Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

Electric Charge and Electric Field

:Introduction
Everyone is familiar with electricity as a source of power. Pressing a switch will turn on a light or
heat an oven. Energy is continuously being produced in these processes, energy that is carried by an
electric current through the metal wires connected to the electricity supply. The electric current is
made up of a flow of moving electrons. We cannot see the movement because the electrons are very
small and are able to move through a metal without disturbing the structure of the metal.
Electrons are pushed along a wire by forces that act on them because they carry electric charge.
These forces are called electric forces. The electric force on a charged particle is the same whether
the charge is stationary or moving. The subject of this chapter is electrostatics, which is the study of
the electric forces acting on stationary charges, and of how these forces are modified in the presence
of matter. Like gravitational forces, electrostatic forces act at a distance there is an electrostatic
force between two charged particles even if they are separated by a vacuum. The magnitude of the
electrostatic force also has the same inverse square variation with distance as the gravitational force.
There are, however, two very important differences between gravitational and electrostatic forces.
The first is that the gravitational force between two masses is always attractive, whereas charges
may attract or repel one another. The other difference is that, on an atomic scale, electrostatic forces
are enormously strong compared with gravitational forces.
1- Charge and matter:

1.1- Electric charge.

There are two kinds of charges, namely, positive (+) charge and negative (-) charge. Like charges
repel one another and opposite charges attract each other. The unit of charge is called the
Coulomb (C).
1.2- Charge Configuration:

1.2.1- Point Charge.

The concept of the point charge is used when the dimensions of an electric charge distribution are
very small compared to the distance to the neighboring charges, i.e. the point charge is occupying a
very small physical space.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

1.2.2- Distributed Charge.

• Volume Charge
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed throughout a volume V, the volume charge density ρ is
defined by;
𝝆 ≡ 𝑸/𝑽 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲
where ρ has units of coulombs per cubic meter (C/m3).

• Surface Charge

If a charge Q is uniformly distributed on a surface of area A, the surface charge density 

(lowercase Greek sigma) is defined by;
 ≡ 𝑸/𝑨 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲
where  has units of coulombs per square meter (C/m2).

• Line Charge
If a charge Q is uniformly distributed along a line of length l, the linear charge density λ is defined
by;
𝝀 ≡ 𝑸/𝒍 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲
where λ has units of coulombs per meter (C/m).

Figure 1. The electric force between electric charges. (a) Two positive charges, the
force is repulsive. (b) Two negative charges, the force is repulsive. (c) Positive
charge and negative charge, the force is attractive force.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

1.3- Electric Charge Quantization.

The smallest unit of “free” charge known in nature is the charge of an electron or proton, which has
a magnitude of, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C. Charge of any ordinary matter is quantized in integral multiples
of e.

1.4- Electric Charge Conservation.

The net sum of electric charge is always conserved. When a charged conducting object is brought
into contact with another conducting object, the charges in the two objects may redistribute, but the
net charge of the combined two-object system will remain the same.
Example 1: A uniform spherical volume charge density distribution contains a total charge of
-8 -2
10 C, if the radius of the sphere = 2 × 10 m. Find ρv.

Solution:
𝟒
𝑸 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐂, 𝑹 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐦, 𝑽= 𝝅𝑹𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐦𝟑
𝟑
𝑸 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐂
𝝆 = = = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐂/𝐦𝟑
𝐯 𝑽 𝟑𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐦𝟑
1.5- Classification of Materials:
It is convenient to classify substances in terms of their ability to conduct electric charge into:

▪ Insulators: Electrical insulators are materials in which electric charges cannot move freely.
Materials such as glass, rubber, and wood fall into the category of electrical insulators. When
such materials are charged by rubbing, only the area rubbed becomes charged, and the charge is
unable to move to other regions of the material.
▪ Conductors: Electrical conductors are materials in which electric charges move freely.
Materials such as copper, aluminum, and silver are good electrical conductors. When such
materials are charged in some small region, the charge readily distributes itself over the entire
surface of the material.
▪ Semiconductors: Semiconductors are a third class of materials, and their electrical properties
are somewhere between those of insulators and those of conductors. Silicon and germanium are
well-known examples of semiconductors commonly used in the fabrication of a variety of
electronic devices, such as transistors and light-emitting diodes. The electrical properties of
semiconductors can be changed over many orders of magnitude by the addition of controlled
amounts of certain atoms to the materials.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

2- Forces between Charged Particles:

It is mentioned above that electrostatic forces are sometimes attractive and sometimes repulsive.
This is because there are two different kinds of charge, which are called positive and negative.
2.1- Coulomb's Law.
Charles Coulomb (1736–1806) measured the magnitudes of the electric forces between charged
objects using the torsion balance. Coulomb’s experiments showed that the electric force between
two stationary charged particles
▪ is inversely proportional to the square of the separation r between the particles and directed
along the line joining them.

