Zagazig University

Faculty of Engineering

VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER CYCLES

PREPARED BY
Professor
EMAD ZEDAN IBRAHIEM
Department of Mechanical Power
Engineering
VAPOR AND COMBINED POWER
CYCLES

BOILERS
What is a boiler?
boiler is a device used for generating,
(a) steam for power generation, process use or heating purposes
(b) hot water for heating purposes.

What is the difference between a steam boiler and a steam generator?

Technically speaking, a steam boiler consists of the containing vessel
and convection heating surfaces only, whereas a steam generator
covers the whole unit, encompassing water wall tubes, super heaters,
air heaters and economizers.
How are boilers classified?
The different ways to classify the boilers are as follows
1. According to location of boiler shell axis
a) Horizontal b) vertical
c) Inclined boilers.
When the axis of the boiler shell is horizontal the boiler is called
horizontal boiler.
Example: Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Babcock and Wilcox
boiler etc.
If the axis is vertical, the boiler is called vertical boiler
Example: Cochran boiler.
If the axis of the boiler is inclined, it is known as inclined boiler.
2. According to the flow medium inside the tubes
a) Fire tube
b) Water tube boilers.
The boiler in which hot flue gases are inside the tubes and water is
surrounding the tubes are called fire tube boilers.
Example: Lancashire, locomotive, Cochran and Cornish boilers
When water is inside the tubes and the hot gases are outside, the boiler
is called water tube boiler.
Example: Simple vertical boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
3. According to Boiler Pressure
According to pressure of the steam raised the boilers are classified as
follows;
a) Low pressure (3.5 - 10 bar) b) Medium pressure (10-25 bar)
c) High pressure boilers(> 25 bar)
Examples
Low pressure:
Cochran and Cornish boiler
Medium pressure:
Lancashire and Locomotive boiler
High pressure:
Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
4. According to the draft used
a) Natural draft b) Artificial draft boilers
Boilers need supply of air for combustion of fuel. If the circulation of air
is provided with the help of a chimney, the boiler is known as natural
draft boiler. When either a forced draft fan or an induced draft fan or
both are used to provide the flow of air the boiler is called artificial
draft boiler.
Examples
Natural draft boiler:
Simple vertical boiler, Lancashire boiler.
Artificial draft boiler:
Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Locomotive boiler.
5. According to Method of water circulation
a) Natural circulation
b) Forced circulation
If the circulation of water takes place due to difference in density caused
by temperature of water, the boiler is called natural circulation boiler.
When the circulation is done with the help of a pump the boiler is
known as forced circulation boiler.
Examples
Natural circulation:
Babcock & Wilcox boiler, Lancashire boiler
Forced circulation:
Velox boiler, Lamont boiler, Loffler boiler
6. According to Furnace position
a) Internally fired
b) Externally fired boilers
When the furnace of the boiler is inside its drum or shell, the boiler is
called internally fired boiler. If the furnace is outside the drum the
boiler is called externally fired boiler.
Examples
Internally fired boiler:
Simple vertical boiler Lancashire boiler, Cochran boiler
Externally fired boiler:
Babcock and Wilcox boiler
7. According to type of fuel used
a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Gaseous
d) Electrical
e) Nuclear energy fuel boilers
The boiler in which heat energy is obtained by the combustion of solid
fuel like coal or lignite is known as solid fuel boiler. A boiler using liquid
or gaseous fuel for burning is known as liquid or gaseous fuel boiler.
Boilers in which electrical or nuclear energy is used for generation of
heat are respectively called as electrical energy headed boilers and
nuclear energy heated boiler.
8. According to number of Tubes
a) Single-tube
b) Multi-tube boiler
A boiler having only one fire tube or water tube is called a single tube
boiler. The boiler having two or more, fire or water tubes is called multi
tube boiler.
Examples
Single tube boiler:
Cornish boiler, Vertical boiler.
Multi-tube boiler:
Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
9. According to Boiler Mobility
a) Stationary b) Portable
c) Marine boilers
When the boiler is fixed at one location and cannot be transported
easily it is known as stationary boiler. If the boiler can be moved from
one location to another it is known as a portable or mobile boiler. The
boilers which can work on the surface of water are called marine
boilers.
Examples
Stationary: Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler, vertical boiler
Portable: Locomotive boiler.
Marine: Marine boilers
Specification of a Boiler
Size of drum (Diameter and length)
Rate of steam generation(kg/hr)
Heating surface (Square meters)
Working pressure (bar)
No. of tubes / drum
Type of boiler
Manufacturer of boiler
Initial cost
Quality of steam
Repair and inspection facility
What is circulation?
It is the motion of the working fluid in the evaporating tubes. This
motion is effected by head or pressure difference in the working fluid
between the down comer and uptake (riser) tubes. The circulation may
be natural or forced and the circulation circuit formed by the heated
and unheated tubes may be a closed or open hydraulic system.

