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 TYPES OF BOILERS
In simple a boiler may be defined as a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by
combustion of fuel.
The steam generated is employed for the following purposes :
 For generating power in steam engines or steam turbines,
 In the textile industries for sizing and bleaching etc. and many other industries like
 sugar mills; chemical industries.
 For heating the buildings in cold weather and for producing hot water for hot water
supply.

The primary requirements of steam generators or boilers are :

 The water must be contained safely.
 The steam must be safely delivered in desired condition.

REQUIREMENT OF A BOILER
A good boiler should possess the following qualities:

 It should be able to generate steam at the required pressure and quantity with minimum
fuel consumption.
 Its initial cost, installation, maintenance, and operational cost should be as low as
possible.
 It should occupy a small floor area and should be light in weight.
 It should be able to meet the fluctuating demands of steam without fluctuations in steam
pressure.
 All parts of the boiler should be easily accessible for cleaning, inspection, and
maintenance.
 It should have minimum joints to avoid leakage of steam.
 Its erection time should be reasonable with minimum labour.
 The velocities of water and flue gas should be high for better heat transfer with minimum
pressure drop through the system.
 There should be no deposition of mud and foreign materials inside the surface and soot
deposits on the outside surface of heat-transferring parts.
 The boiler should conform to safety precautions as laid down in the Boiler Regulations.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.2

FACTORS AFFECTING BOILER SELECTION

The factors affecting boiler selection are as follows:

 Power to be generated, that is, steam to be raised per hour

 Working pressure
 Initial capital investment
 Facilities available for erection
 Availability of floor area
 Location of power house
 Availability of fuel and water
 Probable load factor
 Operating and maintenance cost
 Accessibility for inspection, cleaning, and maintenance

HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL OR INCLINED

If the axis of the boiler is horizontal, the boiler is called as horizontal, if the axis is vertical, it is
called vertical boiler and if the axis is inclined it is known as inclined boiler. The parts of a
horizontal boiler can be inspected and repaired easily but it occupies more space. The vertical
boiler occupies less floor area.

FIRE TUBE AND WATER TUBE

In the fire tube boilers, the hot gases are inside the tubes and the water surrounds the tubes.
Examples: Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
In the water tube boilers, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases surround them. Examples:
Babcock and Wilcox, Stirling, Yarrow boiler etc.

EXTERNALLY FIRED AND INTERNALLY FIRED

The boiler is known as externally fired if the fire is outside the shell. Examples: Babcock and
Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler etc.
In case of internally fired boilers, the furnace is located inside the boiler shell. Examples:
Cochran, Lancashire boiler etc.

FORCED CIRCULATION AND NATURAL CIRCULATION

Forced Circulation Boiler. In forced circulation type of boilers, the circulation of water is
done by a forced pump. Examples: Velox, Lamont, Benson boiler etc.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.3

Natural Circulation Boiler. This is caused by density difference. In natural circulation type of
boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due to natural convention currents
produced by the application of heat. Examples: Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boiler etc.
Following figure shows this circulation system.

Natural Circulation boiler Forced circulation boiler

Advantages of forced circulation boiler

 The evaporator tubes may be built in any orientation. Natural circulation requires
vertical piping whereas the forced circulation ensures flow in any direction.
 The walls of the tube may be built smaller due to the greater tolerance of higher
pressure losses.
 The general forced circulation boiler has a low circulation ratio of range between three
and ten. The circulation ratio is how much steam is produced per how much feed was
put in. Natural circulation boilers have a huge range of circulation ratios all the way
from five to one hundred.

Limitations of Forced Circulation over Natural Circulation

 higher costs
 reduced reliability, and
 increased energy consumption

HIGH PRESSURE AND LOW PRESSURE BOILERS

The boilers which produce steam at pressures of 80 bar and above are called high pressure
boilers. Examples : Babcock and Wilcox, Velox, Lamont, Benson boilers.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.4

The boilers which produce steam at pressure below 80 bar are called low pressure boilers.
Examples: Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.

STATIONARY AND PORTABLE

Primarily, the boilers are classified as either stationary (land) or mobile (marine and
locomotive).
 Stationary boilers are used for power plant-steam, for central station utility power plants,
for plant process steam etc.
 Mobile boilers or portable boilers include locomotive type, and other small units for
temporary use at sites (just as in small coal-field pits).

SINGLE TUBE AND MULTI-TUBE BOILERS

The fire tube boilers are classified as single tube and multi-tube boilers, depending upon
whether the fire tube is one or more than one. The examples of the former type are cornish,
simple vertical boiler and rest of the boilers are multi-tube boilers.

WASTE HEAT RECOVERY BOILER (WHRB)

Waste heat recovery boilers are used to utilize the heat energy from the system which would
otherwise go waste. Mass of hot gas and its temperature are the main factors that decide the
design of a waste heat recovery boiler.
In sponge iron kilns, lot of hot gas is produced. This hot gas is utilised in the boiler for
steam generation. The hot gas contains significant amount of abrasive dust. These dust particles
may damage the boiler tube due to erosion. Erosion problem is minimised by lowering the
gas velocity. By providing abrupt change in the direction of flue gas flow, dust particles settle
down and are removed by suitable ash handling system. Lot of hot gas escapes from cement
kiln preheater and cooler. By installing WHRB in these areas, steam can be generated.
Hot exhaust gas from gas turbine is used in the waste heat recovery boilers for steam
generation. The steam is used to drive steam turbine. This arrangement is called combined
cycle. In some chemical processes, heat is produced due to exothermic reaction. For example,
N2 + 3H2  2NH3 + 22 kcal of heat
2SO2 + O2  2SO3 + 45 kcal of heat.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.5

COMPARISON BETWEEN FIRE-TUBE AND WATER-TUBE BOILERS

S. Particular Fire-tube Water-tube
No. boilers boilers
Position of
Hot gases inside the tubes and water Water inside the tubes and hot
1. water and hot
outside the tubes. gases outside the tubes.
gases
2. Mode of firing Generally internally fired. Externally fired.
Operating Can work under as high pressure
3. Operating pressure limited to 16 bar.
pressure as 100 bar.
Rate of steam
4. Lower Higher.
production

6. Suitability Not suitable for large power plants. Suitable for large power plants.

Involves lesser risk on explosion due Involves more risk on bursting

6. Risk on bursting
to lower pressure. due to high pressure.
For a given power it occupies more For a given power it occupies less
7. Floor area
floor area. floor-area.