▪ is proportional to the product of the charges q1 and q2 on the two particles.

▪ is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign and repulsive if the charges have the same sign.
From these observations, we can express Coulomb's law as an equation giving the magnitude of the
electric force (sometimes called the Coulomb force) between two point charges.
Consider a system of two point charges, q1 and q2, separated by a distance r in vacuum. The force
exerted by q1 on q2 is given by Coulomb's law:

Figure 2. Two point charges separated by a distance r exert a force on

each other that is given by Coulomb’s law. The force F21 exerted by q2 on
q1 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force F12 exerted
by q1 on q2. (a) When the charges are of the same sign, the force is
repulsive. (b) When the charges are of opposite signs, the force is
attractive.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐅𝐞 = 𝒌𝒆 𝐫̂ (𝟏)
𝒓𝟐
where ke is the Coulomb constant, and 𝒓̂ is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2, as illustrated in
Figure (2). Note that electric force is a vector which has both magnitude and direction. In SI units,
the Coulomb constant ke is given by
𝟏
𝒌𝒆 = = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟖𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂 𝟐
𝟒𝛑𝟎
where 𝟎 is known as the “permittivity of free space (𝟎 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐂 𝟐 /𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 ). Similarly,
the force on q2 due to q1 is given by F21 = - F12, as illustrated in Figure (2). This is consistent with
Newton's third law.
Example 2: The electron and proton of a hydrogen atom are separated (on the average) by a
distance of approximately 5. 29 × 10-11 m. Compare the electric and gravitational forces between
the proton and the electron in this atom.
Solution: Taking the distance between the two particles to be the radius of hydrogen, r = 5.29 ×
10-11 m, we find that the electric force has a magnitude:
𝒒𝒆 𝒒𝒑
𝑭𝒆 = 𝒌 𝟐
𝒓
(𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂)(𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂)
𝑭𝒆 = (𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂 𝟐 ) ( ) = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑵
(𝟓. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝐦)𝟐
Similarly, the magnitude of the gravitational force between the electron and the proton is:
𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝒑
𝑭𝒈 = 𝑮
𝒓𝟐
−𝟏𝟏 𝟐 𝟐)
(𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝐤𝐠)(𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 𝐤𝐠)
𝑭𝒈 = (𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐍. 𝐦 /𝐤𝐠
(𝟓. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝐦)𝟐
𝑭𝒈 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟕 𝐍
Hence, we obtain the ratio of the two forces;
𝑭𝒆 𝟖. 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐍
= = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟗
𝑭𝒈 𝟑. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒𝟕 𝐍

2.2- Principle of Superposition:

Coulomb’s law applies to any pair of point charges. When more than two charges are present, the
net force on any one charge is simply the vector sum of the forces exerted on it by the other
charges. For example, if three charges q1, q2 and q3 are present, the resultant force experienced by
q3 due to q1 and q2 will be;
F3 = F13 + F23
The superposition principle is illustrated in the example below.
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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

2.2.1- Multiple Charges in One Dimension (Linear).

Example 3: The following three charges are arranged as shown. Determine the net force acting
on the charge on the far right (q3 = charge 3).

Figure 3. A system of three charges.

Solution: Because q3 is negative and q1 is positive the force F13 is attractive and q2 is negative,
the force F23 is repulsive. From Coulomb’s law, F13 and F23 have magnitudes;
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = 𝒌𝒆
(𝒓𝟏𝟑 )𝟐
(𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐂)(−𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐂)
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = (𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂 𝟐 )
(𝟑. 𝟏 𝐦)𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = −𝟒. 𝟗𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐂
𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
𝑭𝟐𝟑 = 𝒌𝒆
(𝒓𝟐𝟑 )𝟐
(−𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝐂)(−𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐂)
𝑭𝟐𝟑 = (𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂 𝟐 )
(𝟑. 𝟏 𝐦)𝟐
𝑭𝟐𝟑 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐂
The net force;
𝑭𝟑 = −𝟒. 𝟗𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐂 + 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐂 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐂
Example 4: Three point charges lie along the x axis as shown in Figure (4). The positive charge

q1 = 15.0 C is at x = 2.00 m, the positive charge q2 = 6.00 C is at the origin, and the resultant
force acting on q3 is zero. What is the x coordinate of q3?

