Chapter 1

THE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT, ELECTRICAL TERMS

OHM’S LAW
 The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the
resistance. This can be written by :
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼(𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠)

KIRCHHOFF ‘S LAWS
[Link] LAW
 The sum of the potential or voltage drops taken round a circuit must be equal to the applied
potential difference .

𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = V

[Link] LAW
 The current flowing away from a junction point in a circuit must equal the current fiowing
into that point.

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = I

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The Resistors in Series

𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝟑
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝐼𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 ∴ 𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅 , 𝑹𝑻 = 𝒏 𝑹

The Resistors in Parallel

𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟑
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 1 1 1 1
=𝑹 +𝑹 +𝑹 ∴𝑹 =𝑹 +𝑹 +𝑹
𝑹𝑻 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝑻 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

𝑹
If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅 , 𝑹𝑻 = 𝒏

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Example 3. Three resistors of values 2 , 4 and 8 ohms are connected in series across a supply
of 42volts. Find the current taken from the supply and the voltage dropped across
each resistor.
Given : 2Ω, 4Ω, 8 Ω in series,
V = 42V
To Find : I=? 𝑽2Ω =? 𝑽4Ω =? 𝑽8Ω =?
Solution:

𝑅𝑇 = 2 + 4 + 8 = 14Ω
𝑉 42
𝐼=𝑅 = = 3𝐴 ( Ans )
𝑇 14

𝑽2Ω = 𝟑 × 𝟐 = 𝟔𝑽 ( Ans )
𝑽4Ω = 𝟑 × 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽 ( Ans )
𝑽8Ω = 𝟑 × 𝟖 = 𝟐𝟒𝑽 ( Ans )

Example 4. The above resistors are connected in parallel across the same supply voltage , find
the total current and the current in each branch.
Given : 2Ω, 4Ω, 8 Ω in parallel,
V = 42V
To Find : I=? 𝑰2Ω =? 𝑰4Ω =? 𝑰8Ω =?
Solution:

V = 42V 2Ω 4Ω 8Ω

𝟒𝟐 𝟒𝟐
𝑰2Ω = = 21𝐴 ( Ans ) 𝑰4Ω = = 10.5𝐴 ( Ans )
𝟐 𝟒
𝟒𝟐
𝑰8Ω = = 5.25𝐴 ( Ans ) 𝐼 = 𝑰2Ω + 𝑰4Ω + 𝑰8Ω = 21 + 10.5 + 5.25 = 36.75𝐴 ( Ans )
𝟖

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Example 6. A circuit is built up from five resistors. resistors of values 4Ω, 6Ω and 8Ω are
connected in parallel to form a group , resistors of 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel to form
another group. The two parallel groups of resistors are connected in series across a 10V supply.
Find the voltage dropped across each parallel group, the main supply current and the current in
each resistor.
Given: Group A : 4Ω, 6Ω, 8Ω in parallel
Group B : 3Ω, 6Ω in parallel
Group A and B in series
V = 10 V
To Find : 𝑉𝐴 =? 𝑉𝐵 =? 𝐼 =? 𝑰4Ω =? 𝑰6Ω =? 𝑰8Ω =? 𝑰3Ω =? 𝑰6Ω =?
Solution: 4Ω
3Ω
6Ω

6Ω
8Ω
V = 10 V

1 1 1 1
Group A : =4+6+8 ∴ 𝑅𝐴 = 1.8462 Ω
𝑅𝐴

1 1 1
Group B : =3+6 ∴ 𝑅𝐵 = 2 Ω
𝑅𝐵

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 = 1.8462 + 2 = 3.8462Ω
𝑉 10
𝐼 = 𝑅 = 3.8462 = 2.5999𝐴 ( Ans )
𝑇

𝑉𝐴 = 𝐼 𝑅𝐴 = 2.5999 × 1.8462 = 4.8𝑉 ( Ans )

𝑉𝐵 = 𝐼 𝑅𝐵 = 2.5999 × 2 = 5.2𝑉 ( Ans )
𝟒.𝟖
Group A : 𝑰4Ω = = 1.2𝐴 ( Ans )
𝟒
𝟒.𝟖
𝑰6Ω = = 0.8𝐴 ( Ans )
𝟔
𝟒.𝟖
𝑰8Ω = = 0.6𝐴 ( Ans )
𝟖
𝟓.𝟐
Group B : 𝑰3Ω = = 1.7333𝐴 ( Ans )
𝟑
𝟓.𝟐
𝑰6Ω = = 0.8666𝐴 ( Ans )
𝟔