8 Construction Difficult Simple

9 Transportation Difficult SIMPLE

10. Shell diameter Large for same power Small for same power

Chances of
11 Less More
explosion
Treatment of
12. Not so necessary More necessary
water
Accessibility of Various parts not so easily accessible Various parts are more
13.
various parts for cleaning, repair and inspection. accessible.
Requirement of Require less skill for efficient and Require more skill and careful
14.
skill economic working. attention.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.6

15.

FIRETUBE BOILERS
A fire-tube boiler is so named because the products of combustion pass through its tubes or
flues, which are surrounded by water. They may be either:
 Externally fired (e.g. locomotive type boilers, Lancashire boilers, horizontal return
tubular (HRT) boiler etc.), or
 Internally fired (e.g. Scotch-marine boilers, package boilers, etc.).
Following figure shows a typical externally fired fire-tube boiler in which the furnace is
outside the boiler shell. Coal is entered manually by shovels on to the grate by opening the fire-
door. The products of combustion flow through the tubes which are immersed in the shell
containing water. A fusible plug made up of a low melting point alloy (lead-based) is installed
on the roof of the crown in the furnace. If the water-level in the shell falls below a certain level,
the fusible plug melts due to overheating and water pours down through the hole formed and
puts out the fire.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.7

There is a spring-loaded safety-valve provided to keep the boiler pressure within the safety
limit. The spring is set in such a way that the upward thrust of steam against the lid is balanced
by the downward thrust of the spring. If the operating steam pressure exceeds this value, the
upward thrust of steam will then be greater than the downward spring thrust and the difference
will force open the lid upward, as a result of which steam will be released with a hissing sound,
the steam pressure inside the shell will 20 down till the lid is forced down to be back on its seat.
As the hot flue gases flow through the tubes, heat is transferred from gas to water all along the
length. The gas is cooled and the water is heated till there is nucleate boiling around the tubes
and steam is formed. Steam is taken out at the required rate by opening the main stop valve.
Auxiliary' steam may also be taken to operate a steam jet water injector to feed water into the
shell. The shell is insulated all around by asbestos and 85% magnesia to reduce heat loss to the
surroundings. Air flow from below the grate is regulated by operating dampers according to the
requirement of combustion. An elliptic manhole is provided for a man to go in to do cleaning or
repair as the need arises.
An oil-fired pressurized package type boiler is shown below. It is an internally fired fire-tube
boiler, since the furnace is within the cylindrical shell. Oil is filtered, adequately heated either

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.8

by electricity or steam, and is then fed through the burner. Air is supplied by an FD fan. Excess
oil is returned to the main feedline. Combustion occurs in a horizontal corrugated flue, and the
combustion gases flow through the tubes in two passes till they are let out through a chimney to
atmosphere.

The package-type boiler has certain inherent advantages:

 It is highly compact. A large surface area of heat transfer is provided in a small volume.
The furnace volume is less since it is pressurized.
 No ID fan is required. A short chimney is provided just for disposal of flue gases.
 The entire unit is mostly fabricated in the factory itself. It is transported to the site and
installed there with relative ease.
 It occupies less space.
 It is easy to operate. Because of these advantages, package boilers were favoured in
process industries. But the paucity of oil supply has reduced its demand giving way to
the use of fluidized bed boilers mostly based on coal.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.9

WATER TUBE BOILERS

For pressures above 10 bar and capacities in excess of 7000 kg of steam per hour, the water
tube boiler is used almost exclusively.

Babcock and Wilcox Boiler

Following figure shows a stationary type Babcock and Wilcox boiler. It consists of a large
number of parallel tubes inclined at an angle which varies from 5° to 15° to the horizontal
which connect the uptake header with the downtake header. These are connected to the shell
having a substantial quantity of water in it.

The uptake header is connected to the shell, through a short tube, whereas a long tube is
employed to connect the downtake header with the shell.
The coal is fed through the fire hole on to the chain grate stoker. The velocity of the chain is
adjusted so as to ensure complete combustion of coal by the time it reaches the other end of the
grate. The flue gases first rise up, move down, and rise up again due to the presence of the
baffles.
The hot water and steam moisture rise up through the uptake header into the boiler shell, where
steam separates from water and collects in the steam space.
The cold water flows down into the tubes through the downtake header. Hence, a continuous
circulation of water is maintained by the convection currents set up.
A set of superheater tubes is provided to superheat steam which enters these tubes from the
steam space in the boiler shell. The superheated steam can be taken out to the steam stop valve,

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.10

through the steam pipe. The lower part of the downtake header has a mud box attached to it to
collect the sediments. The damper chain controls the quantity of air flowing through the boiler.
Two soot doors are provided for internal cleaning of boiler.

Stirling Boiler
Following figure shows the Stirling boiler, which comes in a water tube type in which three
steam drums are connected together by the banks of bent water tubes.

These tubes stand nearly in a vertical position near the rear end while they slope steeply over
the fire at the front end. The baffles deflect the products of combustion from the furnace over
the banks of tubes into the mud drum. The steam generated collects in the steam spaces of the
three drums. The steam can be raised at a working pressure of 60 bar with the temperature as
high as 450°C. An evaporation capacity of 50,000 kg/h has been achieved with a Stirling boiler.

