Quantum Confinement and its effect on
Electrical, Optical and Magnetic Properties
of Nanomaterials
Submitted To:
Prof Dr. Shahid Atiq
Submitted By:
Shoaib Amin
Subject:
Chemical Synthesis of Nanoparticles
Programme:
MS Nanotechnology
CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE IN SOLID STATE PHYSICS
UNIVERSITY OF THE PUNJAB
LAHORE
08/10/2025
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Table of Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 3
2 What is Quantum Confinement .............................................................................................. 3
2.1 Types of Confinement ..................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Quantum Confinement and its effect on Properties ........................................................ 5
2.2.1 Effect on Electronic Properties ............................................................................... 5
2.2.2 Optical Properties.................................................................................................... 6
2.2.3 Effect on Magnetic Properties ................................................................................ 8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Band gap in Bulk Materials ................................................................................ 3
Figure 2: Bohr Exciton Radius ......................................................................................... 4
Figure 3: Quantum Confinement Effect on materials ............................................................ 4
Figure 4: Types of quantum confinement............................................................................ 5
Figure 5: Change in band gap with decrease in size ............................................................. 6
Figure 6: Emission wavelength in Nanomaterials ................................................................ 7
Figure 7:: Absorption wavelength in Nanomatrials .............................................................. 7
Figure 8: Magnetism in bulk Materials .............................................................................. 8
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1 Introduction
Nanomaterials are materials with at least one dimension in the range of 1–100 nanometers, where
their physical and chemical behaviour differs greatly from bulk material. At this scale, the motion
of electrons becomes restricted, and classical laws of physics change to quantum effects. One of
the most important phenomena governing these property changes is the quantum confinement
effect. This effect arises when the size of a particle becomes comparable to or smaller than the of
the Exciton Bohr Radius, leading to discrete energy levels instead of continuous bands. As a result,
nanomaterials exhibit remarkable optical, electronic, and magnetic properties that are size-
dependent.
2 What is Quantum Confinement
In a bulk material, electrons can move freely over large distances. Their allowed energy states form
continuous bands—the valence band (filled with electrons) and the conduction band (empty at
absolute zero), separated by a fixed forbidden energy region known as the band gap (𝐸 ).
Figure 1: Band gap in Bulk Materials
The key characteristic length scale in semiconductors is the Exciton Bohr Radius (𝑎 ), The
Bohr exciton radius is the distance between an electron in the conduction band and the hole it left
behind in the valence band. Exciton Bohr Radius is defined as:
ԑ
𝑎 =𝑎
𝑚∗
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Figure 2: Bohr Exciton Radius
When the size of the material (a) becomes comparable to or smaller than this radius (𝑎 ), the
motion of charge carriers is confined.
Figure 3: Quantum Confinement Effect on materials
This Quantum Confinement Effect refers to the spatial restriction of electrons and holes within
dimensions equal or smaller than their Exciton Bohr Radius. As a result, the continuous energy
bands split into discrete energy levels, like those observed in individual atoms. This change leads
to dramatic alterations in the material’s electronic, optical, and magnetic properties, making them
highly size dependent.
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2.1 Types of Confinement
The quantum confinement effect is categorized based on the number of spatial dimensions in
which the motion of the electrons and holes is restricted to the nanoscale. The primary three
types are:
Quantum Well or Quantum dot (Confinement in One Dimension)
Quantum Wire (Confinement in Two Dimensions)
Quantum Dots (Confinement in Three Dimensions)
Figure 4: Types of quantum confinement
2.2 Quantum Confinement and its effect on Properties
2.2.1 Effect on Electronic Properties
In bulk materials the density of states (the number of available energy states per unit volume per
unit energy) is continuous near the band edges. Electrons can occupy a near-continuum of energy
levels within the valence and conduction bands. This allows the free movement and delocalization
of electrons.
In Quantum-Confined Nanostructures i.e. As per the “particle in a box” model, the continuous
bands break down into discrete, atomic-like energy levels. The density of states becomes a set of
sharp, delta-function-like peaks. This means electrons can only exist at specific, quantized
energies.
According to the Effective Mass Approximation (EMA) Equation:
ℎ 𝜋 1 1
𝐸 ( ) = 𝐸 (𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘) + +
2𝑅 𝑚∗ 𝑚∗
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Here 𝐸 is balk bang gap energy, ∗ + ∗ is the confinement energy, and R is the radius
of the nanoparticle, according to this equation the band gap increases as the size of the nanoparticle
decreases. At very small dimensions when energy levels are quantified, band overlap disappears
in metals during transformation into a bandgap. Normally, in the case of semiconductors, the
bandgap increases with smaller dimensions due to quantization. Some states disappear from the
bulk material entirely, including the highest levels of the valence band and the lowest of the
conduction band.
Figure 5: Change in band gap with decrease in size
In addition to band structure modification, quantum tunnelling and Coulomb blockade effects also
appear at the nanoscale. Quantum tunnelling allows electrons to pass through potential barriers
that would be forbidden in classical physics, while Coulomb blockade occurs when electron
transport is restricted due to the quantised nature of charge.
2.2.2 Optical Properties
The optical properties of a material, particularly its integration with light through absorption and
emission, are directly governed by electronic structures.
In case of absorption of energy (voltage or light source), excited electrons can jump from the
valence band to the conduction band. If the energy of the light is equal to or higher than the
bandgap, absorption occurs and an electron– hole pair is generated. When recombination of
electrons and holes happens, energy is emitted in the form of phonons (vibrations in the material
causing temperature to increase—called nonradiative emission) or in the form of photons
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(electromagnetic waves— called radiative emission). If light is absorbed and then electron–hole
transition causes emission of another wavelength of light, the process is referred to as
photoluminescence.
Figure 6: Emission wavelength in Nanomaterials
The energy gap of a quantum dot depends on the size of the dot. The larger the size is, the lower
is its absorption and fluorescence energy (red shift). The smaller the dot is, the higher is its
absorption and fluorescence energy (blue shift). As bandgap increases due to quantum
confinement, the wavelength of light needs to be of higher energy (shorter wavelength) to be
absorbed by the bandgap of the material. The wavelength of the fluorescent light emitted from the
material also changes in the same manner (e.g., a blue shift in fluorescence is observed for smaller
quantum dots).
Figure 7:: Absorption wavelength in Nanomatrials
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2.2.3 Effect on Magnetic Properties
The quantum confinement has influence on magnetic behavior. In magnetic nanomaterials,
confinement primarily affects the magnetic domain structure and thermal stability of the
magnetization, leading to the emergence of superparamagnetism.
Figure 8: Magnetism in bulk Materials
In Bulk Ferromagnets (e.g., iron, cobalt, nickel), the material minimizes its total energy by dividing
into small regions called magnetic domains. Within each domain, the magnetic moments of all
atoms are aligned in the same direction, but the direction of magnetization varies from one domain
to another.
When an external magnetic field is applied, domains aligned with the field leading to a net
magnetization. When the field is removed, this results in a permanent magnet with high remanence
(remaining magnetization) and coercivity (resistance to being demagnetized).
The Nanoscale Picture: Single-Domain Particles and Superparamagnetism
When the size of a magnetic particle is reduced below a critical diameter (typically ~1-100 nm), it
becomes energetically unfavorable to form domain walls. The number of atom decreases and
surface effect become dominated. The restricted motion of electrons and the discreate energy levels
caused by the confinement directly influence spin orientation and magnetic moment, so the entire
nanoparticle becomes a single magnetic domain.
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