Concept and foundations of educational psychology: professional profile and functions of the educational

psychologist Unit 1 Professor Lorena Combadiera Degree in Psychology Psychology of Education “You can teach a
student a lesson for a day; but if you can teach him to learn by creating curiosity, he will continue the learning
process as long as he lives.” -Clay P. Bedford. “Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and
I’ll understand.” -Chinese Proverb. “Tell me and I’ll forget; show me and I may remember; involve me and I’ll
understand.” -Chinese Proverb. “What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the human soul.” - Joseph
Addison. “Education makes a people easy to lead but difficult to drive: easy to govern, but impossible to enslave.” -
Peter Brougham. Quotes. 3 INDEX CONTENTS 1. Exploring Educational Psychology 2. Historical Background 3.
Effective Teaching 4. Students’ Images of their best teachers 5. Research in Educational Psychology 6. Descriptive
Research 7. Correlational Research 8. Experimental Research 9. Quantitative & Qualitative Research 10. The
Marshmallow Experiment 11. Teacher-As-Researcher 4 1. Exploring Educational Psychology 1.1 Psychology and
Educational Psychology: Definitions. • Psychology • Educational Psychology is the branch of Psychology that
specializes in understanding the teaching and learning process in educational settings. Is the collection of insights,
knowledge, and practical theories that every educator ought to possess in order to effectively challenge the day-to-
day issues encountered in teaching. • is the scientific study of human behaviour. 5 1. Exploring Educational
Psychology 1.2 Educational Psychology Definitions. • Educational Psychology is a distinct discipline that uses its
own theories, research methods, and techniques. What do Educational Psychologists do? o They research learning
and teaching and, at the same time, work to improve educational policy and practice (Anderman, 2011; Pintrich,
2000). o Educational psychologists don’t provide direct instructions for teachers, but they train them with guiding
principles to make informed decisions. 6 1. Exploring Educational Psychology 1.2 Educational Psychology
Definitions. What do Educational Psychologists do? o Is a psychology professional whose objective is to reflect on
and intervene in human behaviour in educational settings, by developing the capacities of individuals, groups, and
institutions. They also intervene in all psychological processes that affect learning or derive from it. 7 1. Exploring
Educational Psychology 1.3 Building bridges between disciplines Psychology of Education is a discipline with its own
entity. It has its own objectives, contents, and specific research programs. “Psychology of Education builds bridges
between the discipline of Psychology and Education” - (Dewey). PSYCHOLOGY EDUCATION 8 1. Exploring
Educational Psychology 1.4 Relationship between Psychology and Educational Psychology. Educational Psychology
nurtures from basic psychology methods, concepts, theories, and empirical research. Educational Psychology also
enriches basic Psychology giving explanations and theories to human behaviour in educational contexts. 9 1.
Exploring Educational Psychology 1.5 Most Specific Functions of the Educational Psychologist Assessment
Diagnosis in Educational Contexts Detection of Disfunctions/ problems Dyslexia, Anorexia, ADHD, ASD... High
abilities, school climate, family... Psychological Counselling Students, parents, teachers and educational authorities
Students: Intellectual, social, affective Educational Authorities: Decision making 10 1. Exploring Educational
Psychology 1.6 Distinguishing components of the educational psychologist • Sociologists use data to understand
types of behaviour that occur at the different levels and the interconnections of these levels. o Micro-level analysis
involves studying individual interactions between people. o Meso-level analysis focuses on specific groups or
communities, observing patterns of social connections and their impact. o Macro-level analysis studies society as a
whole, including its institutions and broader patterns. It considers various forces like social, political, and economic
factors, though it might miss detailed individual interactions seen at the micro level. 11 1. Exploring Educational
Psychology 1.6 Distinguishing components of the educational psychologist Curriculum Teachers Students Micro,
meso and macrosystems: Family School Societies. 12 1. Exploring Educational Psychology 1.6 Distinguishing
components of the educational psychologist Curriculum Teachers Students Micro, meso and macrosystems: family,
school and societies. Lessons and assessments that will be taught in an educational institution by a teacher. 13 1.