REVOSTEAM COIL TYPE BOILER

Revosteam, Coil Type Boiler, is a unique water tube coil type boiler in which water flows
inside the tube.
It uses the "Reverse Flow" combustion concept, which is unique in the industry. When flue gas
reaches the bottom of the shell, it flows in the opposite direction. This flue gas flow improves
combustion efficiency while also allowing for a high rate of heat transfer to the adjacent water
coil.
 Revosteam is a truly Non-IBR boiler.
 It is coil type, water-tube design boiler.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.11

 Instant Steam generator.

 The water flows inside the coil and the flame is on outside it, providing heat to produce
steam.
 REVOSTEAM is a fully automatic boiler and it switches on and off automatically
depending upon a preset steam pressure controlled through a pressure switch
 Water feeding is also automatic
 Forced circulation, water tube design and REVERSE FLOW combustion enable the
boiler to produce steam at full working pressure with in 3-5 minutes from cold start

Construction
A Water tube Coil type boiler comprises of a jacketed MS shell housing a helical coil.
The combustion air is forced through the jacketed shell by means of a centrifugal blower
thereby getting preheated
The flame travels downwards inside the coil and the flue gases reverse upwards thereby giving
two passes in the radiant zone ensuring complete combustion and higher heat flux.
The third pass of the flue gases is in the convective zone between the coil and the inner shell.
Flue gases then travel to the Economizer forming the fourth pass.

Advantages
 Fully Automatic unit
 Unique four pass design
 High efficiency and low running cost
 Minimum site-work, low installation costs
 Instant streaming within 5 minutes of cold start
 Built-in economiser increases the operating efficiency
 Fail-safe design and dependable operating instruments
 Qualified attendant not required
 Multipass design with economiser
 Easy access for inspection and cleaning
 Large tube diameter ensure longer coil life Pre-heated air gives excellent combustion
 Truly Non -IBR design-outside the purview of IBR

HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS

In all modern power plants, boilers raising steam at pressures greater than 100 bar are
universally used. These are called high pressure boilers.
They offer the following advantages:

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.12

 The efficiency and the capacity of the plant can be increased as reduced quantity of
steam is required for the same power generation if high pressure steam is used.
 The forced circulation of water through the boiler tubes provides freedom in the
arrangement of furnace and water walls in addition to the reduction in the heat exchange
area.
 The tendency of scale formation is reduced due to high velocity of water.
 The danger of overheating is reduced as all the parts are uniformly heated.
 The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform temperature and this reduces the
possibility of gas and air leakages.

Boiler Circulation
Before discussing about various types of high pressure boilers, let us understand about boiler
circulation.
There are four types of boiler circulation as follows.
 Natural circulation: Water circulates naturally in a boiler when its density in one part
of the circuit is less than that in another part at the same level. The boiler drums, tubes,
and water wall make up the multi-passage circuit. During steam formation in a simple
drum, the water near the sides of the drum gets heated and forms steam bubbles,
lowering its density. The water in the drum centre being heavier displaces the lighter
water-bubble mix and, in turn, gets heated up. This sets up a constant circulation that
releases steam into the upper drum region.
Similarly, in a water tube circuit, the water from the drum flows through the
downcomer tube to the bottom of the heated riser. Heat forms steam bubbles in water
passing through the riser, lowering the density of the mixture. The heavier downcomer
water displaces the riser mixer to establish continuous flow. The force of gravity to
produce flow in a natural circulation comes from the difference between the densities of
the fluids in the downcomer and riser portions of the circuit. The natural circulation is
depicted in Fig. (a).
 Forced circulation: Forced circulation in various circuits of boiler units is produced by
mechanical pumps as depicted in Fig. (b).
 Once-through forced circulation: This type of circulation, as depicted in Fig. (c),
receives water from the feed supply, pumping it to the inlet of heat-absorbing circuit.
Fluid heating and steam generation take place along the length of the circuit until
evaporation is completed. Further process through the heated circuits results in
superheating the vapour.
 Once-through with recirculation (forced): The ‘recirculating’ forced-circulating type
unit has water supplied to the heat absorbing circuits through a separate circulating

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.13

pump. The water pumped is considerably in excess of steam produced and requires a
steam-and-water drum for steam generation. This type of system is depicted in Fig. (d).

Advantages of Forced Circulation Boilers

The advantages of forced circulation boilers are as follows:
 Smaller bore and therefore, lighter tubes
 Absence from scaling troubles due to high circulation velocity
 Lighter for a given output
 Steam can be raised quickly and load fluctuations met rapidly
 Uniform heating of all parts eliminates the danger of overheating
 Greater flexibility in layout of boiler parts
 Boiler can be operated at desired conditions
 Boiler can be started rapidly

LaMont Boiler
The feed water from hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum (boiler) through the
economizer. Most of the sensible heat is supplied to the feed water passing through the
economizer. A pump circulates the water at a rate 8 to 10 times the mass of steam evaporated.
This water is circulated through the evaporator tubes and the part of the vapour is separated in
the separator drum. The large quantity of water circulated (10 times that of evaporation)
prevents the tubes from being overheated.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.14

The centrifugal pump delivers the water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 bar above the drum
pressure. The distribution headers distribute the water through the nozzle into the evaporator.
The steam separated in the boiler is further passed through the super-heater.
To secure a uniform flow of feed water through each of the parallel boiler circuits a choke is
fitted entrance to each circuit.
These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 50 tonnes of superheated steam at a pressure of
120 bar and temperature of 500°C. Recently forced circulation has been introduced in large
capacity power.
Following figure shows a LaMont steam boiler.

LaMont Boiler

Benson Boiler
In the LaMont boiler, the main difficulty experienced is the formation and attachment of
bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating tubes. The attached bubbles to the tube surfaces
reduce the heat flow and steam generation as it offers high thermal resistance than water film.
Benson in 1922 argued that if the boiler pressure was raised to critical pressure (225 atm.), the
steam and water have the same density and therefore, the danger of bubble formation can be
easily eliminated The first high pressure Benson boiler was put into operation in 1927 in West
Germany.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.15

This boiler too makes use of forced circulation and uses oil as fuel. It chief novel principle is
that it eliminates the latent heat of water by first compressing the feed to a pressure of 235 bar,
it is then above the critical pressure and its latent heat is zero.
Following figure shows a schematic diagram of a Benson boiler.

