1. What is matter wave ?
Write the properties and physical
significance of matter waves ?
Ans. Matter Wave
The concept of matter waves was introduced by Louis de Broglie in 1924.
According to de Broglie, particles such as electrons exhibit both wave-like and
particle-like properties. This wave-like behavior is called a matter wave or de
Broglie wave. De Broglie proposed that every moving particle, no matter how
small or large, can be associated with a wave, and this wave has a wavelength
inversely proportional to the particle's momentum.
The de Broglie wavelength (λ) of a particle is given by the relation:
λ = h / p = h / mv
Where:
λ is the wavelength,
h is Planck's constant (6.626 × 10^-34 J·s),
m is the mass of the particle,
v is its velocity,
p = mv is its momentum.
This relationship implies that smaller particles, like electrons, have much
shorter wavelengths compared to macroscopic objects, making the wave
nature of larger objects unnoticeable.
Properties of Matter Waves:
1. Wave-Particle Duality:
o Matter exhibits both wave and particle characteristics. For
example, an electron can behave as a particle in some situations
but show interference and diffraction patterns like a wave in
others.
2. Wavelength:
o The wavelength of a matter wave is inversely proportional to the
momentum of the particle. This means that the greater the
momentum, the shorter the wavelength.
3. Interference and Diffraction:
o Like light waves, matter waves can undergo interference and
diffraction. Experiments like electron diffraction demonstrate that
particles such as electrons show wave-like behavior under certain
conditions.
4. Probability Interpretation:
o The wave associated with a particle represents a probability wave.
The square of the wave function gives the probability density of
finding the particle at a particular location. This idea is central to
quantum mechanics.
Physical Significance:
1. Foundation of Quantum Mechanics:
o The concept of matter waves was crucial for the development of
quantum mechanics, which describes particles' behavior
probabilistically rather than deterministically.
2. Electron Behavior in Atoms:
o Electrons in atoms can be treated as standing waves, which leads
to the quantization of energy levels in atoms.
3. Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle:
o The wave nature of particles is linked to the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, which states that the more precisely the
position of a particle is known, the less precisely its momentum
can be known.
2. What do you mean by De-broglie wave and wavelength ?
De Broglie Wave and Wavelength
The de Broglie wave and wavelength are concepts from wave-particle duality,
proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1924. According to this theory, particles, like
electrons, exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behavior.
1. De Broglie Wave:
o De Broglie suggested that every moving particle, such as an
electron, can be associated with a wave.
o This wave represents the wave-like behavior of the particle.
o This idea is part of the principle of wave-particle duality, which
states that particles (usually thought of as "matter") also have
wave properties, just like light.
2. De Broglie Wavelength:
o The de Broglie wavelength (λ) is the wavelength associated with a
moving particle. It is related to the particle's momentum (mass ×
velocity).
o The formula for de Broglie wavelength is:
λ=h / p
Where:
h is Planck's constant (6.626×10-34 J⋅s)
p is the momentum of the particle (p=mv , where m is
mass and v is velocity).
o This means that a particle with more momentum (faster or
heavier) will have a shorter wavelength, and a particle with less
momentum will have a longer wavelength.
3. Example:
o For tiny particles like electrons, the de Broglie wavelength can be
large enough to be observed in experiments like electron
diffraction.
o For larger objects like a baseball, the wavelength is so small that it
cannot be detected.
4. Implications:
o The concept of de Broglie waves is essential for understanding
quantum mechanics.
o It explains phenomena such as electron diffraction and is used in
technologies like electron microscopes.
3. Derive Schrödinger's time independent and dependent ?
4. What is laser ? Write its application and its properties ?
Ans. A Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a
device that produces a highly focused, coherent, and intense beam of light
through the process of stimulated emission of radiation. The light produced by
a laser is monochromatic (single wavelength), coherent (waves are in phase),
and directional (narrowly focused beam).
How Does a Laser Work?
The basic principle of laser operation involves three key processes:
1. Population Inversion: This occurs when a large number of atoms or
molecules are excited to a higher energy state, creating more particles in
the excited state than in the lower energy state.