Exploring Educational Psychology 1.7 Implications for teaching • Educational psychologists represent one of the
largest areas within the professional collective. • School counselor: • Academic guidance: Helping students with
study skills, class schedules, and educational planning. • Emotional and social support: Assisting students with
personal, family, or social challenges that impact their well-being. • Career guidance: Helping students explore
career options and plan for their future. • Crisis intervention: Providing immediate support in emergencies and
coordinating with external resources if needed. • Conflict resolution: Mediating disputes between students or
between students and teachers. 14 1. Exploring Educational Psychology 1.7 Implications for teaching • False
Learning: [A friend of mine, visiting a school, was asked to examine a young class in geography. Glancing at the book,
she said: “Suppose you should dig a hole in the ground, hundreds of feet deep, how should you find it at the
bottom—warmer or colder than on top?” None of the class replied, the teacher said: “I’m sure they know, but I think
you don’t ask the question quite rightly. Let me try.” So, taking the book, she asked: “In what condition is the interior
of the globe?” and received the immediate answer from half the class at once. “The interior of the globe is in a
condition of igneous fusion”.] - William James. 15 2. Historical Background 2.1 Founders of Educational Psychology •
The field of educational psychology was founded by several pioneers in psychology in the late nineteenth century just
before the start of the twentieth century. 1. William James (1842-1910). 2. John Dewey (1859-1952). 3. E.L. Thorndike
(1874- 1949). Pioneers of Educational Psychology. Note. William James, John Dewey and [Link]. 16 •
Launched the First Psychology textbook: Principles of Psychology (1890). • Lecture: Talk to Teachers (1899/1993):
“Laboratory psychology experiments can’t tell us how to teach children effectively”. • Importance of observing
teaching and learning in the classroom in order to improve education. • Recommendations: start the lesson at a
point just beyond the child’s level of knowledge to stretch the child’s mind. 2.2 William James (1842-1910) 2
Historical background Note. William James (1842-1910) 17 • He established the first Educational Psychology
laboratory in the USA (University of Chicago 1894). • Important ideas: o View of the child as an active learner:
children learn best by DOING. Before Dewey, it was believed that children should sit quietly in their seats and
passively learn in a rote manner ( ). o Education should focus on the child’s adaptation to the environment. Children
should learn how to think and adapt to the world in different contexts. Especially, they should learn how to be
reflective problem solvers. o All children deserve to have a competent education: education for all children (girls and
boys) as well as children from diverse socioeconomic and ethnic groups. 2.3 John Dewey (1859-1952) 2. Historical
background Note. John Dewey (1859-1952) doing something in a mechanical, repetitive, or habitual way without
deep understanding or critical thinkingyç 18 • Assessment and measurement: highlight the need for education to be
grounded in systematic research and precise evaluation to understand and develop children’s reasoning skills. •
One of the school’s most important tasks is to develop children’s reasoning skills. • He conducted detailed scientific
studies of teaching and learning. • Educational Psychology must have a scientific base and should be strongly
focused on measurement. 2.4 E.L Thorndike (1874-1949) 2. Historical background Note. E.L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
19 Let’s debate... John Dewey argued that children should not sit quietly in their seats and learn in a rote manner. Do
you agree with Dewey? Why? Why not? 20 3. Effective teaching Can Good teaching be taught? 21 3. Effective
teaching 3.1 Key ingredients • Can Good teaching be taught? o Borman and Kimball, (2005), recognize there are
behaviours and skills that define an exceptional teacher. o Can good teaching be taught? The answer is definitely YES
(Ball & Forzani, 2010). Good teaching has to be observed and practiced, but there are principles of good teaching
that teachers need to know. ▪ In a high school math class: while speaking, the teacher notices two students
whispering at the back. Without disrupting the lesson, the teacher starts walking, this action prompts the students to
cease whispering and focus. This teacher handles behavioral issues by an intervention that achieves the desired
result. Moreover, the teacher effectively resolves minor issues preemptively to prevent their escalation into more
significant concerns. 22 3. Effective teaching 3.2 Professional knowledge and skills 1. Subject-matter competence.
2. Instructional Strategies. 3. Thinking skills. 4. Goal Setting and Instructional Planning. 5. Developmentally
appropriate teaching practices. 6. Classroom management skills. 7. Motivation skills. 8. Communication skills. 9.
Working effectively with students from culturally diverse backgrounds. 10. Assessment knowledge skills. 11.
Technological skills. 23 Good Working with facts, terms and general concepts. Organising ideas and building
connections among them. Developing new ways of thinking and arguing within a discipline. Carrying ideas from one
discipline to another. Good teacher 3. Effective teaching 3.2.1 Subject-matter competence 24 Constructivist
approach Direct instruction approach Learner-centered approach. Structured, teacher-centered approach.