Benson Boiler
This boiler does not use any drum. The feed water after circulation through the economic tubes
flows through the radiant parallel tube section to evaporate partly. The steam water mixture
produced then moves to the transit section where this mixture is converted into steam. The
steam is now passed through the convection superheater and finally supplied to the prime
mover.
Boilers having as high as 650°C temperature of steam had been put into service. The maximum
working pressure obtained so far from commercial Benson boiler is 500 atm. The Benson
boilers of 150 tonnes/h generating capacity are in use.
Advantages of a Benson Boiler
The Benson boiler possesses the following advantages :
 It can be erected in a comparatively smaller floor area.
 The total weight of a Benson boiler is 20% less than other boilers, since there are no
drums. This also reduces the cost of the boiler.
 It can be started very quickly because of welded joints.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.16

 Natural convection boilers require expansion joints but these are not required for Benson
boiler as the pipes are welded.
 The furnace walls of the boiler can be more efficiently protected by using smaller
diameter and closed pitched tubes.
 The transfer of parts of the boiler is easy as no drums are required and majority of the
parts are carried to the site without pre-assembly.
 It can be operated most economically by varying the temperature and pressure at partial
loads and overloads. The desired temperature can also be maintained constant at any
pressure.
 The blow-down losses of the boiler are hardly 4% of natural circulation boiler of the same
capacity.
 Explosion hazards are not severe as it consists of only tubes of small diameter and has
very little storage capacity.
 The superheater in a Benson boiler is an integral part of forced circulation system,
therefore no special starting arrangement for superheater is required.

Super Critical Boilers

A large number of steam generating plants are designed between working ranges of 125 atm.
and 510°C to 300 atm. and 6600C ; these are basically characterised as sub-critical and super-
critical.
Usually a sub-critical boiler consists of three distinct section as preheater (economiser),
evaporator and superheater.
A super-critical boiler requires only preheater and superheater.
The constructional layout of both the above types of boilers is, however, practically identical.
These days it has become a rule to use super-critical boilers above 300 MW capacity units.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.17

Super critical boiler

The super-critical boilers claim the following advantages over critical type :
 Large heat transfer rates.
 Owing to less heat capacity of the generator the pressure level is more stable and therefore
gives better response.
 Because of absence of two phase mixture the problems of erosion and corrosion are
minimised.
 More adaptable to load fluctuations (because of great ease of operation, simplicity and
flexibility).
 The turbo-generators connected to super-critical boilers can generate peak loads by
changing the pressure of operation.
 Higher thermal efficiency.

Presently, 246 atm. and 5380C are used for unit size above 500 MW capacity plants.

Supercharged Boiler
In a supercharged boiler, the combustion is carried out under pressure in the combustion
chamber by supplying the compressed air. The exhaust gases from the combustion chamber are
used to run the gas turbine as they are exhausted to high pressure. The gas turbine runs the air
compressor to supply the compressed air to the combustion chamber.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.18

Supercharged Boiler
Advantages:
 Owing to very high overall heat transfer co-efficient the heat transfer surface required is
hardly 20 to 25% of the heat transfer surface of a conventional boiler.
 The part of the gas turbine output can be used to drive other auxiliaries.
 Small heat storage capacity of the boiler plant gives better response to control.
 Rapid start of the boiler is possible.
 Comparatively less number of operators are required.

Velox Boiler
The arrangement of a Velox boiler is shown in following figure.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.19

The pressurised combustion chamber (furnace) of this boiler uses low excess air and has high
heat transfer rates. The air for the furnace is supplied by the air compressor. After heating water
and steam, the combustion gases pass through a gas turbine to atmosphere. This gas turbine
drives the axial flow compressor that raises incoming combustion air from atmosphere to the
furnace pressure. The other important components are feed pump, economiser, steam
separating section, water circulating pump, and convective superheater. This boiler is built for
pressure ranging from 70-80 bar and 500°C.

Once-through Boiler
The arrangement of this boiler is shown in following figure.

It has inclined coils arranged in a spiral. Forty coils are paralleled around the furnace. Steam
generated in the headers flows into headers and then to the convective superheater. Other
essential components are the feed pump and economiser.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.20

TRAVELLING GRATE FIRED BOILER

In traveling grate-fired boiler, coal is fed onto the grate which moves at the bottom portion of
the furnace. The moving grate is having suitable openings to admit combustion air from the
bottom of the grate. This air cools down the grate as well as ash and is used as primary air for
the burning of coal.

Chain grate and bar grate are similar to each other except in the construction of the grate. In
chain grate, cast iron links are connected in series by pins to form a chain. In bar grate, cast iron
surfaces are mounted on bars. These bars are mounted on drive chain. In both the cases, the
chain is driven by two sprocket wheels. One of the sprockets, mostly at the front of the furnace
is driven by a variable speed drive.
The depth of coal on the grate is varied with the help of an adjustable gate. The speed of the
grate can also be adjusted. The coal is fed from the furnace front end and ash is collected from
the rear end of the grate.
Primary air from FD fan is supplied through air ducts under the grate. Secondary air is supplied
above the grate for complete combustion of coal.