Figure 4. Three point charges are placed along

the x axis. If the net force acting on q3 is zero,
then the force F13 exerted by q1 on q3 must be
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the force F23 exerted by q2 on q3.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

Solution: Because q3 is negative and q1 and q2 are positive, the forces F13 and F23 are both
attractive. From Coulomb’s law, F13 and F23 have magnitudes;
|𝒒𝟏 ||𝒒𝟑 | |𝒒𝟐 ||𝒒𝟑 |
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = 𝒌𝒆 𝑭𝟐𝟑 = 𝒌𝒆
(𝟐 − 𝒙)𝟐 (𝒙)𝟐
For the resultant force on q3 to be zero, F23 must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
F13, or
|𝒒𝟏 ||𝒒𝟑 | |𝒒𝟐 ||𝒒𝟑 |
𝒌𝒆 = 𝒌𝒆
(𝟐 − 𝒙)𝟐 (𝒙)𝟐
Solving this equation for x, we find that x = 0.775 m.
2.2.2- Multiple Charges in Two Dimensions.

Example 5: Three charges, each equal to +2.90 μC, are placed at three corners of a square 0.500
m on a side. Find the magnitude and direction of the net force on charge number 3.
Solution: The magnitude of force exerted on charge 3 by charge 1:

𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = 𝒌 𝟐
(√𝟐 𝒓)
(𝟐. 𝟗𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂)𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = (𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂 𝟐 )
𝟐(𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝐦)𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟏 𝐍
The magnitude of force exerted on charge 3 by charge 2:
𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝟐𝟑 = 𝒌
( 𝒓)𝟐
(𝟐. 𝟗𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂)𝟐
𝑭𝟐𝟑 = (𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂 𝟐 )
(𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝐦)𝟐
𝑭𝟐𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟐 𝐍
The component of 𝑭𝟏𝟑 and 𝑭𝟐𝟑 :
F13,x = F13 cos 450 = (0.151 N)(0.707) = 0.107 N
F13,y = F13 sin 450 = (0.151 N)(0.707) = 0.107 N
F23,x = F23 cos 00 = (0.302 N)(1) = 0.302 N
F23,y = F23 sin 00 = (0.302 N)(0) = 0 N
The components of the resultant force:
Fx = F13,x + F23,x = 0.107 N + 0.302 N = 0.409 N
Fy = F13,y + F23,y = 0.107 N + 0 N = 0.107 N
Figure 5. A system of three charges.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

The resultant force acting on charge 3:

𝑭 = √𝑭𝟐𝒙 + 𝑭𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟑 𝐍

The direction of the resultant force on charge 3;

𝑭𝒚
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =
𝑭𝒙
𝑭𝒚
𝜽 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟎
𝑭𝒙
Example 6: Two identical small charged spheres, each having a mass of 3.0 × 10-2 kg, hang in
equilibrium as shown in the following Figure. The length of each string is 0.15 m, and the angle θ is
5.0°. Find the magnitude of the charge on each sphere.
Solution: From the right triangle shown in Figure (6a), we see that sinθ = a/L. Therefore, a = L
sinθ = (0.15 m) sin 5.00 = 0.013 m. The separation of the spheres is 2a = 0.026 m.
The forces acting on the left sphere are shown in Figure (6b). Because the sphere is in equilibrium,
the forces in the horizontal and vertical directions must separately add up to zero:
𝑭𝒆 = 𝑻 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 (𝟏)
𝒎𝒈 = 𝑻 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 (𝟐)
From the last equations
𝑭𝒆 = 𝒎𝒈 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = (𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐤𝐠)(𝟗. 𝟖 𝐦/𝐬𝟐 ) 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐍
From Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of the electric force is
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 |𝒒|𝟐
𝑭𝒆 = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐 = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐
𝒓 𝒓
Note that q1 = q2 and r = 2a = 0.026 m
𝑭𝒆 𝒓𝟐 (𝟐. 𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝐍)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔)𝟐
|𝒒|𝟐 = =
𝒌𝒆 (𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂 𝟐 )
𝒒 = 𝟒. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐂

Figure 6. (a) Two identical spheres,

each carrying the same charge q,
suspended in equilibrium. (b) The free-
body diagram for the sphere on the left.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3- Electric Field:
What Is an Electric Field?
An electric field is a space around a charged particle where the particle exerts electric force on
other charged particles. Because of their force fields, charged particles can exert force on each other
without actually touching. Electric fields are generally represented by arrows; the arrows show the
direction of electric force around a positive particle and a negative particle.
3.1- Electric Field Due to a Point Charge.
Consider Figure (7), which shows a small positive test charge q0 placed near a second object
carrying a much greater positive charge Q. We define the strength (in other words, the magnitude)
of the electric field at the location of the test charge to be the electric force per unit charge, or to be
more specific
The electric field E at a point in space is defined as the electric force F e acting on a positive
test charge q0 placed at that point divided by the magnitude of the test charge:
𝐅𝐞
𝐄 ≡ (𝟐)
𝒒𝟎