Individuals actively construct their own knowledge. The teacher directs and controls student’s way of learning.
Children are encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with the teacher’s
guidance (open classrooms). High teacher expectations for student’s knowledge. Maximum time spent by students
on academic tasks. Many EFFECTIVE TEACHERS use both approaches. E.g. Case of Reading Disorder Direct
Instruction approach. 3. Effective teaching 3.2.2 Instructional Strategies. 25 Constructivist approach Direct
instruction approach Learner-centered approach. Structured, teacher-centered approach. Individuals actively
construct their own knowledge. The teacher directs and controls student’s way of learning. Children are encouraged
to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with the teacher’s guidance (open
classrooms). High teacher expectations for student’s knowledge. Maximum time spent by students on academic
tasks. Many EFFECTIVE TEACHERS use both approaches. E.g. Case of Reading Disorder Direct Instruction approach.
3. Effective teaching 3.2.2 Instructional Strategies. 26 • Critical thinking skills: thinking reflectively and productively.
How many students develop habits of passively learning material and rotely memorizing concepts? • Being open-
minded and curious yet being careful to avoid making mistakes. 3. Effective teaching 3.2.3 Thinking skills. 27 Setting
goals for teaching Organising plans for teaching those goals Using instructional planning to maximize student’s
learning 3. Effective teaching 3.2.4 Goal Setting and Instructional Planning 28 Competent teachers have a good
understanding of children’s development and know how to create instructional materials appropriate for their
developmental levels (Bredekamp, 2017; Morrison, 2017). Disorders ADHD LANGUAGE DISORDER (selective
mutism) LEARNING DISORDER ASD Anxiety/depression 3. Effective teaching 3.2.5 Developmentally appropriate
teaching practices 29 Competent teachers have a good understanding of children’s development and know how to
create instructional materials appropriate for their developmental levels (Bredekamp, 2017; Morrison, 2017).
Disorders ADHD LANGUAGE DISORDER (selective mutism) LEARNING DISORDER ASD Anxiety/depression 3.
Effective teaching 3.2.5 Developmentally appropriate teaching practices 30 • Keeping the class as a whole working
together. • Establishing rules and procedures. • Organizing groups. • Monitoring and pacing classroom activities. •
Handling misbehavior. 3. Effective teaching 3.2.6 Classroom management skills 31 3. Effective teaching 3.2.7
Motivation skills • Giving them self-motivation and responsibility towards learning processes. • Providing real-world
learning opportunities of optimal difficulty and novelty for each student. • Students become motivated (intrinsic-
extrinsic) when they can make choices in line with their personal interests. • Giving them the opportunity to think
creatively. • Establishing high expectations for students’ achievement. 32 • Trigger: recall a peak-motivation episode
in classroom. Close your eyes. Bring to mind a moment in school when you felt genuinely energised by a subject.
What happened immediately after that feeling? What exact behaviour did you engage in (asked a question, practised
harder, etc.)? How did the teacher or the context respond? Did that response function as a reinforcer (kept the
motivation going) or as a punisher (shut it down)? • Micro-analysis in pairs: tell your story to a partner. The listener
writes down the positive reinforcer that sustained the behaviour: praise, optimally challenging task, autonomy, peer
approval... The emotion + personal value it awakened (e.g., curiosity, growth, contribution). Swap roles. • Whole-
class synthesis: list every reinforcer or teacher move that appeared in your stories. • What types of reinforcers do you
think should be used in class? 3. Effective teaching 3.2.7 Motivation skills 33 Thinking creatively Note: This video
shows a lecture of Ken Robinson talking about creativity Reading recommendation: “Creative schools” by Ken
Robinson 3 Effective teaching 3.2.7 Motivation skills 34 3 Effective teaching 3.2.8 Communication skills • Having
good speaking and listening skills is essential: verbal communication. • Understanding students’ non-verbal
communication: eye contact, tone of voice, posture. • Keeping criticism at mínimum→ avoid punishment. • Having
an assertive communication style, instead of aggressive or passive (speak “with” rather than “to” students). 35 1.
