Bioethics, Biosafety and IPR

UNIT 1

Bioethics: Concepts; Philosophical considerations; Epistemology

of Science; Ethical Terms; Principles & Theories; Relevance to
Biotechnology; Ethics and the Law Issues: Genetic Engineering,
Stem Cells, Cloning, Medical techniques, Transhumanism,
Bioweapons; Research concerns - Animal Rights, Ethics of Human
Cloning, Reproduction and Stem Cell Research; Emerging issues:
Biotechnology’s Impact on Society; DNA on the Witness Stand -
Use of genetic evidence in civil and criminal court cases; Improving
public understanding of biotechnology products to correct
misconceptions.
Lecture notes prepared by Dr Shoba Narayan
Epistemology of Science
Aristotle begins his work Metaphysics with the observation ‘All men by nature desire ‘to
know.’ Kant raises the question ‘What can I know?’ The drive to know is fundamental to
being human.
Epistemology tries to fulfil this desire. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals
with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. Epistemology focuses on our means of
acquiring knowledge and how we can differentiate between truth and falsehood. The term
‘epistemology’ was coined by the Scottish Philosopher James Fredrick Ferrier (1808-64). It
comes from the Greek word ‘episteme’ (knowledge) and ‘logos’ (theory or science).
It addresses the following questions:
What is knowledge?
What can we know?
How can we know it?
How is knowledge acquired?
Can knowledge be certain?
Is there a distinction between knowledge and belief?
What is the scope of knowledge?
Why do we believe certain claims and not others?
THE CONCEPT OF KNOWLEDGE

The concept of knowledge is essential in understanding everyday language and

expressions like 'know that,' 'know how,' 'know why,' 'know him,' 'know where,' and
'know whether.' In the English language, knowledge is used in various senses, including
being acquainted with, being aware of something, and psychological conviction.
Philosophers offer multiple senses of knowledge, including 'knowing that,' 'knowing
which,' 'knowing how,' 'knowing what,' and 'knowing what it is like.' The difference
between 'knowing that' and 'knowing how' is that 'knowing that' refers to the possession
of specific information, while 'knowing how' refers to a skill or ability. Propositional
knowledge, which includes perceptual, scientific, geographical, ethical, mathematical,
religious, self-knowledge, and knowledge about any field of study, is the 'knowing that'
kind of knowledge.
 TRADITIONAL DEFINITION OF KNOWLEDGE

Plato's definition of knowledge, based on his Theaetetus, posits that it is belief combined
with understanding. He identifies four essential components of knowledge: justification,
truth, and belief. Propositional knowledge is considered justified true belief, implying that
belief without justification does not imply knowledge.

Traditional knowledge refers to:

knowledge or practices passed down from generation to generation that form part of the
traditions or heritage of Indigenous communities
knowledge or practice for which Indigenous communities act as the guardians or custodians.
The type of knowledge that is considered within this scope includes:

knowledge about the medicinal properties or effects of flora and fauna

knowledge about hunting or fishing techniques.
BELIEF

Beliefs are a significant part of our lives, encompassing various types such as perceptual,
scientific, moral, political, and theological beliefs. Belief can be defined as a conviction of
the truth of a proposition without verification. There are two main meanings of belief: to
'believe in', which involves trusting in something, and to 'believe something', which means
to think it is true. Both meanings are crucial for knowledge. However, merely having a
true belief is not enough for knowledge. Many true beliefs do not qualify for knowledge,
as they may be false or lacked supporting reasons. Knowledge is distinct from belief and
opinion, as it does not allow for falsehood. For something to be considered knowledge, it
must be true. Therefore, mere belief is not sufficient, as many false beliefs can be true. A
second condition for knowledge is truth, meaning that we know that something is true if it
is true.
TRUTH

Knowledge requires belief, but not all beliefs are true. Some are true and some are false.
Acquiring knowledge helps eliminate false beliefs and increase the number of true ones. The
purpose of belief is to accurately describe reality, but some beliefs may be false. Truth is a
condition of knowledge, and if belief fails to be true, it cannot constitute knowledge.
Justification is another criterion for determining knowledge, as both belief and truth are
necessary for understanding reality.
JUSTIFICATION

Knowledge is not just true belief, but a combination of truth and justification. Genuine
knowledge requires a knower to have an adequate indication that a believed proposition is
true. Only true beliefs that are arrived at in a right way, based on sound reasoning and solid
evidence, are considered knowledge. This justification, called epistemic justification, ensures
that knowledge is based on solid evidence rather than luck or misinformation. Unjustified
beliefs can be true due to luck, while justified beliefs can be false due to human fallibility.