In natural (Fig.1) and forced multiple circulation boilers (Fig.2), the

circulation circuit is a closed hydraulic system. While a once- through
boiler represents an open-hydraulic system (Fig.3). In combined
circulation (Fig. 4) boilers, the plant operates on closed hydraulic system
at the start-up and is switched over to an open hydraulic system after
attaining the specified load.
In natural (Fig.1) and forced multiple circulation boilers (Fig.2), the
circulation circuit is a closed hydraulic system.

BFW : Boiler Feed Water

Fig.1

Natural circulation. It is a closed circuit in which the working fluid

circulates by virtue of its density difference
 BFW : Boiler Feed Water
Fig.2

Multiple forced circulation. It is a closed hydraulic system in which the

working fluid is circulated by forced circulation pump
How is natural circulation accomplished?

Fig. 3
The natural convection current is induced to water due to a difference in
density resulting from difference in temperature. The baffle separates
out the heated riser from the unheated down comer and therefore
creates a temperature difference between the two tube systems.
Saturated water flows down the unheated down comer and receives
heat in the riser where¬ upon a part of it gets converted into steam. The
difference in densities of saturated water in the down comer and the
steam-water mixer in the riser brings about natural circulation. (Fig. 3)

What is the limitation of natural circulation ?

It is applicable to all subcritical boilers, i.e. all those which are operating
at a pressure less than critical pressure.
boiler represents an open-hydraulic system (Fig.4).

Fig.4
BFW : Boiler Feed Water
Open-hydraulic circuit. This system is adopted for once-through boilers
In combined-circulation (Fig.5) boilers, the plant operates on closed
hydraulic system at the start-up and is switched over to an open
hydraulic system after attaining the specified load.

Fig.5

Combined circulation. It operates on closed hydraulic system at low load

and open hydraulic systems beyond specified load
What is forced circulation and what are the advantages of forced
circulation over natural circulation?
If the working fluid is forced through the boiler circuits by an external
pump, the ensuing circulation is called positive or forced circulation.
1. Steam generation rate is higher
2. Greater capacity to meet load variation
3. Quicker start-up quality from cold
4. Lower scaling problem due to high circulation velocity
5. More uniform heating of all parts reduces the danger of overheating
and thermal stresses
6. Smaller tube diameter and hence lighter tubes
7. Greater freedom in arrangement of furnace, boiler component and
tube layout
8. Operating temperature and pressure can be made to deviate from
the designed values.
What is circulation ratio?

It is the ratio of the mass flow rate of circulating water (Gfw) to the
rate of steam generation (Gs)

k = Gfw / Gs

What is the value of circulation ratio for natural circulation?

It usually ranges from 4 to 30.
What is the value of circulation ratio for forced circulation?
It ranges from 3 to 10.
What is the value of circulation ratio for once-through steam boilers?
Unity.
Why is the value of circulation ratio for once through boilers unity?
In such units, (Figs.6 and7) the entire feed-water is continuously
converted to steam as it passes through the evaporating surfaces.
Gfw = Gs

Fig.6

Fig.7
What is the difference between a closed hydraulic system and an open
hydraulic system?
The former features a drum that acts both as a reservoir to provide
working fluid circulation and separator to separate water from steam,
while the latter has no drum and the working fluid passes through the
evaporating tubes only once.

How can boilers be classified on the basis of furnace position?

