o"p s28 7 af
7 — gl
Flexibl i Pp,
0.01+ a¢ MFA
D4
0.01 0,l l 10
Density
p,Mg/m>

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