Each student tells a short story that illustrates a core value from their family/ country/ community and explains how
teachers/ classmates could honour that value during lessons. 2. Noticing Rigid Schemas: together, identify any rigid
beliefs, stereotypes, or prejudices we may have carried from our home cultures. 3. Which automatic thoughts show
up? How might they limit inclusion or learning? 4. Co-creating Class Norms: use the shared values to draft 3–4
communal norms, for example: Respect · Support · Empathy · Curiosity... 5. Linking concrete Actions: under each
norm, list specific daily behaviours that enact it. 3 Effective teaching 3.2.9 Working effectively with students from
culturally diverse backgrounds 36 • Effective teachers are well-informed about people from different cultural
backgrounds and are sensitive to their needs. • They must encourage students to have positive personal contact with
diverse students. 3 Effective teaching 3.2.9 Working effectively with students from culturally diverse backgrounds 37
Here are cultural questions that competent teachers ask themselves (Pang, 2005): • Do I recognize the power and
complexity of cultural influences on students? • Are my expectations for my students culturally based or biased? •
Am I doing a good job of seeing life from the perspective of students who come from cultures different from my own?
3 Effective teaching 3.2.9 Working effectively with students from culturally diverse backgrounds 38 Differentiated
instruction involves recognizing individual variations in students’ knowledge, readiness, interests, and other
characteristics, and taking these differences into account when planning curriculum. When assessing students, a
competent teacher must take into account differentiated instruction. Planning curriculum: the systematic process
by which teachers and instructional teams design, select, and sequence the content, learning experiences, and
assessments that will take place in the classroom. Goals and Competencies, defining what students should know,
do... Selection and Organization of Content. Prioritizing key topics. Planning the timeline: units, projects, and
learning sequences. Adapting activities to diverse learning styles, proficiency levels, and cultural backgrounds.
Assessment and Feedback... 3. Effective teaching 3.2.10 Assesment knowledge skills 39 • Do you think technology
can support learning? Why? Why not? • What are the main concerns about using technology inappropriately in the
classroom? • Do you think teenagers spend too much time on their phones or in front of a screen? • Huge concern:
CYBERBULLYING. How can we stop it and prevent students from suffering its negative consequences? 3. Effective
teaching 3.2.11 Technological skills 40 Technology alone does not necessarily enhance students’ ability to learn, but
it can be a support. Upsides:Downsides: 3. Effective teaching 3.2.11 Technological skills 41 Technology alone does
not necessarily enhance students’ ability to learn, but it can be a support. Upsides: o Easier and faster access to
knowledge. o Groups and forums to help each other. o Inclusion: children who on certain occasions cannot go to the
classroom and watch it online. Downsides: o Bad use of the computer. o It is not free. o Ignorace. o No attendance.
3. Effective teaching 3.2.11 Technological skills 42 o Think of the best teacher you have ever had. • What were her/his
main characteristics? • Situations. • What made her/him special to you? (values) o Think of the worst teacher you
have ever had. • What were her/his worse characteristics? • Situations. • Anti-values. Here’s a question... 43
Confidence in their self-efficacy. High motivation. They bring a positive attitude and enthusiasm into the classroom.
The better teacher you become, the more rewarding your work will be. Effective teachers have... 3. Effective teaching
3.2.12 Commitment, motivation and Caring 44 4. Students’ Images of their best teachers 4.1 Characteristics of Best
Teachers “A good teacher is a teacher who does stuff that makes you think”. 45 4. Students’ Images of their best
teachers 4.1 Characteristics of Worst Teachers 46 5. Research in Educational Psychology It is said that experience is
the best teacher but... How valid are these conclusions? • When we base information only on our observations and
personal opinion, we are not being objective. • Authorities and experts sometimes don’t agree on the same subject. •
That is why we need to research and it is so important in Educational Psychology. Is it better to work with a highly
experienced psychologist or with a novice who relies heavily on the latest empirical research? The ideal psychologist
(veteran or novice) stays curious, consults up-to-date research, and engages in regular supervision. A good clinical
psychologist is driven by curiosity, genuinely motivated to help, committed to lifelong learning, keenly aware of their
own mistake and humbled by the possibility of making them. 47 Note. This video shows the functions of the Teacher
as researcher Teacher-as-researcher 5. Research Methods 48 5. Research Methods 5.1 Three basic Methods
Descriptive Correlational Experimental 49 5. Research Methods 5.2 Descriptive Research Descriptive research has
the purpose of observing and recording behaviour. E.g. An Educational psychologist may observe the extent to which
children are aggressive in a classroom. It cannot prove the CAUSE of a phenomenon, but it reveals important
information about people’s behaviour and attitudes. 50 5. Research Methods 5.2 Descriptive Research Observation:
we are constantly watching things around us, notwithstanding the fact that simply watching two students interacting
is not the same analysis used by the scientific method. 51 5. Research Methods 5.2 Descriptive Research •
Observation: 1. Laboratory observation: controlled setting from which many of the factors of the real world have
been removed. Laboratories help researchers gain more control but they have been criticized as being artificial.