Depending on the relative location of the furnace to the boiler, the
boiler classification can be made by:
1. Externally fired furnace
2. Internally fired furnace.
What is the difference between externally fired and internally fired
boilers?
In the case of externally fired boilers, the combustion of fuel takes place
in a chamber outside the boiler shell while in the case of internally fired
boilers, the combustion chamber is provided inside the boiler shell.

How can boilers be classified on the basis of tube contents?

Depending on whether the flue gas or water is in the tube side, boilers
can be classified as:
1. Fire tube boilers
2. Water tube boilers.
 Boiler
Fire Tube Boiler

Fig.8
Fig.9
Boiler Fire Tube Boiler

The boiler is named so because the production of combustion

pass through the tubes which are surrounded by water.

Depending on whether the tube is vertical or horizontal the fire

tube boiler is divided into two types:

1- Vertical tube boiler

2- Horizontal tube boiler

A fire tube boiler is simple ,compact and rugged in construction.

Its initial cost is low.

Some examples of fire tube boilers.
1. Locomotive boiler gas flow circuit
Locomotive boiler
Locomotive Fire-Tube Boiler
Features and characteristics
The locomotive boiler is:
1- internally fired, 2- horizontal,
3- multi-tubular, 4- fire tube,
5- natural circulation, 6- artificial draft,
7- portable boiler.
It is so designed that it is capable of meeting the sudden and
fluctuating demands of steam which may be imposed on it
because of variation of power and speed.
The steam pressure ranges from 12.6 bar to 21 bar and the
capacity varies from 900 to 4000 kg per hour.
Construction
It consists of a cylindrical steel shell or barrel with a rectangular
fire-box/furnace at the back end and a small smoke box at the
front end. The fire-box has a combustion chamber with fire grate
at the bottom. The fire box is water cooled on all the three sides
except the bottom. A fire door is provided in the fire box through
which coal is introduced into the grates. The fire brick arch in the
fire box is provided to deflect the flames and hot flue gases
upwards so that they come in close contact with the heating
surface of the fire box. Ash pit is provided under the grate for
depositing the ash
The horizontal fire tubes are placed longitudinally inside the shell
through which the hot gases pass from the furnace to the smoke
box. These tubes are always immersed in water. Some of these
tubes are of larger diameter and others of smaller diameter. The
super heater tubes of small diameter are placed inside the fire-
tubes of larger diameter. A smoke box door in front of the smoke
box gives access to fire tubes for cleaning, inspection and
repairing of the boiler.
Working
1- Path of Flue gas:
The hot gaseous products from fire box pass through the series of
fire tubes and pass out to the smoke box from where they go out
into the atmosphere through a short chimney. In this boiler the flue
gas complete its path only in one pass. During the travel of hot
gases from the grate to the chimney, they give heat to the water
and generate steam.
2- Path of steam flow:
The water is pumped into the boiler and heated through heating
surface of the boiler until steam is produced. The steam so
generated is collected over the water surface in the steam dome.
The dry saturated steam from steam dome is then supplied to the
steam engine by turning lever fitted in the cab. In order to get
super heated steam , the steam from steam dome is directed into
the super heaters tubes through the super heater header with the
help of a regulator and lever arrangement. The superheated
steam thus formed is supplied to the steam engine by a super
heater exit pipe attached to the super heater exit header.
3- Draft system:
Because the chimney is short, the draft produced by natural circulation is not
possible so the artificial draft has to the created to drive out the burnt [Link]
artificial draft is created by either motion of steam engine on rails or periodic
rush of spent steam from the steam engine or a blower is mounted at the inlet
of the chimney.
2. Cochran boiler
Cochran Fire-Tube Boiler
Features and characteristics
The Cochran boiler is
1- vertical, 2- multi tubular,
3- fire tube, 4- internally fired and
5- natural circulation boiler.
It is suitable for small plants requiring small quantities of steam
and where the floor area is limited.
These boilers are manufactured in 23 different sizes and are
easily transportable.
The shell diameter ranges from 0.9 m to a maximum of 2.75 m.
The following specifications are related to Cochran boiler having
2.75 m diameter shell:
1- Height of the shell = 5.78 m
2- Maximum evaporative capacity = 568 kg/h of steam from cold
feed when burning 36 to 40 kg/h of coal.
3- Economical rating = ¾ of the maximum
4- Heating surface = 120 m2
5- Steam pressure = 6.7 bar
Construction Details
It consists of a vertical cylindrical shell having dome shaped top
where the steam space is provided. The hemispherical shaped
furnace provided at the bottom most part of the boiler in which the
fuel is burnt on a grate. The ash pit is provided below the grate for
collecting ash after regular intervals. The hemispherical shape
furnace without a single weld or seam makes the furnace
strongest structure under compression and suitable to resist the
intense heat produced by the combustion of fuel.
In the furnace, a fire door and a damper is provided for feeding
coal to the grates and controlling the amount of air entering the
grate, respectively. Adjacent to the furnace, the boiler has a fire
brick lined combustion chamber which is connected to the furnace
through a small flue pipe. The furnace and a small flue pipe are
surrounded by water on all sides. After the combustion chamber a
number of horizontal, equally spaced fire tubes are provided. The
fire tubes are also completely surrounded by water. After
horizontal fire tubes smoke box is provided. After horizontal fire
tubes, a smoke box and a chimney are provided for the discharge
of the gases to the atmosphere. The smoke box is fitted with a
door for cleaning and in specting of fire tubes.
There are connections provided on the shell at appropriate places
for fixing the usual boiler mounting such as pressure gauge,
safety valve, feed check valve, blow off cock, steam stop valve,
and water level indicator etc. Different accessories are also
located at their proper place.
Working
1- Path of Flue gas:
The hot flue gases produced from the burning of the fuel in
furnace rise up and enter through the small flue pipe into the
combustion chamber. There after the hot flue gases pass through
the horizontal fire tubes and the smoke box before finally
discharged to the atmosphere through the chimney. The flue
gases during their travel from fire box to the chimney give its heat
to the surrounding water to generate steam. The path of hot flue
gas in the boiler is shown by arrows in Fig.
2- Path of steam flow:
The feed water is supplied uniformly to the shell controlled by a feed check
valve. When the boiler is heated, the cold water in the shell courses down and
hot water rises up between the fire tubes by natural circulation due to
convection current and the steam is generated and collected in the steam
space over the water surface of the shell. The circulation of water in the shell is
shown by arrows in Fig. The steam collected in the steam space then passes
through the anti priming pipe where most of the water particles present in the
steam are removed.