The vector E has the SI units of Newtons per Coulomb (N/C), and, as Figure (7) shows, its direction
is the direction of the force a positive test charge experiences when placed in the field.
To determine the direction of an electric field, consider a point charge q located a distance r from a
test charge q0 located at a point P, as shown in Figure (8). According to Coulomb’s law, the force
exerted by q on the test charge is
𝒒𝒒𝟎
𝐅𝐞 = 𝒌𝒆 𝐫̂
𝒓𝟐
where 𝑟̂ is a unit vector directed from q toward q0. Because the electric field at P, the position of the
test charge, is defined by E = Fe / q0 we find that at P, the electric field created by q is;
𝐅𝐞 𝒒
𝐄= = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐 𝐫̂ (𝟑)
𝒒𝟎 𝒓

Figure 7. A small positive test

charge q0 placed near an object
carrying a much larger positive
charge Q experiences an electric
field E directed as shown.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

Figure 8. A test charge q0 at point P is a distance r from a point charge q. (a) If q is

positive, then the electric field at P points radially outward from q. (b) If q is negative,
then the electric field at P points radially inward toward q.
If q is positive, as it is in Figure (8a), the electric field is directed radially outward from it. If q is
negative, as it is in Figure (8b), the field is directed toward it.
To calculate the electric field at a point P due to a group of point charges, we first calculate the
electric field vectors at P individually using equation (3) and then add them vectorially. In other
words,
at any point P, the total electric field due to a group of charges equals the vector sum of the
electric fields of the individual charges.

Example 7: The nucleus of a uranium atom has a radius r of 6.8 fm. assuming that the positive
charge of the nucleus is distributed uniformly, determine the electric field at a point on the surface
of the nucleus due to that charge.
Solution: The nucleus has a positive charge of Ze, where the atomic number (Z = 92) is the

number of protons within the nucleus, and e (=1.60 × 10-19 C) is the charge of a proton. If this
charge is distributed uniformly, then the first shell theorem applies. The electrostatic force on a
positive test charge placed near the surface of the nucleus is the same as if the nuclear charge is
concentrated at the nuclear center. The electric field,
𝟏 𝒁𝒆
𝑬 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
(𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍. 𝐦𝟐 /𝐂 𝟐 )(𝟗𝟐)(𝟏. 𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂)
𝑬= −𝟏𝟓 𝟐
= 𝟐. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟏 𝐍 / 𝐂
(𝟔. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐦)
Since the charge of the nucleus is positive, the electric field vector E points outward, away from the
center of the nucleus.

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Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3.2- Electric Field Due to Two Charges.

Example 8: A charge q1 = 7.0 C is located at the origin, and a second charge q2 = -5.0 C is
located on the x axis, 0.30 m from the origin (see Figure 9). Find the electric field at the point P,
which has coordinates (0, 0.40) m.
Solution: First, let us find the magnitude of the electric field at P due to each charge. The fields

E1 due to the 7.0 C charge and E2 due to the -5.0 C charge are shown in Figure (9). Their
magnitudes are;
𝒒𝟐 𝟗 𝟐 𝟐
(𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂)
𝑬𝟐 = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐 = (𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐍. 𝐦 /𝐂 )
𝒓𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟓 𝐦)𝟐
𝑬𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍/𝐂
𝟎. 𝟑 𝐦
𝑬𝒙 = 𝑬𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍/𝐂 ( )
𝟎. 𝟓 𝐦
𝑬𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍/𝐂
𝟎. 𝟒 𝐦
𝑬𝒚 = 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝟑. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍/𝐂 − 𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍/𝐂 ( )
𝟎. 𝟓 𝐦
𝑬𝒚 = 𝟐. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍/𝐂

𝑬 = √𝑬𝟐𝒙 + 𝑬𝟐𝒚 = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍/𝐂

𝑬𝒚 𝟐. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜱 = =
𝑬𝒙 𝟏. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝜱 = 𝟔𝟔𝟎

Figure 9. The total

electric field E at P
equals the vector sum
where E1 is the field due
to the positive charge q1
and E2 is the field due to
the negative charge q2.

11
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3.3- Electric Field of an Electric Dipole.