Upsides: Accurate, reliable, and efficient. Limitation: Artificial. 2. Naturalistic observation: Behaviour is observed in
the real world. E.g. Educational psychologists may observe children in their natural settings: playgrounds, parks,
museums, and classrooms. Limitations: not accurate. 3. Participant observation: It happens when the observer-
researcher/teacher- researcher is actively involved as a participant in the activity or setting. For example, to observe
a student who has social impairment in the class and then record these observations. Limitation: Slow and
subjective. 52 5. Research Methods 5.2 Descriptive Research • Observation: 1. Laboratory observation: controlled
setting from which many of the factors of the real world have been removed. Laboratories help researchers gain
more control but they have been criticized as being artificial. Upsides: Accurate, reliable, and efficient. Limitation:
Artificial. 2. Naturalistic observation: Behaviour is observed in the real world. E.g. Educational psychologists may
observe children in their natural settings: playgrounds, parks, museums, and classrooms. Limitations: not accurate.
3. Participant observation: It happens when the observer-researcher/teacher-researcher is actively involved as a
participant in the activity or setting. For example, to observe a student who has social impairment in the class and
then record these observations. Limitation: slow and subjective. 53 5. Research Methods 5.2 Descriptive Research •
Standardized tests: tests with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. They assess students’
performance and compare it to other students at the same age or level. Example: tests that assess intelligence,
personality, career interests... • Physiological measures: they are often used to assess children’s development. E.g.
Neuroimaging can predict a person’s brain biochemical activity. A heart rating measure can assess anxiety. • Case
studies: they are an in-depth look at a person. The subject of a case study is unique, with a genetic makeup and set
of experiences that no one else shares. So, the results may not generalized to other people. 54 Case study: Brandi
Binder (1997). She developed such severe epilepsy that surgeons had to remove the right side of her brain’s cerebral
cortex when she was 6 years old. Brandi lost virtually all control over the muscles on the left side of her body, the side
controlled by the right side of her brain. At age 17, however, after years of therapy ranging from leg lifts to
mathematics and music training, Brandi is an A student. She loves music and art, which usually are associated with
the right side of the brain. Her recuperation is not 100 percent—for example, she has not regained the use of her left
arm— but her case study shows that if there is a way to compensate, the human brain will find it. Brandi’s
remarkable recovery also provides evidence against the stereotype that the left side (hemisphere) of the brain is
solely the source of logical thinking and the right hemisphere exclusively the source of creativity. Santrock, J. W.
(2017). Educational Psychology. Madrid: Mc Graw Hill. 5. Research Methods 5.2 Descriptive Research 55 5. Research
Methods 5.3 Correlational Research • Goal: describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or
characteristics. • Why is it useful? The more strongly two events are correlated (related or associated), the more
effectively we can predict one from the other (anxiety-isolation). WATCH OUT! CORRELATION BY ITSELF, HOWEVER,
DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION! Example: If researchers find that low-involved, permissive teaching is correlated
with a student’s lack of self-control, it suggests that low-involved, permissive teaching might be one source of the
lack of self-control, BUT NOT THE CAUSE. Other factors can be involved in this correlation and backward. 56 5.
Research Methods 5.3 Correlational Research 57 o Goal: it allows educational psychologists to determine the
CAUSE of behaviours. o Procedure: conducting an experiment, which is a carefully regulated procedure in which one
or more of the factors believed to influence the behaviour being studied is/are manipulated and all others are
constant. • Independent Variable: the manipulated, influential, experimental factor in an experiment (CAUSE). E.g.
mindfulness sessions. • Dependent Variable: The factor measured in an experiment (it can change as the
independent variable is being manipulated). E.g.’ Decrease in students’ anxiety. Hypothesis: mindfulness sessions
(IV) decrease students’ anxiety levels (DV) 5. Research Methods 5.4 Experimental Research 58 o Goal: it allows
educational psychologists to determine the CAUSE of behaviours. o Procedure: conducting an experiment, which is
a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behaviour being studied
is/are manipulated and all others are constant. • Independent Variable: the manipulated, influential, experimental
factor in an experiment (CAUSE). E.g. mindfulness sessions. • Dependent Variable: The factor measured in an
experiment (it can change as the independent variable is being manipulated). E.g.’ Decrease in students’ anxiety.