2. Stimulated Emission: When an excited atom or molecule is hit by a
photon of the same energy as the energy difference between the excited
state and the lower state, it emits another photon of the same
wavelength, phase, and direction.
3. Optical Resonance: The photons bounce back and forth between mirrors
(in the laser cavity), amplifying the light with each pass through the
medium. One mirror is partially reflective, allowing some of the light to
escape as a coherent beam.
Properties of Laser Light
Laser light has several unique properties that distinguish it from ordinary light:
1. Monochromatic: Laser light consists of a single wavelength or color. This
is a result of the light being emitted at a specific frequency.
o Example: Red lasers often emit light at 650 nm (nanometers).
2. Coherence: Laser light is coherent, meaning the light waves are in phase
both spatially and temporally. Spatial coherence allows the light to stay
focused in a small beam, and temporal coherence means the light
remains consistent over time.
3. Directionality: Lasers emit light in a highly directional beam. The beam is
narrow and focused, unlike regular light sources which emit light in all
directions.
4. High Intensity: Laser light is highly concentrated, making it very intense
compared to ordinary light. This high intensity is a result of the light
being highly collimated (parallel light waves) and coherent.
5. Monochromatic and Narrow Bandwidth: Since laser light is typically
emitted at a very specific wavelength, it has a very narrow spectral
bandwidth, making it different from the broad spectrum of most light
sources.
Applications of Lasers
Lasers have a wide range of applications across various fields due to their
unique properties. Some of the most common applications include:
1. Communication:
o Fiber Optic Communication: Lasers are used in optical fibers for
transmitting data over long distances with high speed and low
loss. Fiber optics is crucial for internet communication and
telecommunication.
2. Medical Applications:
o Surgery: Lasers are used for precise cutting and cauterizing in
surgical procedures. They are especially important in eye surgeries
like LASIK (Laser-Assisted in Situ Keratomileusis) for vision
correction.
o Cancer Treatment: Lasers are used to target and destroy cancer
cells in certain types of cancer treatments.
o Diagnostics: Lasers are used in medical imaging, such as in
endoscopes and laser spectroscopy to analyze biological samples.
3. Manufacturing and Industry:
o Laser Cutting and Welding: Lasers are used for cutting, engraving,
and welding materials, including metals and plastics. The high
precision of lasers allows for fine, intricate work in manufacturing.
o Laser Marking: Lasers are also used for marking products with
serial numbers or logos in manufacturing processes.
4. Laser Printers and Scanners:
o Laser Printers: Lasers are used in laser printers to create high-
quality printed documents by projecting an image onto a
photosensitive drum.
o Barcode Scanners: Laser scanners are commonly used in retail and
inventory management for reading barcodes.
5. Entertainment:
o Laser Shows: Lasers are used in light shows for entertainment,
concerts, and events due to their bright and colorful light effects.
o CD/DVD/Blu-ray Players: Lasers are used to read the data stored
on optical discs such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.
6. Military and Defense:
o Laser-guided Missiles: Lasers are used to guide missiles to their
targets with high precision.
o Laser Rangefinding: Lasers are used to measure distances
accurately, which is useful in navigation, artillery targeting, and
surveying.
o Directed Energy Weapons: Research is ongoing into the
development of laser weapons that can disable or destroy targets
at long range using concentrated laser beams.
7. Scientific Research:
o Spectroscopy: Lasers are used in a variety of spectroscopy
techniques to analyze substances based on the light they absorb
or emit.
o Laser Microscopy: Lasers are used in confocal microscopy and
fluorescence microscopy to observe tiny structures, cells, and
tissues at high resolution.
5. Explain :-
a) Spontaneous Absorption
b) Spontaneous Emission
c) Stimulated Emission
Ans.
a) Spontaneous Absorption
Spontaneous absorption occurs when an electron in an atom or molecule
absorbs a photon (a particle of light) and transitions from a lower energy state
to a higher energy state. This process happens without any external influence
or interaction with other photons.
Key Points:
A photon of a specific energy (equal to the energy gap between the two
states) is absorbed by the electron.