SPREADER STROKE FIRED BOILER

In spreader stoker-fired boiler, coal is fed with the help of a rotating feeding device called
feeder or spreader. It is a rotating drum having large number of blades mounted on it. When the
spreader rotates, it throws coal into the furnace. Some portion of coal, particularly fine
particles, burns in suspension and remaining large size coal falls to the stationary or moving
grate where it burns. The stationary grate is moved periodically to remove ash from the grate.
Primary air is supplied to the furnace through the openings of the grate. Secondary air is
supplied through nozzles. Depending upon the load on the boiler, spreader speed is adjusted.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.21

FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION (FBC) BOILER

Fluidisation bed combustion is a method of burning solid fuel in winch the fuel is continually
fed into a hot fluidised bed of inert bed material. Inert fluidised bed is heated to the ignition
temperatures of fuel and the fuel is supplied continuously into the bed. The fuel burns rapidly
and bed attains a uniform temperature. Combustion takes place at about 850 °C to 950 °C. This
lower combustion temperature is due to effective extraction of heat from the bed through in-bed
heat transfer tubes and water-cooled, fin-welded membrane wall. As this temperature is much
lower than ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided. Also,
volume of fuel in the bed at any time is less. So, high ash content fuel can be used in this
boiler. Small amount of dolomite or limestone is fed into the bed which minimises formation of
sulphur dioxide gas (SO2). Another merit of this boiler is the minimum production of NOx in
the boiler, as combustion temperature is less.
FBC has following advantages
 FBC boiler can bum fuel with higher combustion efficiency.
 Size of the boiler is smaller as compared to the conventional stoker-fired or pulverised
boiler. FBC boiler can be operated efficiently with a variety of fuels.
 Coal can be fed either independently or in combination with other solid fuels into the
same furnace. Even fuels like washery rejects, biomass solid waste can be burnt
efficiently. Inferior quality fuel can be used in this boiler. The boilers can fire coals with
ash contents as high as 62% and having calorific value as low as 2500 kcal/kg.
 Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC boiler.
 SOX formation can be minimised by addition of limestone or dolomite for high sulphur
coals. Low combustion temperature eliminates NOX formation.

Mechanism of Fluidisation
Fluidisation or suspension is a process in which small solid granular particles are suspended in
a vertical rising current of air. When air is introduced through the bottom of a bed of finely
divided solid granular particles, it moves upwards through the bed via the empty spaces
between the particles. At low air velocity, the bed remains in a fixed state. When velocity
increases, the bed gets expanded in volume, as the particles move away from each other. When
velocity is increases further, it reaches a critical value at which the particles become suspended.
At this critical value, the bed is said to be fluidised and it behaves as a fluid. Bed of granular
particles is converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like state. By further
increasing air velocity, bulk density of the bed continues to decrease and the bed material blows
away. So, air velocity is maintained between minimum fluidisation velocity and particle

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.22

entrainment velocity. Air velocity is around 1.5 m/s such that the bed particles do not leave bed
and are carried out. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids particle entrainment in
the gas stream. Higher air velocity of around 4 m/s is used in case of CFBC boiler where the
bed is expanded to top of the furnace. Fixed bed, fluidised bed and extended fluidising bed
(circulating fluidised bed) are shown below.

(a) Fixed bed low-velocity air; (b) Fluidised bed air velocity 1.5 m/s and (c) Extended
circulating fluidising bed air velocity 4 m/s.

Types of FBC Boilers

 Atmospheric fluidised bed combustion (AFBC) boiler
 Circulating fluidised bed combustion (CFBC) boiler
 Bubbling fluidised bed combustion (BFBC) boiler

Atmospheric Fluidised Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boiler

AFBC boiler mainly comprises of the following systems:
• Air distributor
• Fluidised bed
• Fuel feeding system
• In-bed heat transfer surface
• Ash handling system

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FD fan supplies the required fluidisation air for the boiler. This Air is heated at air heater and
is distributed to compartmentalised airbox. The main function of air distributor is to introduce
the fluidising air evenly throughout the bed cross section for keeping the solid particles in
fluidised condition and prevent any defluidisation zone within the bed. Air is supplied from
airbox which is placed just below the distributor plate. Air from FD fan is supplied to the
airbox.
Major portion of the fluidised bed volume contains inert bed material. Bed material is obtained
from crushed refractory bricks or sieved ash. Initial bed height is maintained up to 250 mm to
300 mm. Out of this bed height, around 100 mm bed does not participate in fluidisation. This
layer is called as static bed layer. This static layer of bed material protects the distributor
plate from high temperature of the furnace. 150 mm to 200 mm bed (above air nozzle level) is
available for fluidisation. During operation 200 mm to 300 mm bed height is maintained
(excluding 100 mm static bed height). During fluidisation, bed expands up to 1500 mm. Bed
tubes are immersed in this expanded bed to maintain the required bed temperature.
Operating bed height which is equal to the pressure drop across bed can be calculated as the
difference of the two pressure drops (without bed and with bed) at a particular air flow.
Let air flow be 200 mm (without bed and with bed)
Airbox pressure without bed be 200 mmwc
Airbox pressure with operating bed be 450 mmwc
Furnace pressure at both the conditions be 5 mmwc
Then, bed height = (450 + 5) – (200 + 5) = 250 mmwc or 250 mm (as bulk density of

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.24

bed material is 1000 kg/m3).

Total bed of larger size boiler is divided into compartments. Each compartment is having
independent coal feeding system with its own airbox and air nozzles for fluidisation.
Depending upon the load on the boiler, some compartments are taken out of service. This
procedure is called compartment slumping. To maintain the temperature of the slumped
compartment, fluidising air is charged to that compartment. This is called bed mixing.
Crushed coal of size 6–8 mm is stored in the coal bunker nearer to the boiler. This coal is
introduced into the fluidising bed as per the requirement through coal feeders. Underbed
pneumatic feeding and overbed feeding methods are adopted in AFBC boiler. During starting,
oil or gas burners are used to heat the bed material initially.
In underbed pneumatic feeding fuel from the bunker is fed pneumatically into the bed
through a rotary feeder and a mixing nozzle located below the bunker.
In over-bed feeding crushed coal from the coal bunker is conveyed to the spreader by a screw
conveyor.
The temperature of fluidising bed is maintained at around 900 °C. The bed temperature is
maintained by transferring the heat of bed to the feedwater quickly. For this, bed tubes are
placed inside the fluidising bed in which the boiler water flows.
Normally, inferior quality coal is used in the AFBC boiler. Ash and shale percentage is more
in this type of coal. After complete combustion of the fuel in the bed, larger size ash particles
remain in the bed. Accumulation of this ash increases the bed height and affects the
fluidisation. This ash is called as bed ash or bottom ash. Increase in pressure drop across the
bed indicates the bed height. To maintain the bed height, bed ash overflow arrangement is
provided so that excess bed ash overflows to a separate compartment where it is cooled and
drained out.
The amount of fly ash generated in AFBC boiler is more due to the escape of particles. Fly ash
carried away by the flue gas is removed at the following stages:
 Convection zone
 Bottom of air preheater
 Bottom of economiser
 Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)