Hypothesis: mindfulness sessions (IV) decrease students’ anxiety levels (DV) 5. Research Methods 5.4 Experimental
Research 59 • Experimental group: the group whose experience is manipulated in an experiment. E.g. Students who
receive Mindfulness sessions. • Control group: a group whose experience is treated in every way like the
experimental group except for the manipulated factor. E.g. Students who don’t receive Mindfulness sessions. •
Random assignment: the assignment of participants to experimental and control groups by chance (these two
groups are randomly assigned). 5. Research Methods 5.4 Experimental Research 60 • Experimental Group: students
who participate in regular mindfulness sessions. During these sessions, they are taught mindfulness techniques. The
goal is to help them develop better emotional regulation strategies. • Control Group: the control group comprises
students who do not participate in mindfulness sessions. They continue with their regular routines and do not
receive any specific training in emotional management. • Random Assignment: to ensure the reliability of the study,
participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. This helps in reducing the possibility
of bias and ensures that both groups are comparable. Research Question: does practicing mindfulness sessions
improve emotional management skills in students? 5. Research Methods 5.4 Experimental Research 61 6.
Quantitative & Qualitative Research Quantitative Qualitative • Numerical Calculations. • Experimental and
Correlational Research. • Observations, interviews, surveys, and standardized tests, when statistics are used to
analyze the data collected. • Obtaining information. • Descriptive methods. • Interviews, case studies, ethnographic
studies, focus groups & personal diaries but not statistically analyzing the data. Mixed methods use both quantitative
and qualitative research. 62 7. The Marshmallow Experiment Note: This video shows a laboratory observational
impulse control experiment with children (delay gratification). 1. The ability to delay gratification was critical for
success in life. 2. Greater academic competence and higher scores, healthier weight, effective coping with stress
and frustration, social responsibility, and positive relations with peers. 63 7. The Marshmallow Experiment • The
Marshmallow Experiment is a classic study in psychology conducted by Walter Mischel in the late 1960s and early
1970s. It aimed to understand the concept of delayed gratification and its implications for self-control and success
in life. • Children, typically aged four to six, were individually placed in a room with a single marshmallow placed in
front of them on a table. • The researcher described that they could either eat the marshmallow right away or wait. If
they waited, they would be rewarded with a second marshmallow when the researcher returned after a certain time.
64 7. The Marshmallow Experiment • Key Findings: • Long-Term Implications: o Some children immediately ate the
marshmallow, unable to resist the temptation for immediate pleasure. o Others tried various strategies to resist the
temptation, such as covering their eyes, turning away from the marshmallow, or singing to themselves. o A smaller
group of children managed to delay gratification successfully and waited for the researcher to return, earning the
second marshmallow. o Mischel followed up with these children as they grew older and found some interesting
correlations: o Those who were able to delay gratification in the experiment tended to have better life outcomes,
including higher academic achievements and better social skills. o The ability to delay gratification was linked to
improved self-control and the capacity to manage stress and frustration. 65 8. Teacher-as-researcher Note. This
video shows the functions of the Teacher as researcher Learning approaches: applications for Educational
Psychology Unit 2 Professor Lorena Combadiera Degree in Psychology INDEX CONTENTS 1. What is learning? 2.
