Fundamentals of Surveying
By: Engr. Carlo B. Dela Rosa
Leveling
Leveling is a branch of surveying that deals with the
measurement of elevation of different points with respect to
a fixed line called datum.
Different types of levelling:
• Direct Leveling
• Trigonometric Leveling
• Barometric Leveling
• Stadia Leveling
Direct Leveling
The most commonly used method of levelling. Here,
measurements are obtained directly from the leveling
instrument. It includes: Simple leveling, differential
leveling, profile leveling, reciprocal leveling, etc.
Trigonometric Leveling
A leveling process in which the elevation of a point or
the difference of elevation between points are
measured indirectly. In this method, trigonometric
relations are used to find the elevation of a point.
Barometric Leveling
In this method, a barometer is used to determine the
difference in elevation between points by obtaining
their atmospheric pressures. The method is based on
Pascal’s Principle (𝑃𝑃 = 𝛾𝛾𝛾), it is fast and easy to
perform, but it only gives a rough estimate of the
difference in elevation thus it is rarely used.
Stadia Leveling
A modified form of trigonometric leveling wherein a
stadia instrument is used. The instrument allows
measurement of horizontal or inclined distances by the
application of Tacheometry or Optical Geometry.
Definition of Terms
Backsight – a sight or reading taken backward or toward
the point of starting.
Foresight – the final staff rod reading taken at an
instrument station to establish the elevation of a point
before moving the instrument to a new location, or it's
the last reading before the survey line ends.
Definition of Terms
Elevation – the vertical distance of a point above or below a
fixed reference plane.
Station – a physical point or location on the ground with
known coordinates.
Benchmark – a permanent point of reference with a known,
recorded elevation that serves as a starting or ending point
for leveling operations, ensuring consistency and accuracy by
providing a standard to measure other vertical points.
Example
The following shows a tabulated data of differential leveling notes,
STA BS FS ELEV
1 5.87 - 125.25
2 7.03 6.29
3 3.48 6.25
4 7.25 7.08
5 10.19 5.57
6 9.29 4.45
7 - 4.94
1. What is the elevation at STA 4?
2. What is the difference in elevation between STA 5 and STA 2?
3. What is the elevation of STA 7?
Two Peg Test
• A very simple but relatively easy way to determine the error
in the line of sight of a Level (Instrument). It can also
determine the correction needed to make the line of sight
horizontal.
• Used for checking Levels. By comparing two sets of readings
from two unequal lengths on the same two points, the
accuracy of the Level can be calculated.
• The purpose is to check the accuracy of the Level whilst in
use.
Example
In the two-peg test of a dumpy level, the following observations are
taken,
Instrument near A Instrument near B
Rod reading on A 1.501 0.903
Rod reading on B 2.022 1.452
1. Compute the true difference in elevation between the two points.
2. Compute the error.
3. Compute the correct reading at B when the instrument is near A
that will give a level line of sight.
Example
The line of sight of a wye level was tested by setting up exactly midway
between two points A and B then it was consequently set up near B
Rod Reading Instrument Midway Between Instrument near B
A and B
on A 1.520 m 1.683 m
on B 1.395 m 1.490 m
1. What is the true difference in elevation between A and B?
2. Determine the reading at A that will make the line of sight
horizontal with the instrument set-up near B.
Tacheometry
Commonly known as stadia is a surveying method used to
quickly determine the horizontal distance to, and elevation of,
a point.
Stadia observations are obtained by sighting through a
telescope equipped with two or more horizontal cross wires at
known spacing. The apparent intercepted length between the
top and bottom wires is read on a graduated rod held vertically
at the desired point. The distance from telescope to rod is
found by trigonometry.
Some Uses of Tacheometry
• Preparation of topographic maps which require both elevations
and horizontal distances.
• Survey work in difficult terrain where direct methods are
inconvenient.
• Detail filling
• Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways, etc.
• Checking of already measured distances.
• Hydrographic surveys and
• Establishing secondary control.
Instrument
• An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is generally
used for tacheometric survey.
• The stadia diaphragm essentially consists of one stadia hair above and the
other an equal distance below the horizontal cross-hair, the stadia hairs
being mounted in the ring and on the same vertical plane as the horizontal
and vertical cross-hairs.
Stadia Method for Horizontal
Sights
𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑑
=
𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠
𝑓𝑓
𝑑𝑑 = 𝑠𝑠
𝑖𝑖
From the figure, 𝐷𝐷 = 𝑑𝑑 + (𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓)
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑓𝑓 + 𝑐𝑐 ; 𝐾𝐾 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝐷𝐷 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + 𝐶𝐶
Stadia Method for Horizontal
Sights
Stadia Measurement
𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑓𝑓 + 𝑐𝑐 ; 𝐾𝐾 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓
𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖
𝐷𝐷 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + 𝐶𝐶
Where, 𝑓𝑓 = focal length of lens constant for any lens
𝑖𝑖 = spacing between stadia wires
𝐾𝐾 = 𝑓𝑓/𝑖𝑖, stadia interval factor (usually 100)
𝑐𝑐 = distance from the instrument center vertical axis to the objective lens
𝐶𝐶 = 𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓, stadia constant
𝑠𝑠 = stadia intercept or interval
𝑑𝑑 = distance from the focal point in front of telescope to the face of the rod
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑑𝑑 + 𝑐𝑐, distance from the instrument center to the face of the rod.