3- Draft system:
In this the draft is produced by natural circulation of air and gas usually done
naturally with the help of a chimney.
 Summary

COCHRAN BOILER
It is a Vertical drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, multi
tubular, low pressure, solid fuel fired fire tube boiler with internally
located furnace.
Constructional details:
It consists of ;
1- Shell:
It is hemispherical on the top, where space is provided for steam.
2- Crate:
It is placed at the bottom of the furnace where coal is burnt.
3- Fire box:
It is also dome-shaped like the shell so that the gases can be
deflected back till they are passed out through the flue pipe to the
combustion chamber.
4- Flue pipe:
It is a short passage connecting the fire box with the combustion
chamber.
5- Fire tubes:
A number of horizontal fire tubes are provided
6- Combustion chamber:
It is lined with fire bricks on the side of the shell to prevent
overheating of the boiler. Hot gases enter the fire tubes from the
flue pipe through the combustion chamber.
7- Chimney:
It is provided for the exit of the flue gases to the atmosphere from
the smoke box.
8- Man-hole:
It is provided for inspection and repair of the interior of the boiler
shell.

Normal size of a Cochran boiler is given by;

Shell diameter – 2.75 meters and Height of the shell – 6 meters.
Advantages of Cochran Boiler
1- Low initial installation cost.
2- It requires less floor area.
3- Easy to operate and handle.
4- Transportation of Cochran boiler is easy.
5- It can use all types of fuel.
Disadvantages of Cochran Boiler
1- Low rate of steam generation.
2- Inspection and maintenance is difficult.
3- High room head is required for its installation due to the vertical
design.
4- It has limited pressure range.
Applications of Cochran Boiler

1- Variety of process applications in industries

2- Chemical processing divisions

3- Pulp and Paper manufacturing plants

4- Refining units
Water Tube Boiler

Fig.10
Water Tube Boiler In this boiler, the water flows inside the tubes

and hot gases flow outside the tube .