The electron absorbs the photon and moves from a lower energy state
(E1) to a higher energy state (E2).
This process is spontaneous in the sense that it happens as soon as the
right photon interacts with the atom or molecule, without needing an
external energy source.
Equation (for absorption):
Ephoton = E2− E1
Where:
Ephoton is the energy of the absorbed photon,
E2 is the higher energy level,
E1 is the lower energy level.
Example:
When an atom absorbs light, say from the visible spectrum, an electron may
jump from a ground state to a higher excited state. This energy corresponds to
the wavelength of light being absorbed. For instance, in a gas discharge lamp,
electrons in atoms may absorb energy from photons and jump to higher levels.
b) Spontaneous Emission
Spontaneous emission is the process in which an electron in an excited state
(higher energy level) spontaneously loses energy and falls to a lower energy
state, emitting a photon in the process. This photon has energy equal to the
difference between the two energy levels involved in the transition.
Key Points:
This is a random process, meaning the electron does not require any
external photon to induce the emission.
The photon emitted has a specific wavelength corresponding to the
energy difference between the two levels, and it is emitted in a random
direction.
The process occurs without any external influence, hence the term
spontaneous.
Equation (for spontaneous emission):
Ephoton = E2−E1
Where:
Ephoton is the energy of the emitted photon,
E2 is the initial, excited energy level,
E1 is the final, lower energy level.
Example:
In a fluorescent light, atoms in a phosphor material are excited by an external
source of energy (like UV light). After some time, the excited atoms lose energy
by emitting visible light (photons). This emitted light is a result of spontaneous
emission.
c) Stimulated Emission
Stimulated emission occurs when an electron in an excited state interacts with
an external photon of the same energy as the energy difference between the
two states, causing the electron to fall to a lower energy level. As the electron
drops, it emits a second photon that has the same energy, phase, direction,
and polarization as the incoming photon. This results in amplified light.
Key Points:
Stimulated emission requires an external photon to trigger the emission.
The photon causes the electron to drop from a higher energy state to a
lower one.
The emitted photon is coherent with the stimulating photon, meaning
they have the same wavelength, phase, and direction.
This is the process used in lasers for producing coherent light.
Equation (for stimulated emission):
Ephoton = E2 − E1
Where:
Ephoton is the energy of the emitted photon,
E2 is the initial energy level (excited state),
E1 is the lower energy level.
Example:
In a laser, a population of atoms or molecules is excited to a higher energy
state (population inversion). When these excited atoms encounter photons
with energy equal to the energy gap between the two states, they undergo
stimulated emission, producing more photons of the same energy. This
process is repeated to amplify the light, creating a highly coherent and intense
beam.
6. Explain construction and working of He-Ne-Laser and Ruby
laser?
Ans.
He-Ne-Laser
The Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser is a type of gas laser that has been widely used
for various applications due to its coherent and monochromatic output. This
article explores the construction, working principle, applications, and energy
level diagram of the He-Ne laser in detail.
Construction:
The He-Ne laser typically consists of the following components:
Gas Tube: The laser tube is a sealed glass container filled with a mixture of
helium and neon gases. The tube is carefully constructed to maintain the purity
of the gas mixture.
Mirrors: The ends of the laser tube have two mirrors – one highly reflective (HR
mirror) and the other partially transparent (output coupler). These mirrors
form an optical cavity, providing the feedback necessary for laser action.
Electrodes: Electrodes are used to apply a high voltage to the gas mixture,
causing the excitation of the helium and neon atoms.
The working principle of the He-Ne laser involves several steps:
Gas Excitation: High voltage applied to the electrodes excites the helium
atoms, causing electrons to move to higher energy levels. These excited helium
atoms then transfer their energy to neon atoms.
Population Inversion: The energy transfer results in a population inversion in
the neon atoms, where more atoms are in higher energy states than in lower
energy states.
Stimulated Emission: Photons collide with excited atoms, stimulating the
emission of additional photons with the same energy, phase, and direction.
This process leads to the generation of coherent light.
Optical Cavity: The mirrors at the ends of the tube create an optical cavity.