Circulating Fluidised Bed (CFBC) Boiler

CFBC technology was developed to burn difficult fuel and used for small capacity industrial
boilers. Now, this technology is used successfully to install higher capacity power boilers for
power generation. CFBC boiler is still in developing stage and is considered a better option of

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.25

power generation in future due to several benefits such as improved efficiency, reduced
emission, high fuel flexibility, ease of co-firing, lower costs and possibility of subcritical,
supercritical and ultrasupercritical parameters.
Like AFBC, CFBC boiler utilises fluidised bed principle. But here, fluidisation velocity is kept
more (4–5 m/s). So, the fluidised bed is extended throughout the furnace. Crushed fuel is
injected into this fluidised bed and combustion takes place. As the velocity is more, so the bed
particles, along with some non-combustion particles, move out of the furnace with flue gas.
Heavier particles of flue gas are separated in a solid separator and circulated back into the
furnace. Due to circulation of hot particles, efficient heat transfer is possible. Unburnt loss is
minimum in CFBC boiler, as unburnt particles are recirculated into the furnace, hence provides
more time for complete combustion. Residence time is more in CFBC boiler due to taller
furnace design. Hence, combustion is efficient and suitable for staged combustion to minimise
NOx formation. No bed coils are immersed in the bed for steam generation. Hence, erosion of
bed tubes is avoided, resulting in more reliable operation.
Some merits of CFBC boiler are listed below:
• Higher degree of fuel flexibility
• High combustion efficiency
• Low NOx emissions
• Good turn down ratio
• No need of in-bed tubes, which are subject to erosion
• Smaller combustor cross section
• Fewer fuel feed points
• Elimination of slagging
• High availability
• Easy to operate and maintain

Difference between AFBC and CFBC

AFBC CFBC
Wind box 600-700 mmwc 1000-1200 mmwc
pressure
Combustion Mostly in bed Combination of bed and suspension
combustion
Ash No recirculation. But facility 100% of ash carried by FG can be
Recirculation can be provided recycled back to furnace.
Combustion Good Better
efficiency

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Unburnt Higher Lower

Bed temperature Lower Higher
Air distribution Primary/Secondary = 80/20 Primary/Secondary = 60/40
Fuel feeding Underfeed or overfeed overfeed
Furnace size Smaller Bigger
Air velocity 1.8 - 3.5 m/s 10-12 m/s

Bubbling Fluidised Bed Boiler (BFBB)

A schematic diagram of BFBB is shown below. In this boiler, crushed coal (6−20 mm) is
injected into the fluidised bed of limestone just above an air-distribution grid at the bottom of
the bed.

The air flows upwards through the grid from the air plenum into the bed, where combustion of
coal occurs. The products of combustion leaving the bed contain a large proportion of unburnt
carbon particles which are collected in cyclone separator and fed back to the bed. The boiler
water tubes are located in the furnace.
Since most of the sulphur in coal is retained in the bed by the bed material used (limestone), the
gases can be cooled to a lower temperature before leaving the stack with less formation of acid
(H2SO4). As a result of low combustion temperatures (800−900°C), inferior grades of coal can
be used without slagging problem and there is less formation of NOx. Cheaper alloy materials
can also be used, resulting in economy of construction.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.27

The volumetric heat release rates are 10 to 15 times higher and the surface heat transfer rates
are 2 to 3 times higher than a conventional boiler. This makes the boiler more compact.
Advantages of BFBB
• The unit size and hence capital cost are reduced due to better heat transfer.
• It can respond rapidly to changes in load demand.
• Low combustion temperatures (800−950°C) restricts the formation of NOx pollutants.
• Fouling and corrosion of tubes is reduced considerably due to low combustion
temperatures.
• Cost of coal to fine grind is reduced as it is not essential to grind the coal very fine.
• Low grade fuels and high-sulphur coal be used.
• Fossil and waste fuels can be used.
• Combustion temperature can be controlled accurately.

Pressurized Bubbling Fluidized Bed Combustion (PBFB or PFBC)

The pressurized bubbling fluidized bed (PBFB) technology utilizes a bubbling fluidized bed
boiler operating at 1.2—1.6 MPa inside a pressure vessel in conjunction with a gas turbine
combined cycle.

Combustion air is compressed in a twin-shaft, intercooled GT-driven-air-compressor and flows

to the PBFB combustor. Coal is fed as coal-water paste to the combustors. A part of the
combustion-heat is used to generate steam in the inbed heat transfer surface. The steam then
flows to the steam turbine which generates approximately 80% of the plant power output.

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Advantages of pressurized FBC system over atmospheric FBC system are given below:
• It allows increased coal loading per m2 in the combustion chamber since the burning
rate of fuel is higher.
• It required reduced air velocity.
• NOx, emissions are reduced.
• It has improved overall thermal efficiency of the plant.
• The overall size of the plant is considerably reduced, hence the overall cost of the plant.
• Better desulphurisation is accomplished.

Example (Haryana BOE 2019, 10 marks)

Show that the combined cycle efficiency of PFBC is always greater than the equivalent steam
cycle plant efficiency.