Example 8: An electric dipole is defined as a positive charge q and a negative charge -q

separated by some distance. For the dipole shown in Figure (10), find the electric field E at P due to
the charges, where P is a distance 𝑦 ≫ 𝑎 from the origin.
Solution: At P, the fields E1 and E2 due to the two charges are equal in magnitude because P is
equidistant from the charges. The total field E = E1 + E2 is where
𝒒 𝒒 𝒒
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐 = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐 = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐
𝒓 𝒓 𝒚 + 𝒂𝟐
The y components of E1 and E2 cancel each other, and the x components add because they are both
in the positive x direction. Therefore, E is parallel to the x axis and has a magnitude equal to 2E1
cosθ.
𝒒 𝒂 𝟐𝒒𝒂
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑬𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝟐 𝒌𝒆 = 𝒌𝒆 𝟐
𝒚𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝒂 √𝒚𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 (𝒚 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐

Because 𝒚 ≫ 𝒂 we can neglect a2 and write

𝟐𝒒𝒂
𝑬 = 𝒌𝒆
𝒚𝟑
Thus, we see that, at distances far from a dipole but along the perpendicular bisector of the line
joining the two charges, the magnitude of the electric field created by the dipole varies as 1/𝑟 3 .

Figure 10. The total electric field E at P due to two charges of

equal magnitude and opposite sign (an electric dipole) equals
the vector sum E1+ E2. The field E1 is due to the positive
charge q, and E2 is the field due to the negative charge -q.

12
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3.4- Electric Fields Due to Continuous Charge Distributions:

To evaluate the electric field created by a continuous charge distribution, we use the following
procedure: First, we divide the charge distribution into small elements, each of which contains a
small charge ∆q, as shown in Figure (11). Next, we use equation (3) to calculate the electric field
due to one of these elements at a point P. Finally, we evaluate the total field at P due to the charge
distribution by summing the contributions of all the charge elements (that is, by applying the
superposition principle).
The electric field at P due to one element carrying charge ∆q is;
∆𝒒
∆𝐄 = 𝒌𝒆 𝐫̂
𝒓𝟐
where r is the distance from the element to point P and 𝒓̂ is a unit vector directed from the charge
element toward P. The total electric field at P due to all elements in the charge distribution is
approximately;
∆𝒒𝒊
𝐄 ≈ 𝒌𝒆 ∑ 𝐫̂𝐢
𝒓𝟐𝒊
𝒊
where the index i refers to the ith element in the distribution. Because the charge distribution is
approximately continuous, the total field at P is given by;
𝒅𝒒
𝑬 = 𝒌𝒆 ∫ 𝒓̂ (𝟒)
𝒓𝟐

Figure 11. The electric field at P due to a continuous charge

distribution is the vector sum of the fields ∆E due to all the
elements ∆q of the charge distribution.
We illustrate this type of calculation with several examples, in which we assume the charge is
uniformly distributed on a line, on a surface, or throughout a volume. When performing such
calculations, it is convenient to use the concept of a charge density.

13
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3.4.1- Electric Field on the Axis of a Rod.

Example 9: A rod of length l has a uniform positive charge per unit length λ and a total charge
Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P that is located along the long axis of the rod and a
distance a from one end.
Solution: Let us assume that the rod is lying along the x axis, that dx is the length of one small
segment, and that dq is the charge on that segment. Because the rod has a charge per unit length λ,
the charge dq on the small segment is dq = λdx. The field dE due to this segment at P is in the
negative x direction (because the source of the field carries a positive charge Q), and its magnitude
is;
𝒅𝒒 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑬 = 𝒌𝒆𝟐
= 𝒌𝒆 𝝀 𝟐
𝒙 𝒙
The total field at P due to all segments of the rod, which are at different distances from P, is given
by;
𝒂+𝒍
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒂+𝒍 𝟏 𝟏 𝒌𝒆 𝑸
𝑬 = 𝒌𝒆 𝝀 ∫ 𝟐
= 𝒌𝒆 𝝀 [− ] = 𝒌𝒆 𝝀 ( − )=
𝒂 𝒙 𝒙𝒂 𝒂 𝒂+𝒍 𝒂(𝒍 + 𝒂)
where we have used the fact that the total charge 𝑄 = 𝜆𝑙 . If P is far from the rod 𝑎 ≫ 𝑙 then the 𝑙
in the denominator can be neglected, and 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑄/𝑎2 . This is just the form you would expect for a
point charge. Therefore, at large values of 𝑎/𝑙, the charge distribution appears to be a point charge
of magnitude Q.

Figure 12. The electric field at P due to a uniformly charged rod lying along the x axis.
The magnitude of the field at P due to the segment of charge dq is 𝒌𝒆 𝒅𝒒/𝒙𝟐. The total
field at P is the vector sum over all segments of the rod.

