This presentation outlines the key concepts and structure of Chapter 1: France, 1774–1814, which

serves as Unit 1 in the Cambridge International AS Level History course, "Modern Europe, 1750–
1921".

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# **PowerPoint Presentation Content: Unit 1**

## **Slide 1: Title Slide**

**Title:** Modern Europe, 1750–1921

**Unit 1: France, 1774–1814**

**Key Focus Areas:**

* The causes, events, and immediate consequences of the French Revolution (1789).
* The instability of French governments from 1790 to 1795.
* The rise and seizure of power by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799.
* Napoleon's domestic aims and achievements from 1799 to 1814.

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## **Slide 2: Section 1.1: Causes of the 1789 Revolution**

**Topic:** What were the causes and immediate outcomes of the 1789 revolution?

### **The Ancien Régime and Louis XVI**

* France was ruled by the absolute monarch, **Louis XVI**.
* The country was difficult to govern due to its large population (around 27 million), significant
regional differences, varied legal systems, and multiple systems of taxation and customs barriers,
often leading to royal orders being ignored.
* Financial troubles were severe, exacerbated by forming an alliance with American colonists
fighting Britain in 1778. Finance Minister A-R-J Turgot warned that the involvement in wars
would drive the state to **bankruptcy**.
* By 1786, the cost of servicing state debts was too high. Minister Calonne proposed reforms,
including increasing taxes for the wealthy and stimulating the economy, but these needed support
from the **Assembly of Notables** (mostly nobles and clergy).
* The prospect of **national bankruptcy** ultimately led to the calling of the Estates General.

### **Intellectual & Social Pressures**

* France was home to the **Enlightenment**, an intellectual movement that had a major
influence on the revolutionary process.
* Enlightenment ideas influenced later revolutionary leaders, including Napoleon Bonaparte.

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## **Slide 3: Section 1.1: Immediate Outcomes of the 1789 Revolution**

### **Key Events and Breakdown of Authority**

* The **Estates General** met on May 5, 1789, for the first time since 1614, amid widespread
social, economic, and political unrest.
* The revolution reached a turning point on July 14, 1789, with the **Storming of the Bastille**,
a royal fortress and symbol of royal tyranny. This event demonstrated the anger and determination
of the Parisian working class.
* The subsequent widespread breakdown of law and order across France was known as the
**‘Great Fear’** in the summer of 1789, characterized by mass refusal to pay taxes and attacks on
noblemen's property.

### **Revolutionary Principles**

* The Assembly responded by setting out principles in the **Declaration of the Rights of Man**.
* Men are born and remain **free and equal in rights**.
* The aim of political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights
of man: **liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression**.
* The principle of all **sovereignty resides essentially in the nation**.
* The **Ancien Régime was no more**, having been transformed "almost overnight".

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## **Slide 4: Section 1.2: Unstable Governments (1790–1795)**

**Topic:** Why were French governments unstable from 1790 to 1795?

### **Sources of Instability**

* Despite hopes for stability in 1791, issues ensuring further problems arose.
* Factors included: **continuing poor harvests**, the **erratic behavior of the king**, a
growing **counter-revolutionary movement**, and an increase in **radicalism**.
* The Assembly implemented significant changes, including the creation of eighty-three new
departments (administrative areas) to end regional differences, establish effective local
government structures, and hold elections for key officials. However, the French people were
inexperienced with elections, causing major problems.

### **The Terror and its Aftermath**

* King Louis XVI was accused of many crimes, including attacking popular sovereignty, causing
bloodshed, contemplating flight (Varennes), and working to overthrow the Constitution.
* The period included the **Terror** (ending in 1795).
* By 1795, instability was high: Paris faced food shortages, and the mob attacked the Convention
demanding greater democracy.
* The Constitution of 1793 was widely recognized as a failure, necessitating a renewed attempt
to find a workable system of government for France.
***

## **Slide 5: Section 1.3: Napoleon Overthrows the Directory (1799)**

**Topic:** Why was Napoleon Bonaparte able to overthrow the Directory in 1799?

### **Weakness of the Directory (1795–1799)**

* The Directory took power in unfavorable circumstances, facing insurrection, bandits, food
shortages, and disorganized armies.
* While initially raising France from a terrible situation (e.g., smoothly replacing paper money
with coin, restoring peace), the latter half of its four-year existence was characterized by
persecution and was considered poor from every perspective.
* The Constitution of the Year III was "dying" and could neither guarantee citizens' rights nor
assure its own existence. France was approaching a stage of general disorganization.