Water tube boiler are classified as

1- Vertical tube boiler

2- Horizontal tube boiler

3- Inclined tube boiler

The circulation of water in the boiler is may be natural or forced.

Some examples of water tube boilers.

LA MONT BOILER
La Mont boiler is a high pressure, forced circulation, water tube boiler with
internally fired furnace. An external pump is used to circulate the water within
small diameter water tubes of the boiler.

The feed water from hot well is circulated through the water walls and
drums continuously and prevents tubes from being overheated. The feed water
first passes through economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the
feed water passing through the economizer. This water enters the boiler drum.
A water circulation pump draws water from the drum and delivers to the tubes
of the evaporating section, where water is heated in large number of small-
diameter tubes and a mixture is stored in the drum. the convective super heater
water draws wet steam from the drum and heats the steam for its super
heating. The superheated steam is supplied to prime mover. La Mont boiler
generates approximately 45 to 50 tones of steam per hour at a pressure of 13
bar and a temperature of 500°C.
This boiler works on basic principle of forced convection. If the water is
circulating by a pump inside the tube, the heat transfer rate from gas to the
water is increases. It is the basic principle of it.
Working
1- In Lamont boiler, the feed pump circulates the water in the economiser of the
boiler. The economiser heats the water to some degree. From economiser,
water enters into steam separating drum.
2- From steam separating drum the mixture of water and steam is forced
circulated through the radiant evaporator by an external centrifugal pump. In
forced circulation, the pressure of circulation of water through the tubes is more
as compared with the natural circulation.
3- Radiant evaporator heats the water and changes it into steam. Form radiant
evaporator the water-steam mixture passes through the convective evaporator.
Here the temperature of the fluid increase and most the water gets converted
into saturated steam. And after that the saturated steam enters into the steam
separator drum.
4- The steam separator drum as names indicates separates the steam from
water. The steam gets collected at the upper portion of the drum. From steam
separator drum, steam passes through the super heater. The super heater
increases the temperature of the steam to the desired level. And finally the
superheated steam is either transfer to the steam collecting drum or made to
strike on the blades of the turbine.
5- The working pressure, temperature and capacity of this boiler is 170 bar, 773
K and 50 tonnes/hour.
Advantages:
1. It is a high pressure boiler.
2. It is flexible in design.
3. This boiler can be reassembled into natural circulation boiler.
4. It can be easily started.
5. It has high steam generation capacity of about 50 tonnes/
hour.
6. This boiler has higher heat transfer rate.
Disadvantages:
There is a bubble formation at surfaces of the tubes in this
boiler. This reduces the heat transfer rate to the steam
Babcock Wilcox Boiler
Babcock Wilcox Water-Tube Boiler
Features and characteristics
This boiler is
1- a stationary
2- longitudinal drum,
3- externally fired,
4- natural circulation,
5- water tube boiler.
It is suitable for all types of fuels. Evaporative capacity in this
boiler ranges form 1800 to 40,000 kg/h. Operating pressures
ranges from 11.5 to 17.5 bar. But the operating pressures may be
as high as 42 bar.
Construction
The details of a Babcock Wilcox water tube boiler is shown in Fig.
It consists of a steam water drum and several inclined straight
water tubes. The inclined water tubes are connected with steam
water drum with the uptake and down-take header. The water
tubes mainly contain water and are kept inclined at 5 to 15
degrees to promote water circulation. The whole assembly of
water tubes, headers and drum is hung in a room made of
masonry work and lined with fire resistance fire bricks. Below the