14
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3.4.2- Electric Field on the Axis of a Ring.

Example 10: A ring of radius a carries a uniformly distributed positive total charge Q. Calculate
the electric field due to the ring at a point P lying a distance x from its center along the central axis
perpendicular to the plane of the ring.
Solution: The magnitude of the electric field at P due to the segment of charge dq is;
𝒅𝒒
𝒅𝑬 = 𝒌𝒆
𝒓𝟐
This field has an x component 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 along the axis and a component 𝑑𝐸⟘ perpendicular to
the axis. As we see in Figure (13b), however, the resultant field at P must lie along the x axis
because the perpendicular components of all the various charge segments sum to zero. That is, the
perpendicular component of the field created by any charge element is canceled by the
perpendicular component created by an element on the opposite side of the ring.
𝒅𝒒 𝒙 𝒌𝒆 𝒙
𝒅𝑬𝒙 = 𝒅𝑬 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = (𝒌𝒆 ) = 𝒅𝒒
𝒓𝟐 𝒓 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
All segments of the ring make the same contribution to the field at P because they are all equidistant
from this point. Thus, we can integrate to obtain the total field at P;
𝒌𝒆 𝒙 𝒌𝒆 𝒙
𝑬𝒙 = ∫ 𝒅𝒒 = 𝑸
(𝒂𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝒙 ) 𝟑/𝟐 (𝒂 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
𝟐

Figure 13. A uniformly charged ring of radius a. (a) The field at P on the x axis due to an element
of charge dq. (b) The total electric field at P is along the x axis. The perpendicular component of
the field at P due to segment 1 is canceled by the perpendicular component due to segment 2.

15
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3.4.3- Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Disk.

Example 11: A disk of radius R has a uniform surface charge density . Calculate the electric
field at a point P that lies along the central perpendicular axis of the disk and a distance x from the
center of the disk.
Solution: If we consider the disk as a set of concentric rings, we can use our result from the last
example which gives the field created by a ring of radius a, and sum the contributions of all rings
making up the disk. By symmetry, the field at an axial point must be along the central axis.
The ring of radius r and width dr shown in Figure (14) has a surface area equal to dA = 2πrdr. The
charge dq on this ring is equal to the area of the ring multiplied by the surface charge density: dq =
2πrdr. We have for the field due to the ring;
𝒌𝒆 𝒙
𝒅𝑬 = 𝟐𝛑𝒓𝒅𝒓
(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
To obtain the total field at P, we integrate this expression over the limits r = 0 to r = R, noting that x
is a constant. This gives;
𝑹
𝟐𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝑬 = 𝒌𝒆 𝒙𝛑 ∫
𝟎 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐 )𝟑/𝟐
𝑹
𝑬 = 𝒌𝒆 𝒙𝛑 ∫ (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐 )−𝟑/𝟐 𝒅(𝒓𝟐 )
𝟎
𝑹
(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒓𝟐 )−𝟏/𝟐
𝑬 = 𝒌𝒆 𝒙𝛑 [ ]
−𝟏/𝟐 𝟎
𝒙 𝒙
𝑬 = 𝟐𝒌𝒆 𝛑 [ − 𝟐 ]
𝒙 (𝒙 + 𝑹𝟐 )𝟏/𝟐
This result is valid for all values of x. We can calculate the field close to the disk along the axis by
assuming that 𝑅 ≫ 𝑥; thus, the expression in parentheses reduces to unity;

𝑬 = 𝟐𝒌𝒆 𝛑 =
𝟐 𝟎

Figure 14. A uniformly

charged disk of radius R. The
electric field at an axial point
P is directed along the central
axis, perpendicular to the
plane of the disk.

16
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3.5- Electric Field Lines.

An electric field can be represented diagrammatically as a set of lines with arrows on, called
electric field-lines, which fill space. Electric field-lines are drawn according to the following rules:
▪ The direction of the electric field is everywhere tangent to the field-lines, in the sense of the
arrows on the lines.

Figure 15. Electric field lines radiate outwards from a positive point charge and
inwards towards a negative point charge.

▪ The magnitude of the field is proportional to the number of field-lines per unit area passing
through a small surface normal to the lines.
Thus, field-lines determine the magnitude, as well as the direction, of the electric field. In particular,
the field is strong at points where the field-lines are closely spaced, and weak at points where they
are far apart. The field lines for positive and negative charges are shown in Figure (15).

Notice that the direction of field lines is radially outward for a positive charge and radially inward
for a negative charge.