Solution
PFBC system operates with steam and gas turbines in tandem. Since some portion of the input
energy is extracted by the GT at a higher temperature than that recovered by the ST, the overall
efficiency |of the combined cycle is about 40-41% compared to about 38% for a basic steam
cycle.
Consider the simplified diagram of supercharged PFBC system.

Overall energy balance yields

Qi  Qs  x.GT Qi  Q0 (1)

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.29

Power generated by ST
pST  ST Qs (2)
Power generated by GT
pGT  xGT Qi (3)
Efficiency of the combined cycle
pST  pGT
cc  (4)
Qi
Boiler efficiency
Qi  Q0
b  (5)
Qi
Plant efficiency
 p  b ST (6)

where
Qi = total thermal input, W
Q0 = heat rejection to the atmosphere, W
Qs = heat absorbed by steam, W
From equation (4)
pST pGT Q x. .Q
cc    ST . s  GT i
Qi Qi Qi Qi
Qi  xGT .Qi  Qo
= ST .  x.GT
Qi

 Q 
=ST 1  xGT  o   xGT
 Qi 

= ST (b  xGT )  x.GT

=  p  x.GT (1   ST )

Since x, ηGT and (1 - ηST ) are always positive, the combined cycle efficiency is always greater
than the equivalent steam cycle plant efficiency, ηp.

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SUPER CRITICAL BOILERS

A large number of steam generating plants are designed between working ranges of 125 atm.
and 510°C to 300 atm. and 6600C ; these are basically characterised as sub-critical and super-
critical.
Usually a sub-critical boiler consists of three distinct section as preheater (economiser),
evaporator and superheater.
A super-critical boiler requires only preheater and superheater.
The constructional layout of both the above types of boilers is, however, practically identical.
These days it has become a rule to use super-critical boilers above 300 MW capacity units.

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Super critical boiler

The boiler consists of inclined evaporator coils (T) arranged in a spiral. Forty such coils are
paralleled around the furnace. Steam generated in the evaporators flows into the headers and
then to the convection superheater (CS). The superheated steam is utilized for power
generation.
In a conventional vertical wall design, the riser or wall tubes in the central region are exposed
to the highest heat flux, while the tubes in the corner region receive less heat. The steam
temperature in the middle tubes are higher than those in the comer tubes. This unequal
temperature difference can cause severe thermal stress on the tubes. To avoid this, spiral
membrane wall design is adopted for supercritical boilers.

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The temperature profiles of wall tubes of vertical type and the spiral type are shown in figure.
In the spiral design, the lower portion of the furnace is arranged in a spiral configuration such
that the steam circulates in tubes around the boiler as it travels up the furnace.
An intermediate header is used to make the furnace wall vertical at the upper region of the
furnace. As the furnace wall tubes are at an angle, the spiral tubes are not self-supporting. The
supporting load is transferred to the upper section vertical tubes.
The economizer is positioned at the lower uncooled casing section of the parallel pass heat
recovery area (HRA).
Feedwater after economizer passes through evaporator, where entire water is converted into
steam with small superheat.
Steam from the evaporation circuit passes through in-line steam/water separator to get final
superheated steam.
Reheat steam obtained from HP turbine is first heated in primary reheater placed at HRA.
The steam then passes thorough final reheater tubes to achieve the final reheat steam
temperature.
The super-critical boilers claim the following advantages over subcritical type :
 Large heat transfer rates.
 Owing to less heat capacity of the generator the pressure level is more stable and therefore
gives better response.
 Because of absence of two phase mixture the problems of erosion and corrosion are
minimised.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.33

 More adaptable to load fluctuations (because of great ease of operation, simplicity and
flexibility).
 The turbo-generators connected to super-critical boilers can generate peak loads by
changing the pressure of operation.
 Higher thermal efficiency.

Presently, 246 atm. and 5380C are used for unit size above 500 MW capacity plants.

SUPERCHARGED BOILER
In a supercharged boiler, the combustion is carried out under pressure in the combustion
chamber by supplying the compressed air. The exhaust gases from the combustion chamber are
used to run the gas turbine as they are exhausted to high pressure. The gas turbine runs the air
compressor to supply the compressed air to the combustion chamber.

Supercharged Boiler
Advantages:
 Owing to very high overall heat transfer co-efficient the heat transfer surface required is
hardly 20 to 25% of the heat transfer surface of a conventional boiler.
 The part of the gas turbine output can be used to drive other auxiliaries.
 Small heat storage capacity of the boiler plant gives better response to control.
 Rapid start of the boiler is possible.
 Comparatively less number of operators are required.

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QUESTIONS FROM BOE EXAMS

Write a short note on Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CBB 2021, 5 marks).
Answer: Described in this module.
What are the advantages of water tube boiler over fire tube boiler? (CBB 2021)
Answer: Described in this module.
What are the comparative advantages and disadvantages of fire tube and water tube
Boilers? (Maharashtra BOE 2023, 4 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
Explain Fluidized bed combustion. What is the difference between AFBC & CFBC
Boiler? (Maharashtra BOE 2025, 5 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
Discuss operational problems of spent wash fired boiler in sugar industry. (Maharashtra
BOE 2025, 5 marks)
Answer:
• Solids Content & Concentration: Spent wash requires high solids content (around
60%) for combustion, which is energy-intensive and can damage boiler components,
notes a study on CABI Digital Library.
• Sticky Nature: Spent wash's sticky nature can lead to fouling in the boiler and ash
handling systems, hindering efficiency and increasing maintenance needs, according to
a study on CABI Digital Library.
• Fouling & Corrosion: High ash fusion temperatures, chlorides, calcium oxide, and
sulphates can contribute to fouling and corrosion of boiler tubes, reducing heat transfer
and potentially requiring premature replacement, according to a study by Boiler World
Update.
• Calorific Value: The low calorific value of spent wash can affect boiler efficiency and
necessitate adjustments to operating parameters, notes a study by Boiler World Update.
• Flue Gas Corrosivity: Flue gases from spent wash fired boilers are highly corrosive,
potentially causing damage to boiler components and necessitating proper handling and
control,
Why spiral wall design is adopted in super critical boiler? Why transition header is
required in this case? (Maharashtra BOE 2025, 4 marks)

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.35

Answer: Described in this module.