uptake header the furnace of the boiler is arranged. A fire door is
provided in the front brick work of furnace through which the coal
is fed to the grates where its combustion takes place.
There is bridge wall deflector which deflects the combustion gases
upwards. As the position of water tubes and bottom of the drum is
above the furnace, the outer surface of the tubes and half of the
cylindrical surface of the steam water drum is exposed to flue
gases. To have three passes of flue gas on the water tubes, two
baffles are arranged across the water tubes to act as deflectors for
the flue gases. A chimney with damper at the inlet is provided for
the exit of the gases and to regulate the draft. The superheating
tubes are arranged above the water tubes for producing
superheated steam.
A mud box is attached to the bottom of down-take header to
remove foreign matter from the water. A clean outdoor is provided
in the brick wall so that access to the interior of boiler can be
made to clean outside of the water tubes. Connections for other
mountings and accessories are also provided on the steam water
drum.
Working
1- Path of Flue gas:
The hot gases from the furnace first rise upwards and then go
down and then rise up again out side the water tube before it
finally come out in the atmosphere through the chimney. The flow
path of hot gases is shown by the arrows outside the tubes.
2- Path of steam-water circulation:
Feed water is supplied into the drum by a feed water inlet pipe. As
the water in the water tube near the uptake header comes in
contact with the hot gases at higher temperature, that portion of
water gets evaporated. As a result the mixture of hot water and
steam from this portion of the tube rises in the uptake header and
then arrives in the steam water drum. In the steam drum, the
steam vapors escape the water surface and collected in the upper
half of the drum. On other hand, the cold water flows from the
drum to the water tubes through the down-take header. Thus a
continuous natural cycle of water in boiler is completed.
3- Super heater arrangement:
When superheated steam is desired to be produced, the steam
accumulated in the steam space in the drum is allowed to enter
into the super heater tubes via anti priming pipe. The flue gases
passing over the super heater tubes produce superheated steam.
The superheated steam from super heater tube is then finally
supplied to the work generating device through a steam stop
valve.
4- Draft system:
The supply of air to the grate is usually done naturally with the
help of a chimney.
Fig.11
Fig.12
Fig.13
Fig.14
 Water Circulation
The circulation of boiler water (Fig.15) is based on the principle of
convection. A fluid that is heated expands and becomes less
dense, moving upward through heavier, denser fluid. Convection
and conduction transfer heat through pipe walls and water
currents, resulting in unequal densities. Cold water flows through
the down comer to the bottom of the mud drum and then flows
upward through the riser (water wall tubes) as it is heated. In a
water tube boiler, circulation occurs because the temperature of
the fluid in the down comer is always lower than the temperature
in the boiler and generating (riser) tubes. Steam bubbles are
formed as the liquid temperature continues to increase.
Fig. 15 Water circulation.
These bubbles increase the circulation as they move up the riser
tubes. The pressure builds as the water vapor collects in the
upper drum. Each time the water passes through the tubes, it
picks up more heat energy. As the pressure increases, the boiling
point of the water increases. When the target pressure is
achieved, steam is delivered to the steam header. To maintain
this pressure, makeup water must be added, heat must be
continually applied, and circulation must be controlled. In a fire
tube boiler, the water level in the boiler shell must be maintained
above the tubes to prevent overheating of the tubes. Superheated
Water tube boilers (shown in Figure 15) are so-called because they