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PRACTICE EXAMPLES

1. A circuit is made up from four resistors of value 2Ω , 4Ω , 5Ω and 10Ω connected in

parallel . If the current is 8.6A , find the voltage drop across the arrangement and the current
in each resistor. (Ans: 8.19V, 4.095A, 2.0475A, 1.638A, 0.819A )
2. One resistor group consists of 4Ω, 6Ω and 8Ω connected in parallel and a second group
consists of 3Ω and 6Ω in parallel. The two groups are connected in series across a 24V
supply. Calculate (a) the circuit current, (b) the p.d. across each group , (c) the current in each
resistor . ( Ans: 6.23A, 11.53V, 12.46V, 2.88A, 1.91A, 1.44A, 4.153A, 2.076A )
5. Two resistors of 60kΩ and 40kΩ value are connected in series across a 240V supply and
a voltmeter having a resistance value of 40kΩ is connected across the 40kΩ resistor . What
is the reading on the voltmeter ? ( Ans: 60V )

7. Two groups of resistors A and B are connected in series . Group A consists of four resistors
of values 2Ω, 4Ω, 6Ω and 8Ω connected in parallel and group B consists of two resistors of
values 10Ω and 15Ω in parallel. If the current in the 4Ω resistor is 1.5A, calculate (a) the
current in each of the remaining resistors, (b) the supply voltage, (c) the voltage drop across
the groups A and B. (Ans :3A, 1A, 0.75Ω, 1.5A, 43.5V, 6V, 37.5V )
10. Five resistors AB, BC, CD, DE and EA are connected to form a closed ring ABCDEA . A
supply of 90V is connected across AD, A being positive. The following is known about the
resistors : AB is 10Ω, BC is of unknown value 𝑅1 ohms, CD is of unknown value 𝑅2 ohms,
DE is 6Ω and EA is 9Ω . A high resistance voltmeter ( taking negligible current ) when
connected across BE reads 34V with B positive and when connected across CE reads 6V
with E positive . Find the values of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 , the current in branch ABCD and the main
supply current. ( Ans :20Ω, 15Ω, 2A, 6A, 8A )

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INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF SUPPLY SOURCE

𝑅
𝑉
𝐸

𝑬 = 𝑰𝑹𝒊 + 𝑽
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑬
𝑰 = 𝑹 +𝑹
𝒊

Generated E.M.F, Open circuit , Switched Off , → 𝑬

Terminal voltage , At the switch board ,→ 𝑽
𝑅𝑖 = Internal Resistance of the source
𝑅 = External Resistance

Example 5. A battery of e.m.f 42V and internal resistance 7Ω is used to supply the series
circuit of Example 3 , ie three resistors of 2 , 4 and 8Ω in series . Find the current and the terminal
voltage and by how much the cell voltage ‘sits down’ when supplying the load.
Given: 𝐸 = 42𝑉 𝑅𝑖 = 7Ω 𝑅 =2 , 4 and 8Ω in series
To Find: 𝐼 =? 𝑉 =?
the cell voltage ‘sits down’ = ?

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 Solution:

2Ω

4Ω
𝑉
𝐸 8Ω

External resistance , 𝑅 = 2 + 4 + 8 = 14Ω

𝐸 42
Circuit current , 𝐼= = = 2𝐴 ( 𝐴𝑛𝑠)
𝑅+𝑅𝑖 14+7

Terminal voltage, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 2 × 14 = 28𝑉 (𝐴𝑛𝑠: )

Cell voltage ‘sits down’ = 42 − 28 = 14𝑉 (𝐴𝑛𝑠: )

Example 7. A battery of e.m.f. 42V and internal resistance 7Ω feeds a circuit consisting of three
resistors connected in parallel. The resistors have values of 2Ω, 4Ω and 8Ω. Find the battery
current, the battery terminal voltage and the current in each resistor.
Given: 𝐸 = 42𝑉 𝑅𝑖 = 7Ω 𝑅 =2 , 4 and 8Ω in parallel
To Find: 𝐼 =? 𝑉 =? 𝑰2Ω =? 𝑰4Ω =? 𝑰8Ω =? 𝑰𝑅𝑖 =?
1 1 1 1
Solution: =2+4+8
𝑅

∴ 𝑅 = 1.1429 Ω
𝐸 42
,𝐼 = = = 5.1579𝐴 ( 𝐴𝑛𝑠)
𝑅+𝑅𝑖 1.1429+7

𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 = 5.1579 × 1.1429 = 5.895𝑉 ( 𝐴𝑛𝑠)

𝑉 5.895
𝐼2Ω = = = 2.9475𝐴 ( 𝐴𝑛𝑠)
2Ω 2
𝑉 5.895
𝐼4Ω = = = 1.4738𝐴 ( 𝐴𝑛𝑠)
4Ω 4
𝑉 5.895
𝐼8Ω = = = 0.7369𝐴 ( 𝐴𝑛𝑠)
8Ω 8

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PRACTICE EXAMPLES

3. If the resistor arrangement of 2Ω, 4Ω, 5Ω and 10Ω in parallel is connected to a 12V battery
of internal resistance 0.65Ω, find the circuit current and the battery terminal voltage . Find
also , the current in the 5Ω resistor. ( Ans: 7.5A, 7.125V, 1.425A )
6. When a 10Ω resistor is connected across a battery , the current is measured to be 0.18A.
If similarly tested with a 25Ω resistor , the current is measured to be 0.08A. Find the e.m.f.
of the battery and its internal resistance . Neglect the resistance of the ammeter used to
measure the current. (Ans: 2.16V, 2Ω )