### **The Rise of Napoleon**

* Napoleon, born in Corsica, trained as a soldier and rose rapidly in rank.
* The Revolutionary wars led to the flight or refusal of support by senior, aristocratic officers,
opening the way for capable and ambitious military men like Napoleon, who came from middle-
class backgrounds.
* Napoleon was highly ambitious, demonstrated real military ability, and possessed considerable
political awareness.
* He successfully seized power in the **coup d’état of the 18th Brumaire (November 9th),
1799**.

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## **Slide 6: Section 1.4: Napoleon’s Domestic Aims and Achievements**

**Topic:** What were Napoleon’s domestic aims and achievements from 1799 to 1814?

### **Domestic Aims (as First Consul, 1799)**

1. To become, and then remain, the ruler of France.
2. To end the chaos of the revolutionary years.
3. To provide effective government, maintaining the best revolutionary gains while keeping law
and order.

* Napoleon aimed to create a stable "middle way," avoiding both the radicalism of the Terror and
the privileges of the Ancien Régime.

### **Consolidation of Power**

* The new Consulate constitution, approved by plebiscite, solidified Napoleon's power as **First
Consul**.
 * He held the key decision-making role.
* He appointed ministers and could initiate legislation.
* There was limited consultation and no accountability.
* Napoleon claimed: **"I alone represent the people"**. He sought to remove democratic
freedoms, reducing elections in number and political significance.
* He was proclaimed **German Emperor (Kaiser)** in 1804.

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## **Slide 7: Section 1.4: Key Reforms (1799–1814)**

### **Legal Reforms**

* The Civil Code, or **Napoleonic Code**, was a major achievement, fulfilling public
expectations and serving as a guide for citizens in transactions.

### **Social and Religious Reforms**

* An agreement (Concordat) with the Pope was reached in 1801, ending a major divisive issue
throughout the revolutionary period, and was crucial for the stability of the state and Napoleon's
power.
* Religion resumed its influence, characterized by a wise policy of toleration, allowing ministers
of different sects worshipping the same God to show mutual respect.
* The nobility remained abolished, avoiding a return to hereditary privilege despised by the
French people.
* The Legion d’honneur was introduced in 1802 as a reward for real achievements benefitting the
country, carrying no special privileges.

### **Educational and Financial Reforms**

* New schools (lycees and secondary schools) were opened, filling with youth eager for
instruction.
* However, the poor were generally excluded from these reforms, as Napoleon (and the middle
class) believed educating them was a waste of time and money. Girls and women were also largely
excluded.
* Overall, the major reforms of Napoleon's first six years restored the stability that the French
people desired and ensured Napoleon retained loyalty and power.

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## **Slide 8: Unit 1 Review and Assessment Focus**

### **Key Concepts to Master for France, 1774–1814**

* Identify the principal social, economic, and political problems facing Louis XVI.
* Analyze the impact of figures like Turgot and Calonne and the financial crisis.
* Understand the causes and immediate implications of the Storming of the Bastille and the
Great Fear.
* Explain the challenges leading to government instability (1790–95), including the failure of the
1793 Constitution and the rise of radicalism.
* Evaluate why Napoleon was able to seize power in 1799 (weakness of the Directory, military
ambition).
* Assess Napoleon’s success in achieving his domestic aims, particularly through his reforms
(e.g., Napoleonic Code).

### **Sample Exam Questions (Paper 2 Essay Style)**

* Explain why the Bastille was stormed.
* To what extent was the French crisis of 1789 caused by economic factors?
* Explain why Napoleon was able to seize power in 1799.
* ‘The Directory did a good job in difficult circumstances.’ How far do you agree?