Photons generated by stimulated emission bounce back and forth between the
mirrors, amplifying and aligning into a coherent beam of light that exits
through the partially transparent mirror.
Energy Level Diagram:
The energy level diagram of a He-Ne laser illustrates the energy levels of
helium and neon atoms involved in the lasing process. It typically includes the
ground state, excited states, and the energy levels corresponding to the laser
transition. The specific energy levels are dependent on the characteristics of
the helium and neon atoms in the laser tube. The transition from higher to
lower energy states corresponds to the emission of laser light, contributing to
the coherent output of the He-Ne laser.
Applications:
He-Ne lasers find applications in various fields:
Research and Education: Commonly used in laboratories and educational
institutions for experiments and demonstrations due to their stable output.
Alignment Tasks: Preferred for precision alignment in industries and research
environments owing to their visible and coherent light.
Holography: He-Ne lasers are crucial in holography due to their coherent and
monochromatic characteristics.
Medical Instruments: Used in medical equipment, such as blood flow meters,
for their ability to produce a stable and visible beam.
Bar Code Scanners: Older generations of bar code scanners utilized He-Ne
lasers for their coherent output, which is suitable for barcode scanning
applications.
Ruby Laser
Ruby laser is a solid-state laser that was developed by Maiman in 1960 using
Ruby as an active medium. It operates on the principle of stimulated
emission to produce a coherent and monochromatic beam of light.
Ruby is a crystal of Aluminum oxide. In which a part of the aluminum ion is
substituted by chromium ion.
The active material in the Ruby is chromium ion. That is the energy level of
chromium Ion takes part in the lasing action.
Ruby Laser Diagram
Principle of Ruby Laser
The working principle of a Ruby Laser is based on the process of stimulated
emission. This involves the excitation of chromium atoms in a ruby crystal, the
creation of a population inversion, the introduction of a photon to stimulate
the release of energy, and the amplification and refinement of the laser beam
through an optical resonator.
Ruby Laser Wavelength
The Ruby Laser emits laser light in the red region of the electromagnetic
spectrum, having a wavelength of approximately 694.3 nanometers (nm).
Ruby Laser Construction and Working
Construction of Ruby Laser
A ruby laser constructs of three main parts:
Laser medium or gain medium in ruby laser or An active material ( or
laser medium).
Pump source or energy source in ruby laser. A present and system made
of two parallel plates with a reflecting coating applied on them.
Optical resonator – An exciting system usually made up of helical xenon.
Flash tubes for achieving population inversion and a power supply
source.
Ruby is a crystal of Aluminum oxide. In which a part of the aluminum ion is
substituted by chromium ion. The active material in the Ruby is chromium ion.
That is the energy level of chromium Ion takes part in the lasing action. The
color (pink or red) of a Ruby crystal depends upon the amount of chromium in
it.
Component Description
The gain medium of the Ruby Laser is a synthetic ruby crystal
Ruby (Al2O3:Cr3+), which is typically cylindrical in shape and is doped with
crystal chromium atoms. The size and quality of the ruby crystal determine
the power and efficiency of the laser.
The flashlamp is the source of energy that excites the chromium atoms
Flashlamp in the ruby crystal. The flashlamp is typically a high-intensity xenon
lamp that emits short pulses of light in the visible or ultraviolet range.
The optical resonator consists of two mirrors placed at the ends of the
ruby crystal. The mirrors reflect the photons back and forth through
Optical
the crystal, which amplifies and refines the laser beam. One mirror is
resonator
fully reflective, while the other is partially reflective to allow some of
the laser light to exit the resonator.
The Ruby Laser generates a significant amount of heat during
operation, which can damage the crystal and reduce the efficiency of
Cooling
the laser. Therefore, a cooling system is required to dissipate the heat
system
and maintain the temperature of the crystal. Typically, a water-cooling
system is used to cool the ruby crystal and the flashlamp.
The construction of a Ruby Laser involves several components:
Working of Ruby Laser
The Ruby rod is arranged along the axis of a helical xenon flash tube. In such a
manner that the will of the helix encloses the rod. The flash of the tube lasts
several milliseconds.