17
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

3.6- Interacting of Electric Fields.

Figure 16. The electric field lines for two point charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign (an
electric dipole). The number of lines leaving the positive charge equals the number terminating at
the negative charge.

Figure 17. (b) The electric field lines for two positive point charges.
When charged particles are close enough to exert force on each other, their electric fields interact.
This is illustrated in Figures (16, 17, 18). The lines of force bend together when particles with
different charges attract each other. The lines bend apart when particles with like charges repel each
other.
For a pair of charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign (an electric dipole), the field lines are
shown in Figure (16).

18
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

Figure 18. The electric field lines for two point charges, different in
magnitude and opposite sign.
3.7- Motion of Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field:
When a particle of charge q and mass m is placed in an electric field E, the electric force exerted on
the charge is qE. If this is the only force exerted on the particle, it must be the net force and so must
cause the particle to accelerate. In this case, Newton’s second law applied to the particle gives;
𝐅𝐞 = 𝒒𝐄 = 𝒎𝐚
The acceleration of the particle is therefore;
𝒒𝐄
𝐚= (𝟒)
𝒎
If E is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), then the acceleration is
constant. If the particle has a positive charge, then its acceleration is in the direction of the
electric field. If the particle has a negative charge, then its acceleration is in the direction
opposite the electric field.

3.7.1- An Accelerating Positive Charge.

Example 12: A positive point charge q of mass m is released from rest in a uniform electric
field E directed along the x axis, as shown in Figure (19). Describe its motion.
Solution: The acceleration is constant and is given by qE/m. The motion is simple linear motion
along the x axis. Therefore, we can apply the equations of kinematics in one dimension.
The positive point charge q of mass m is released from rest the equations of motion take the
following forms;

19
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

Figure 19: A positive point charge q in a uniform electric field E

undergoes constant acceleration in the direction of the field.
𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝐄 𝟐
𝒙 = 𝐯𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒎
𝒒𝐄
𝐯𝒙 = 𝐯𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒕
𝒎
𝟐𝒒𝐄
𝐯𝐱 𝟐 = 𝐯𝟎 𝟐 𝒕 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙 = 𝒙
𝒎
The kinetic energy of the charge after it has moved a distance x is;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒒𝐄
𝑲= 𝒎𝐯𝐱 𝟐 = 𝒎 ( ) 𝒙 = 𝒒𝐄𝒙 = 𝑭𝒆 𝒙 = 𝑾
𝟐 𝟐 𝒎
So that the work done is equal the change in the kinetic energy.
K (kinetic energy) = W (the work done)
3.7- An Accelerated Electron.
Example 13: The electric field in the region between two oppositely charged flat metallic plates is
approximately uniform (Figure 20). Suppose an electron of charge -e is projected horizontally into
this field with an initial velocity v0. Because the electric field E in Figure (20) is in the positive y
direction, the acceleration of the electron is in the negative y direction. That is,
𝒆𝐄
𝐚=
𝒎
Because the acceleration is constant, we can apply the equations of kinematics in two dimensions
with 𝐯𝐱 = 𝐯𝟎 and 𝐯y0 = 0.
After the electron has been in the electric field for a time t, the components of its velocity are;
𝒆𝑬
𝐯𝐱 = 𝐯𝟎 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 , 𝐯 𝐲 = 𝐯𝐲𝟎 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒂𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒕
𝒎

20
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

Figure 20: An electron is projected horizontally into a uniform electric field

produced by two charged plates. The electron undergoes a downward acceleration
(opposite E), and its motion is parabolic while it is between the plates.
Its coordinates after a time t in the field are;
𝒙 = 𝐯𝟎 𝒕
𝟏 𝟏 𝒆𝑬 𝟐
𝒚 = 𝐯𝐲𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐𝒎
Substituting the value 𝑡 = 𝑥/v0 .
𝟏 𝒆𝑬 𝟐 𝟏 𝒆𝑬 𝒙𝟐
𝒚=− 𝒕 = (𝟓)
𝟐𝒎 𝟐 𝒎 𝐯𝟎𝟐

From the last equation we see that y is proportional to x2. Hence, the trajectory is a parabola.
Example 14: An electron is released from rest in a uniform electric field of magnitude 2.00×104
N/C. Calculate the acceleration of the electron. (Ignore gravitation)
Solution: The magnitude of the force on a charge q in an electric field is given by F = |qE|,
where E is the magnitude of the field. The magnitude of the electron charge is e = 1.6×10−19 C, so
the magnitude of the force on the electron is
F = |qE| = (1.6 × 10-19 C) (2.00 × 104 N/C = 3.20 × 10-15 N
Newton’s second law relates the magnitudes of the force and acceleration: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, so the
acceleration of the electron has magnitude;
𝑭 𝟑. 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟓 𝐍
𝒂 = = = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝐦/𝐬𝟐
𝒎 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 𝐤𝐠
Since the electron has a negative charge the direction of the force on the electron (and also the
acceleration) is opposite the direction of the electric field.