contain water-filled tubes that allow water to circulate through a heated

firebox. Water tube boilers have upper and lower drums connected by

tubes. The upper drum is the steam drum, and the lower drum is the

mud drum. Chemicals are added to the boiler feed water that enters

these drums in order to prevent fouling and corrosion.

WATER TUBE BOILER COMPONENTS
The heating portion of a boiler is similar to that of a furnace. Like
furnaces, boilers contain a firebox where the burners are located
and radiant heat transfer occurs. A special refractory lining (a
bricklike form of insulation) is used to reflect heat back into the
box and protect the structural steel in the boiler. Located in the
firebox area of the boiler are radiant tubes. Radiant tubes and riser
tubes both contain boiler feed water that is heated by radiant heat
from the burners and boiled to form steam that is returned to the
steam drum.
Burners
Devices that introduce, distribute, mix, and burn a fuel (e.g.,
natural gas, fuel oil, or coal) for heat. Pilots are used to light
burners. A burner can be a premix burner (fuel gas and air mixed
before either enters the burner tip), a raw gas burner (gas not
premixed with air), or a combination.
Air registers
Control the flow of air to the burners to maintain the correct fuel-to-
air ratio and to reduce smoke, soot, or NOx (nitrogen oxide) and
CO (carbon monoxide) formation.
Draft fan
used to control draft in a boiler. Depending on the design of the
boiler, the draft fan either forces the air through the boiler
(forced draft) or pulls the air through the boiler (induced draft). In
some boilers, a combination of the two is used (balanced draft).
Water tube boilers
have a stack at the top of the boiler to remove flue gas.
Contained within the stack is a damper for regulating the flow of
flue gases. A steam drum at the top of the boiler is where all
generated steam gathers before exiting the boiler. Depending on
the boiler design, water enters the steam drum or the mud drum
from the economizer.
At the bottom of the boiler is the mud drum, where sediment
accumulates. This sediment is removed by intermittent blowdown,
which is done manually.
Down comers
Tubes that transfer water from the steam drum to the mud drum.
As cooler water descends from the steam drum and flows through
the down comers, it picks up heat from the firebox and
replenishes the water supply to the mud drum. Riser tubes allow
water or steam from the lower drum to move to the upper drum.
Super heater
is a set of tubes located toward the boiler outlet that increases
(superheats) the temperature of the steam flow. The steam drum
usually is connected to the super heater through a coil or pipe.
Desuper heater
is a temperature control point at the outlet of the boiler steam flow
that maintains a specific steam temperature by using boiler feed
water injection through a control valve. The purpose of the de
super heater is to lower the temperature of the steam.
 SUMMARY
Radiant tubes
tubes containing boiler feed water that are heated by radiant heat
from the burners and boiled to form steam that is returned to the
steam drum.
Burners
devices that introduce, distribute, mix, and burn a fuel (e.g.,
natural gas, fuel oil, or coal) for heat.
Pilot
an initiating device used to ignite the burner fuel.
Premix burner
a device that mixes fuel gas with air before either enters the
burner tip. Raw gas burner a burner in which gas has not been
premixed with air.
Air registers
devices that control the flow of air to the burners to maintain the
correct fuel-to-air ratio
and to reduce smoke, soot, or Nox (nitrogen oxide) and CO
(carbon monoxide) formation.
Draft fan
a fan used to control draft in a boiler.
Stack
an opening at the top of the boiler that is used to remove flue gas.
Damper
a movable plate that regulates the flow of air or flue gases in
boilers.
Down comers
tubes that transfer water from the steam drum to the mud drum.
Riser tubes
tubes that allow water or steam from the lower drum to move to
the upper drum.
Super heater
tubes located near the boiler outlet that increase (superheat) the
temperature of the steam.
De super heater
a system that controls the temperature of steam leaving a boiler
by using water injection through a control valve.
Waste heat boiler
a device that uses waste heat from a process to produce steam.
Mud drum
The lower drum in a boiler; serves as a settling point for solids in
the boiler feed water. Steam drum the top drum of a boiler where
all of the generated steam is collected before entering the
distribution system.
Blow down
The process of taking water out of a boiler to reduce the
concentration level of impurities. There are two types of blow
down, continuous and intermittent.
Economizer
The section of a boiler used to preheat feed water before it enters
the main boiler system.
What are the comparative advantages and disadvantages of
fire tube and watertube boilers ?
Components of a Thermal Power Plant
Reheaters
Superheater and Reheaters
Superheater
Superheater

Super heated steam is that steam which contains more heat than

the saturated steam at the same pressure. The additional heat

provide more energy to the turbine hence power out put is more.

The function of the super heater is to remove the last trash of

moisture from the saturated steam. Superheated steam causes

lesser erosion of the turbine blades and can be transmitted for

longer distance with little heat loss. A super heater may be

convention type, radiant type or combination.

Reheaters

In addition to super heater modern boiler has re heater also. The

function of the re heater is to superheat the partly expanded

steam from the turbine, this ensure that The steam remain dry

through the last stage of the turbine. A re heater may be

convention type, radiant type or combination.