During this period of time, the tube absorbs energy amounting to Several
thousand joules and most of the energy is spent on heating the Apparatus.
This heat produced is removed by liquid nitrogen circulating around the Ruby
rod. The remaining part of the energy in the form of blue and green radiation is
absorbed by the Ruby. This energy ensures the excitation of chromium Ion from
the ground state to the excited energy state for achieving population inversion.
Energy level diagram of Ruby Laser
The optical pumping result when incident photons of wavelength 5500Å. Raise
the chromium Ion from ground state E1 to higher excited state E3. These iron
interact with the crystal lattice and decay to metastable state E2 by
spontaneous emission where they can stay for a longer period (3 x 10–3sec)
Producing population inversion.
That is, the number of chromium ions in the energy state E2 ( metastable
state) is more than the number of chromium ions in excited energy state E3.
Hence, population inversion is achieve by optical pumping source.
7. Write short notes on optical pumping ,population inversion,
optical resonator.
Ans.
Optical Pumping
Optical pumping is a process used to transfer energy to the atoms or
molecules of a laser medium. This process involves the absorption of
light (usually from a lamp or another laser) by the medium. When
the medium absorbs this light, electrons within the atoms are excited
from a lower energy level to a higher energy level. This excitation is
crucial for achieving the conditions necessary for laser operation,
specifically for reaching a state where population inversion can occur.
Population Inversion
Population inversion is a condition in which the number of atoms or
molecules in an excited energy state exceeds the number in a lower
energy state. This is the opposite of the normal situation (Boltzmann
distribution) where more particles are in the ground state than in
excited states. Population inversion is essential for laser operation
because it allows for the process of stimulated emission to dominate
over absorption. In this state, photons passing through the medium
can stimulate the emission of additional photons, leading to the
amplification of light and the creation of a coherent laser beam.
Optical Resonator
An optical resonator, also known as an optical cavity, is a set of
mirrors that forms the core of a laser. It typically consists of two
mirrors placed facing each other, with the laser medium positioned in
between. One mirror is fully reflective, while the other is partially
reflective. The resonator serves to reflect photons back and forth
through the laser medium, effectively amplifying the light through
repeated stimulated emission. This configuration ensures that the
light remains coherent and monochromatic, which are essential
properties of laser light. The partially reflective mirror allows a
portion of the amplified light to exit the cavity as the laser beam.
8. Derive an expression for acceptance angle.
Ans. The acceptance angle is a crucial concept in optics and fiber
optics, describing the maximum angle at which light can enter a fiber
or optical system and still be guided properly within the system. This
angle is related to the numerical aperture (NA) of the optical system.
To derive an expression for the acceptance angle, we'll proceed step-
by-step.
1. Numerical Aperture (NA)
The numerical aperture of a fiber optic or optical system is defined
as:
NA=nsin(θmax)
where:
n is the refractive index of the medium from which the light is
entering the fiber (for instance, air or another medium
surrounding the fiber),
θmax is the maximum angle at which light can enter the fiber or
optical system and still be guided properly (this is the
acceptance angle).
2. Acceptance Angle Definition
The acceptance angle, θmax , is the maximum angle that the incident
light beam can make with the axis of the fiber while still being able to
undergo total internal reflection inside the fiber. For total internal
reflection to occur, the light entering the fiber must strike the core-
cladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle.
The critical angle θc for total internal reflection is related to the
refractive indices of the core (n1) and the cladding (n2) of the optical
fiber:
sin(θc) = n1/n2
3. Relationship Between NA and Acceptance Angle
The numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber is also related to the
refractive indices of the core and cladding as follows:
Now, using the definition of the numerical aperture
we can express the acceptance angle θmax
as:
Thus, the acceptance angle is:
Final Expression
The final expression for the acceptance angle is:
n1 is the refractive index of the core,
n2 is the refractive index of the cladding,
n is the refractive index of the medium from which the light
enters the fiber.
This gives the maximum angle θmax at which light can enter the fiber
and still be guided by total internal reflection within the core.