21
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

Questions:
1- (a) What are point charges?, (b) What is meant by conservation of charge? (c) What is
quantization of charge?
2- Explain what is meant by the term “a neutral atom”.
3- What are the similarities and differences between Newton’s law of gravitation, and Coulomb’s
law.
4- Consider two equal point charges separated by some distance d. At what point (other than ∞)
would a third test charge experience no net force?
5- Explain from an atomic viewpoint why charge is usually transferred by electrons.
6- A free electron and free proton are placed in an identical electric field. Compare the electric
forces on each particle. Compare their accelerations.
7- Explain the differences between linear, surface, and volume charge densities, and give examples
of when each would be used.
8- Explain what happens to the magnitude of the electric field of a point charge as r approaches
zero.
9- A conducting sphere of radius R carries a total charge Q. Draw a diagram showing the electric
field as a function of distance from the centre of the sphere.
10- Equal charges +q are situated at the corners of a cube of side a. What force acts on any one of
the charges, and what is its direction?
11- Two parallel thin wires, each carrying a charge per unit length λ C/m, are separated by a
distance d. What is the force per unit length between the wires?
12- Two charges +q and one charge -q are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side a.
What is the magnitude and direction of the force on the charge -q?
Problems:
1- Calculate the force between two electrons that are 0.1nm apart.
2- Charges of - 6 and + 4 C are 3 m apart. Determine the force they exert on each other.
3- A particle of charge q1 = +6.0 C is located on the x-axis at coordinate x1 = 5.1 cm. A second
particle of charge q2 = -5.0 C is placed on the x-axis at x2 = -3.4 cm. What is the magnitude and
direction of the total electrostatic force acting on a third particle of charge q3 = +2.0 C placed at
the origin (x = 0)?
4- Two small particles of carbon, each weighting 1 mg and each carrying a charge of 10-6 C, are one
centimeter apart. Calculate the electrostatic force and gravitational force between them.

22
Chapter 1 Electric Charge & Electric Field

5- (a) Two protons in a molecule are separated by a distance of 3.80 x 10-10 m. Find the electric
force exerted by one proton on the other. (b) How does the magnitude of this force compare with
the magnitude of the gravitational force between the two protons?
6- Two point charges exert an attractive force of 5.0 N on each other. How much force would they
exert on each other if the distance between them were
(a) Ten time as great? (b) One-tenth as great?
7- What must be the charge on each of two identical bodies if they are to exert a repulsive force of 1
N on each other at a separation of 5 cm?
8- A point charge Q is far from all other charges. At a distance of 2 m from Q, the electric field is
20 N/C. What is the electric field at a distance of 4 m from Q?
9- What is the magnitude of a point charge that would create an electric field of 1.00 N/C at points
1.00 m away?
10- An electron and a proton are each placed at rest in an electric field of 520 N/C. Calculate the
speed of each particle 48 ns after being released.
11- Two positive point charges, q1 = +16 μC and q2 = +4.0 μC are separated in a vacuum by a
distance of 3.0 m. Find the spot on the line between the charges where the net electric field is zero.
12- An object having a net charge of 24 μC is placed in a uniform electric field of 610 N/C directed
vertically. What is the mass of this object if it “floats” in the field?
13- Beams of high–speed protons can be produced in “guns” using electric fields to accelerate the
protons. (a) What acceleration would a proton experience if the gun’s electric field were 2.00 × 104
N/C? (b) What speed would the proton attain if the field accelerated the proton through a distance
of 1.00 cm?
14- A spherical water drop (negative) 1.20 μm in diameter is suspended in calm air owing to a
downward–directed atmospheric electric field E = 462 N/C. (a) What is the weight of the drop? (b)
How many excess electrons does it have?
15- Two equally charges particles are 3 cm apart and repel each other with a force of 4 × 10-5 N.
Compute the charge on each particle.
16- What is the magnitude of the electric field intensity at a point where a proton experiences an
electrostatic force of magnitude 2.3 × 10-25 N?
17- Two oppositely charged parallel metal plates, 1 cm apart, exert a force with a magnitude of 3.60
× 10-15 N on an electron placed between the plates. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field
strength between the plates.

23