Reheaters
Feed Water Heaters

Feed Water heating improve overall efficiency. The dissolved

oxygen which would otherwise cause boiler corrosion are

removed in the feed water heater. Thermal stresses due to cold

water entering the boiler drum are avoided. Quantity of steam

produced by the boiler is increased. Some other impurities

carried by steam and condensate, due to corrosion in boiler and

condenser, are precipitated outside the boiler.

Economizer
Economizer
Boilers are provided with economizer and air pre-heaters to
recover heat from the flue gases. An increase of about 20% in
boiler efficiency is achieved by providing both economizer and air
pre-heaters. Economizer alone gives only 8% efficiency increase.
The feed water from the high pressure heaters enters the
economizer and picks up heat from the flue gases after the low
temperature super heater. Economizer can be classified as an
inline or staggered arrangement based on the type of tube
arrangement.
Air Preheaters
DE aerators

A de aerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of

oxygen and other dissolved gases from the feed water to steam-

generating boilers. In particular, dissolved oxygen in boiler feed

waters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systems by

attaching to the walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment

and forming oxides (rust).

There are two basic types of de aerators,

1. the tray-type 2. the spray-type

De aerators

The tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical

domed de aeration section mounted on top of a horizontal

cylindrical vessel which serves as the de aerated boiler feed water

storage tank. The spray-type consists only of a horizontal

(or vertical) cylindrical vessel which serves as both the d

De aerators
De aerators
De aerators
What is equivalent evaporation?
It is the quantity of water evaporated from and at 100°C to
produce dry saturated steam at 100°C by absorbing the same
amount of heat as used in the boiler under actual operating
conditions.
What is the factor of evaporation ?
It is the factor to be multiplied with the quantity of steam
generated under working conditions to get the equivalent
evaporation.
What is boiler efficiency?
It is the ratio of the heat load of the generated steam to the heat
supplied by the fuel over the same period.
What is economizer efficiency?
It is defined as the ratio of the heat absorbed by the BFW in the
economizer to the heat supplied by the flue gases in the
economizer, the temperature of flue gases being reckoned above
the temperature of the air supplied to the boiler.
Problem 1
A boiler generates 4.5 t of super heated steam (500°C, 90 kgf /cm abs.) per ton
of coal feed. The BFW temperature = 45°C
What is the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per ton of coal?
Problem 2
A steam boiler generates 7.5 tons of steam per ton of coal burned.
Calculate the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per ton of
coal from the following data:
Steam pressure = 10 kgf/cm .abs.
Dryness fraction = 0.95
Feed water temperature = 50°C
Problem 3
A boiler is working at 14 bar and evaporates 8.5 kg of water per kg of coal fired
from the BFW entering at 39°C. Determine the equivalent evaporation from and
at 100°C if the steam is 0.96 dry at the stop valve.
Problem 4
A boiler produces 220 t of dry saturated steam per hour at a
pressure 60 kgf/cm , abs. from feed water at a temperature of
120°C.
Coal consumption = 1200 t/day
Calorific value of coal = 4200 kcal/kg
1 % of coal escapes un burnt.
Determine
(a) the equivalent evaporation per ton of coal fired
(b) the efficiency of the boiler
(c) the overall efficiency of the boiler
Problem 5
A boiler consumes 224 tons of coal to produce 1864 tons of steam
per day. The steam is dry, saturated at 90 atm. absolute.
Calculate the boiler thermal efficiency, and the equivalent
evaporation per ton of coal if the calorific value of coal is 5400
kcal/kg of coal, the specific enthalpy of feed water being 425.036
kJ/kg of water.
Problem 6
A boiler generates 7.5 tons of steam per hour at 18 bar
(1 bar = 105 N/m2). The steam temperature is 598 K and the feed
water temperature is 328 K. When fired with oil of calorific value
47250 kJ/kg, the boiler plant achieves an efficiency of 85%. The
generated steam is fed to drive a turbine which develops 0.75 MW
and exhausts at 1.8 bar, the dryness fraction of the steam being
0.97.
Determine the rate of fuel consumption and the fraction of
enthalpy drop, through turbine, converted to useful work.
If the turbine exhaust is directed for process heating, estimate the
heat transfer available per ton of exhaust steam above 322.4 K.
Process Technician’s Role in
Operation and Maintenance