BEHAVIOURAL view of learning 3. Cognitive view of learning 4. Observational Learning 5. Cognitive-BEHAVIOURAL
approaches & self-regulation 6. Constructivist approach 2 “Education is not the learning of facts, but the training of
the mind to think”. -Einstein 3 “Education is the movement from darkness to light”. -Bloom. “Educating the mind
without educating the heart is no education at all”. -Aristotle. “If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day. If you
teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime.” -Confucius QUOTES 1. What is learning? There are different
approaches that aim to explain how humans learn. Specifically how students learn. Knowledge Values & Principles
AttitudesHabits Behavioural patterns 4 1. What is learning? Learning is often defined as a relatively
permanent/temporal (?) change in behaviour, knowledge, and thinking skills as a result of experience (Krause,
Bochner, Duchesne & McMaugh, 2010; Santrock, 2011). Performance: temporary fluctuation in knowledge or
behaviour that can be measured or observed in a short time. 5 1. What is learning? Learning is often defined as a
relatively permanent change in behaviour, knowledge, and thinking skills as a result of experience (Krause, Bochner,
Duchesne & McMaugh, 2010; Santrock, 2011). Performance: temporary fluctuation in knowledge or behaviour that
can be measured or observed in a short time. 6 7 • Nature: • Nurture: 1.1 Learning: Nature or Nurture? 1. What is
learning? a person’s biological inheritance. how environmental experiences, education, culture, and social
environment shape an individual's characteristics and personality traits throughout their life. HEREDITY EXPERIENCE
8 For educators, the key point is that nothing can be done about a child’s GENES, but we can act in his/her
ENVIRONMENT to create skills, motivation, tools knowledge... Teachers can make a difference in children’s learning,
regardless of the children’s genetic predispositions. 1.1 Learning: Nature or Nurture? 1. What is learning? 9 • Could
you think of some examples of characteristics that we inherit? • And some examples of learning through experience?
1.1 Learning: Nature or Nurture? 1. What is learning? Eye colour, Hair colour and texture, Skin tone, Blood group (A,
B, AB, O), Freckles, Colour blindness, Dominant hand, Natural predispositions, Hairline shape. Hobbies, Favourite
genres of music, Languages spoken, Fashion sense, Pierced ears, Ability to ride a bike, Favourite colour, Preference
for dogs or cats, Language(s) spoken, Emotional regulation skills, Problem- solving strategies, Knowledge of reading
and writing, Habits and routines (e.g., brushing teeth before bed), Values and beliefs (e.g., importance of community,
family roles), Hobbies and preferences (e.g., liking football, preferring sweet or savory food), Coping strategies (e.g.,
how one deals with stress or failure)... 2. Approaches to learning BEHAVIOURAL CognitiveConstructivist 10 Social
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES: -
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, Cognitive- BEHAVIOURAL approaches COGNITIVE APPROACH: Information
Processing CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH: Vygotsky & Piaget 11 2. Approaches to learning 2. 1 BEHAVIOURAL
APPROACH Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning 12 • Behaviourism is the perspective that behaviour
should be explained through observable experiences rather than mental processes. • Behaviour is everything that we
do, both verbal and nonverbal. Some authors associated with third-wave therapies argue that behaviour also
includes thoughts and emotions, as these too respond to the same principles of learning, specifically punishment
and reinforcement. • Behaviourism suggests that learning is associative; it involves understanding that two or more
events are connected or related. 2. Approaches to learning Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning 13 • For
the behaviourist, these private events are not the focus of the change in therapy, because they are THE
CONSEQUENCE. • Nowadays, behaviourists believe in private events, but these are not the basis of the change in
therapy. Change: Values exercise. Ideal-self exercise. Papers exercise. 2. Approaches to learning 2. 1 BEHAVIOURAL
APPROACH Behaviour (context). Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant
Conditioning 14 2. 1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes
associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. A form of learning in
which the consequences of behaviour produce changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur. Operant
Conditioning 15 2. 1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov (1927)): • Unconditioned
stimulus (US): a stimulus that automatically produces a response without any prior learning. • Unconditioned
response (UR): an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by the US. • Conditioned stimulus (CS): a
previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being associated with the US. •
Conditioned response (CR): learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after US-CS pairing. 16 2.
Approaches to learning 2. 1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Food. Dog’s salivation to food. The sound of a bell before the
dog ate the food. The dog’s saliva by the sound of the bell. 17 2.1 Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov (1927)): 2.
Approaches to learning 2. 1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Classical conditioning in the classroom • It can be involved in
both positive and negative experiences for students. the classroom is a safe and fun place to be in. the response will
be fear in the classroom. • POSITIVE: conditioning a happy song in the classroom • NEGATIVE: conditioning bullying
in the classroom 18 • Generalization: APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM: A student is criticized for poor
performance on a biology test. When the student begins to prepare for a chemistry test, she also becomes very
nervous because these two subjects are closely related to the sciences. 19 the tendency of a stimulus similar to the
original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response (e.g.: the bell or whistle were equally paired to the UCS
and both elicited the dog’s salivation). 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH 2.1 Classical
Conditioning Generalization • Discrimination in classical conditioning occurs when the organism responds to certain
stimuli but not others (e.g. Pavlov gave food to the dog only after ringing the bell/ whistle, not after any other sounds.