8. The voltage of a d.c generator , when supplying a current of 75A to a load, is measured to
be 108.8V at the switch-board. At the load , the voltage recorded is 105V and when the
load is switched off the voltage rises to 110V. Find the internal resistanse of the generator
, the resistance of the supply cables and estimate the fault current if a ‘short-circuit’ of
negligible resistance occurred at the load terminals. (Ans: 0.016Ω , 0.0507Ω , 1650A )

Given : 𝐼 = 75𝐴, 𝑉 = 108.8𝑉, 𝑉𝐿 = 105𝑉, 𝐸 = 110𝑉

To Find : 𝑅𝑖 = ? 𝑅𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = ? 𝐼𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 = ?
𝐼
Solution :
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
E V 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝐿

𝐸 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑉
110−108.8
∴ 𝑅𝑖 = = 0.016Ω ( Ans )
75

𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝑉𝐿
108.8−105
∴ 𝑅𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = = 0.0507Ω ( Ans )
75

If a ‘short-circuit’ of negligible resistance occurred at the load terminals,

𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡
E

𝐸 110
𝐼𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 = 𝑅 +𝑅 = = 1649𝐴 ( Ans )
𝑖 𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 0.016+0.0507

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 AMMETERS AND VOLTAMETERS
 Ammeters are used for measuring current and voltmeters for measuring potential difference
or voltage .
 Ammeters must be of very low resistance since they are in series with the load and must
be responsible for negligible voltage drop.
 Voltmeters must be of high resistance , since they may be connected across points which
may be at a high potential difference.

AMMETER

𝐼𝑀 𝑅𝑀
𝐼

𝑅𝑆𝐻
𝐼𝑆𝐻

𝑰 = 𝑰𝑴 + 𝑰𝑺𝑯 𝑰𝑴 𝑹𝑴 = 𝑰𝑺𝑯 𝑹𝑺𝑯 𝐼𝑀 = Full- scale deflection current

𝑅𝑀 = Moving coil resistance
𝑅𝑆𝐻 = Shunt resistance
𝐼𝑆𝐻 = Shunt current
𝐼 = Current to be measured

VOLTMETER

RM RSE
𝐼𝑀

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑴 (𝑹𝑴 + 𝑹𝑺𝑬 ) 𝑉 = Voltage to be measured

𝑅𝑆𝐸 = Series resistance

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Example 8 Calculate the resistance of a shunt required to operate with a milliammeter, which
gives full- scale deflection for a current of 15mA and which has a resistance of 5Ω.
The combination of meter and shunt is required to read currents up to 100A.
Given: 𝐼𝑀 = 15𝑚𝐴, 𝑅𝑀 = 5Ω, 𝐼 = 100𝐴,
To Find: 𝑅𝑆𝐻 = ?
Solution:

𝐼𝑆𝐻 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑀 = 100 − 15 × 10−3 = 99.985𝐴

𝐼𝑆𝐻 𝑅𝑆𝐻 = 𝐼𝑀 𝑅𝑀
𝐼𝑀 𝑅 𝑀 15×10−3 ×5
∴ 𝑅𝑆𝐻 = = = 0.000751Ω (𝐴𝑛𝑠: )
𝐼𝑆𝐻 99.985

Example 9 Calculate the resistance of the range resistor required to be placed in series with
the instrument of Example 8 to make it into a voltmeter reading 0 – 250V . ( The
instrument has a resistance of 5Ω and gives full – scale deflection with a current of
15mA. )
Given: 𝑉 = 250𝑉 𝐼 = 15𝑚𝐴 𝑅𝑀 = 5Ω
To Find: 𝑅𝑆𝐸 =?
Solution:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑀 (𝑅𝑀 + 𝑅𝑆𝐸 )
𝑉
𝑅𝑆𝐸 = 𝐼 − 𝑅𝑀
𝑀

250
= −5
0.015

= 16.66 𝑘Ω ( Ans)

10
 PRACTICE EXAMPLES

4. A moving-coil instrument has a resistance of 10Ω and requires a current of 15mA

to give full-scale deflection. Calculate the resistance value of the resistor necessary
to enable it to be used to measure (a) currents up to 25A, (b) voltages up to 500V.
( Ans: 𝑅𝑆𝐻 = 0.006Ω , 𝑅𝑆𝐸 = 33.33kΩ )
9. The ammeter on a switchboard , scaled 0 – 300A is accidentally damaged. The
associated shunt is marked 300A , 150mV . A small ammeter, scaled 0 – 1A with a
resistance of 0.12Ω , is available , and the possibility of using this is considered. Find
if such an arrangement is possible , and if so , how it could be achieved using surplus
resistors which are also available. ( Ans: 0.03Ω )

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