Note: for Internal-Focusing Telescope, 𝐶𝐶 = 0
Stadia Method for Inclined Sights
𝐷𝐷 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 𝐶𝐶
Consequently,
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐷𝐷 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝐻𝐻 = 𝐷𝐷 cos 𝜃𝜃
Where, 𝜃𝜃 = angle that the line of sight makes with the horizontal
𝑉𝑉 = vertical distance from the level sight to the middle hair reading on the rod
𝐻𝐻 = horizontal distance from the instrument center to the face of the rod
Example
A tacheometer with a stadia constant of 0.30𝑚𝑚 was set up on the line between
two points, A and B. The following hair readings were observed
Rod Position Hair Readings
Upper Middle Lower
Rod held at A 1.327 𝑚𝑚 1.171 𝑚𝑚 1.011 𝑚𝑚
Rod held at B 2.004 𝑚𝑚 1.867 𝑚𝑚 1.707 𝑚𝑚
If the stadia interval factor of the level is 100,
1. Determine the length of the line AB.
2. If the instrument height is 1.52 𝑚𝑚 and it is set-up on a point with elevation
22.10 𝑚𝑚, determine the elevation of point B.
Example
Given the following stadia notes: 𝐾𝐾 = 100, 𝐶𝐶 = 0.32
STATION STADIA INTERCEPT VERTICAL ANGLE
A 1.075 𝑚𝑚 +4°30′ 15" on 1.347 𝑚𝑚
B 0.978 𝑚𝑚 −3°15′ 30" on 0.754 𝑚𝑚
The instrument was set up at point C with elevation 211.47 𝑚𝑚. The height of
instrument is 1.52𝑚𝑚.
1. Compute the elevation of point A.
2. Compute the elevation of point B.
3. Compute the difference in elevation between points A and B.
Effect of Curvature and Refraction
EFFECT OF EARTH’S CURVATURE
The effect of earth’s curvature is the amount by which the horizontal line
departs from the earth’s surface (which is the level surface)
Applicable to surveys with long distances
Effect of Curvature and Refraction
Considering the right triangle,
EFFECT OF EARTH’S CURVATURE 2
𝐾𝐾 2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + ℎ𝑐𝑐 2
2 2
𝐾𝐾 2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 2𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ𝑐𝑐 + ℎ𝑐𝑐2
𝐾𝐾 2 = 2𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ𝑐𝑐 + ℎ𝑐𝑐2
Since ℎ𝑐𝑐 is very small for practical
values of 𝐾𝐾, ℎ𝑐𝑐2 can be considered
negligible.
𝐾𝐾 2 = 2𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ℎ𝑐𝑐
Substituting 𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 6,371 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘,
𝐾𝐾 2 = 2 6371 ℎ𝑐𝑐
𝐾𝐾 2
ℎ𝑐𝑐 =
2 6371
ℎ𝑐𝑐 = 0.0000785𝐾𝐾 2
Expressing ℎ𝑐𝑐 in meters,
𝒉𝒉𝒄𝒄 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑲𝑲𝟐𝟐
Effect of Curvature and Refraction
REFRACTION CORRECTION
Rays of light passing through the earth’s atmosphere in any direction other
than vertical are refracted or bent from a straight path. This bending usually
takes place in a direction toward the earth’s surface under normal conditions
of temperature and pressure gradients.
Such bent rays of light tend to diminish the effect of curvature for a slight
amount, normally about 14% (or 1/7) of the curvature effect.
Effect of Curvature and Refraction
ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ𝑐𝑐 − ℎ𝑟𝑟
REFRACTION CORRECTION
1
ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ𝑐𝑐 − ℎ𝑐𝑐
7
6
ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = ℎ𝑐𝑐
7
6
ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.0785𝐾𝐾 2
7
ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0.06729𝐾𝐾 2
We often round the coefficient to
0.0675
𝒉𝒉𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑲𝑲𝟐𝟐
Where,
ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Example
A man standing on the ground can see just the tip of a tower
25𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 away. If the eye of the man is 1.8𝑚𝑚 above sea level,
determine the height of the tower above sea level considering
curvature and refraction correction.
Example
The elevation of triangulation station A is 250𝑚𝑚 while that of B
is 685𝑚𝑚. In between stations A and B is a mountain C with
elevation 325𝑚𝑚. The height of the transit placed at A is 1.2𝑚𝑚.
Distance AC is 30𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and BC is 50𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. Determine the height of
tower that can be constructed at B such that the line of sight
will just pass through the mountain C with a clearance of 1.5𝑚𝑚.