Truth and justification are two independent conditions of belief. True belief does not
determine whether it is justified or not, but a justified belief is more likely to be true than
false. For a belief to become knowledge, it must correspond to reality and be derived from
valid evidence and argumentation. The Gettier problem, a 1963 article by Edmund Gettier,
criticizes Plato's definition of knowledge by pointing out situations where a believer has a
true belief justified to a reasonable degree but not to a certainty. Some epistemologists
revised the traditional definition of knowledge, adding a fourth condition, stating that no false
beliefs should be essentially involved in the reasoning leading to the belief.
SKEPTICISM

The question of what knowledge is and how much we can know is a significant challenge
for epistemologists. Some philosophers believe that humans can know everything or every
truth about reality, while others reject this, citing human limitations.
Skepticism, a philosophical position, is derived from the Greek word'skeptomai' meaning
'to look carefully,' 'to doubt,' and examines the limitations of knowledge. There are two
types of skeptics: absolute skeptics and relative (or methodical) skeptics. Absolute skeptics
claim that no knowledge is possible, but this claim can be self-contradictory. Relative
skepticism, on the other hand, can be useful in examining errors in common sense
knowledge.
Descartes used methodical skepticism to arrive at the undeniable truth of cogito ergo sum,
while Hume challenged assumptions about self, substance, and causality. Kant's critical
epistemology also shows the limits of knowledge through the distinction between the
phenomenal and noumenal worlds. Skepticism should be used as a purificatory process in
obtaining knowledge.
RATIONALISM
Rationalism is a theory that asserts that knowledge is derived from reason alone, rather
than the senses. It posits that sense experiences are elusive and can be deceived, making
it impossible to rely on them for knowledge. Philosophers argue that knowledge needs
propositions that are universal, necessary, and absolutely valid. Common sense suggests
that all knowledge is gained through sense perception, but some knowledge is derived
from reason, known as a posterior or a priori.
A posteriori knowledge is knowable but not believable, and requires more evidence to
establish its truth. However, rationalists argue that knowledge obtained a posteriori is not
free from error or doubt, making it insufficient for valid judgments. As philosophy rejects
common sense or popular views, rationalistic theories emerge, with some rejecting the
role of senses and others acknowledging sensory experience as necessary but not
sufficient.
Rationalists believe that ideas are innate and that scientific knowledge cannot come from
the senses, as universality and necessity are essential. They believe that reason evolves
certain principles and notions from within, and these principles are universal and can be
trusted by every human mind.
EMPIRICISM

Empiricism, named after Sextus Empiricus, is a doctrine that asserts that all knowledge
and understanding are rooted in experience, particularly through the senses. It rejects a
priori possibilities of knowledge and believes that the intellect is a blank slate, with
ideas obtained through contact with nature. Empiricism gained popularity with
philosopher John Locke, who rejected the Cartesian theory of innate ideas and believed
that the mind is a 'tabula rasa' at birth. David Hume, another British empiricist, believed
that all knowledge is constituted by sense impressions, with ideas dependent on
impressions. Hume's theory of impression led to skepticism, which was a direct
outcome of Locke's empiricism, which questioned the meaningfulness of concepts
without a foundation in experience.
THE SCOPE OF EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology encompasses various domains of knowledge, including religious,

political, mathematical, logic, scientific, ethical, and psychological. It is
interconnected with metaphysics, logic, ethics, psychology, and sociology.
Epistemology studies the nature and limits of knowledge, while metaphysics
studies entities. Ethics evaluates morality and appropriateness of human
conduct, while epistemology evaluates beliefs and cognitive acts. The
relationship between epistemology and psychology is intimate, as both focus on
cognitive processes and the cognitive meaning of mental states. Epistemology is
related to sociology, with a special field called the'sociology of knowledge'.
IMPORTANCE OF EPISTEMOLOGY

Aristotle emphasized the importance of knowledge in human life, and epistemology helps us
understand the limitations of our minds. Humans seek knowledge to express themselves and
achieve goals. Epistemology aims to find truth, freeing us from falsehood, and assists in sifting
between truth and falsehood. This knowledge is necessary for wisdom and understanding life
as a whole.
Epistemology: from Gk. episteme ‘knowledge,’ from epistanai, ‘to stand upon’, understand: epiupon +
histanai, to stand, +logy. Hence, epistemology is the study of the nature, sources and limits of knowledge.
‘Logos’ is the root of all terms ending in ‘-ology’– such as psychology,anthropology – and of ‘logic,’ and has
many other related meanings.
Knowledge: knowledge is justified true belief. To know something is to believe it and to justify
it or give an adequate account of it to prove that it is true.
Skepticism: The term ‘skepticism’ is derived from the Greek word ‘skeptomai’ meaning ‘to look
carefully’ ‘to doubt,’ ‘to examine’.
A priori: is knowledge gained or justified by reason alone, without the direct or indirect
influence of any particular experience. In short, it is a knowledge that does not depend on
experience.
A posteriori: knowledge that comes ‘posterior to,’ or ‘after,’ sense experience, although the term
does not really refer to ‘before’ or ‘after’. Hence, it is knowledge, the attainment or justification
of which requires reference to experience.
Innate idea: inborn ideas which are not product of human experience. This theory is proposed
by the rationalist