Explain the difference between sub-critical and super-critical boilers. (Maharashtra BOE
2025, 5 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
What are the methods to improve Efficiency of Bagasse fired Water Tube Boiler?
(Maharashtra BOE 2025, 5 marks)
Answer: Improving the efficiency of a bagasse-fired water tube boiler involves optimizing
combustion, heat transfer, and operational practices while minimizing losses. Below are key
methods to enhance efficiency:
 Maintain Proper Air-Fuel Ratio: Use excess air control (typically 20-30% for
bagasse) to ensure complete combustion without excessive heat loss. Install oxygen
sensors for real-time monitoring.
 Improve Bagasse Quality: Ensure consistent moisture content (ideally 45-50%) by
proper drying or storage. High moisture reduces calorific value and efficiency.
 Install Economizers: Recover heat from flue gases to preheat feedwater, improving
efficiency by 3-5%.
 Use Air Preheaters: Heat combustion air with flue gas heat, increasing combustion
efficiency.
 Install Superheaters: Increase steam temperature for higher energy output, improving
cycle efficiency.
 Control Flue Gas Temperature: Keep flue gas exit temperature as low as possible
(around 150-180°C) without causing corrosion, using heat recovery systems.
 Integrate Co-Generation: Use excess steam for power generation or process heating,
maximizing overall plant efficiency.
Write short notes on Natural and Forced circulation of Boiler. (Maharashtra BOE 2023, 2
marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
What are the advantages and limitations of forced circulation over natural circulation.
(Haryana BOE 2019, 2 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
List down in details Major advantages of FBC Boiler System. (Gujarat BOE 2024, 5
marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
What is Clinker? Why clinker is formed during AFBC start up? (Gujarat BOE 2024, 5
marks)

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.36

Answer: Clinker is a solidified mass of fused ash.

When commercial size grades of coal or other inert-containing solid fuels are fired in FB
combustors, there is a gradual accumulation of oversize inerts in the bed. Most of the coal-
inerts tied to the ash are of relatively low density causing the ash particles to diffuse throughout
the bed, thereby increasing the mean particle size. This has the effect of increasing the
minimum fluidizing velocity and therefore, for a given operating velocity, less gas will pass
through the bed as bubbles, reducing the intensity of turbulence.
If the accumulated mass of oversize inerts exceeds 20%, the reduced mixing rate will give rise
to lateral temperature gradients, eventually leading to clinker formation around the fuel feed
points. When this might occur, it is imperative to provide a bed-regrading system permitting
periodic withdrawal of the bed material, separating the oversize by screening and returning the
correct size to the bed.
What is revosteam (water tube coil type) boiler? Tell its three advantages. (Jharkhand
BOE 2024, 6 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
Describe various types of high-pressure boilers used in practice. (Assam BOE 2022, 5
marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
Make a neat sketch of Benson boiler with showing its main parts. What are its main five
advantages? (Gujarat BOE 2024, Assam BOE 2022, 5 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
Explain the unique features of high pressure boilers. (Kerala BOE 2023, 5 marks)
Answer: Advantages are described in this module.
Enumerate the factors that should be considered while selecting a boiler. Explain the
unique features of high pressure boilers. (Kerala BOE 2023, 5 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
Modem high-pressure naval steam boilers are designed with all tubes bent to an arc of a
circle. What are the advantages of this design? (Haryana BOE 2019, 2 marks)
Answer:
 Bent tubes allowed for better heat transfer
 Much refractory was eliminated
 The tubes could form flue gas baffles
Difference between the following in brief: Steam boiler and Steam generator (Jharkhand
BOE 2021, 1.5 marks)

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.37

Answer: A steam boiler consists of the containing vessel and convection heating surfaces only,
whereas a steam generator covers the whole unit, encompassing water wall tubes, superheaters,
air heaters and economizers.
What is PFBC in the context of steam generator? (Haryana BOE 2019, 1 mark)
Answer: Described in this module.
What are the common failure modes in the flue-gas-heated waste-heat boiler. (Haryana
BOE 2019, 2 marks)
Answer: HEX tubes are a crucial component of any waste heat boiler, but they are often
exposed to demanding operation settings, including high temperature, high pressure, corrosive
flue gas, alkaline fly ash and so on. Accordingly, HEX tubes of a waste heat boiler frequently
encounter severe failures; the typical failure causes found in WHBs being categorised into the
following classes:
 defects of the material
 high-temperature corrosion
 stress corrosion cracking and
 dew point corrosion
What factors are responsible for the lower projected cost of PCFB as against PBFB?
(Haryana BOE 2019, 2 marks)
Answer: PCFB (Pressurized Circulating Fluidized Bed) boilers are generally considered
cheaper than PBFB (Pressurized Bubbling Fluidized Bed) boilers due to a combination of
factors including simpler design, lower material handling complexity, and potentially higher
exit gas temperatures.
Show that the combined cycle efficiency of PFBC is always greater than the equivalent
steam cycle plant efficiency. (Haryana BOE 2019, 10 marks)
Answer: Explained in this module.
Draw a neat diagram of straight-tube water tube boilers have straight, inclined tubes to
aid in water circulation. (Assam BOE 2023)
Answer: Described in this module.
What are the benefits a CFBC boiler offers? (Assam BOE 2022, 2 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.
Explain briefly the methods used to control SOx and NOx in FBC boilers. (Assam BOE
2022, 5 marks)
Answer: If a fuel contains more sulphur content, a limestone particle bed is used to control
SOX and NOX formation.

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 TYPES OF BOILERS 5.38

What is the difference between vibrating grate stoker and retort stoker? (Assam BOE
2023, 3 marks)
Answer: Described in this module.

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