Subsequently, the dog responded only to the bell/whistle). APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM In the case of the
student taking tests in different classes, she doesn’t become as nervous about taking an English test or a history test
because they are very different subject areas. 20 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH 2.1
Classical Conditioning Discrimination • Extinction in classical conditioning involves weakening the conditioned
response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US). In one session, Pavlov rang the bell repeatedly but
did not give the dog any food. Eventually, the dog stopped salivating at the sound of the bell. Downsides: It is more
difficult to develop and with a single episode of C.C., extinction can disappear. APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM A
student who experiences anxiety during exams, since he never used to study and kept failing. One day, he decides to
study, and he starts passing the exams, resulting in reduced anxiety (change in context, not in private events). 21 2.
Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH 2.1 Classical Conditioning Extinction A method based on
classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate relaxation with successive
visualizations of increasingly anxiety-provoking situations (counterconditioning). Is it the same as extinction?
APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM E.g., A student in your class is extremely nervous about talking in front of the
class. The goal of systematic desensitization is to get the student to associate public speaking with relaxation. Using
successive visualizations, the student must practice systematic desensitization repeatedly before the talk. 22 2.
Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH 2.1 Classical Conditioning Systematic desensitization •
Extinction: passive weakening of a response due to lack of US. • Systematic desensitization: active replacement of
fear/anxiety with relaxation, via gradual exposure. 23 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH 2.1
Classical Conditioning • Fear of public speaking: • Conditioned fear response: “When I stand in front of people, I
expect them to laugh at me.” • The student repeatedly faces the feared situation (speaking in front of others) without
the negative outcome (no one laughs). • Over time, the anxiety fades because the association (speaking = ridicule) is
no longer reinforced. • Passive process: the conditioned response weakens naturally. Extinction • The therapist
creates an anxiety hierarchy (imagine → speak to 1 peer → small group → whole class). • At each step, the person
practices relaxation or breathing techniques to replace anxiety with calm. Active process: fear is counterconditioned
with a new response (relaxation). Systematic desensitization Operant conditioning (instrumental) • Is a form of
learning in which the consequences of behaviour produce changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur. •
The main pioneer of Operant conditioning is Skinner (1938). REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT It is a consequence that
increases the probability that a behaviour will occur. It is a consequence that decreases the probability that a
behaviour will occur. 24 Operant conditioning (instrumental) • Is a form of learning in which the consequences of
behaviour produce changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur. • The main pioneer of Operant
conditioning is Skinner (1938). REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT It is a consequence that increases the probability
that a behaviour will occur. It is a consequence that decreases the probability that a behaviour will occur. 25
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT POSITIVE PUNISHMENT NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT 26 • The
Skinner Box has influenced the field of education: o Reinforcement and Feedback: in the Skinner Box, reinforcement
(positive or negative) played a central role in shaping behaviour. In education, feedback and reinforcement can
motivate students and reinforce desired behaviours. o Self-paced learning: students can advance through the
material quickly, ensuring they grasp one concept before moving on to the next. 2. Approaches to learning 2.1
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH 2.2 Operant conditioning 27 Skinner Box and behaviourism have been criticized for
oversimplifying human learning and neglecting cognitive processes. What do you think about it? 2.2 Operant
conditioning 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Positive & Negative reinforcement 28 When
using positive reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus.
For example, the teacher’s positive comments can increase the student’s motivation toward learning science. When
using negative reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by the removal of an
aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. For example, a father keeps insisting that his son do his homework. He keeps
complaining that he still hasn’t done it. Finally, the son gets tired of hearing the complaints and does his homework.
The son’s response (doing his homework) removed the unpleasant stimulus (complaining and insisting). 2.2 Operant
conditioning 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Positive & Negative reinforcement 29 When
using positive reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus.
For example, the teacher’s positive comments can increase the student’s motivation toward learning science. When
using negative reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by removing an aversive
(unpleasant) stimulus. For example, a father keeps insisting that his son do his homework. He keeps complaining
that he still hasn’t done it. Finally, the son gets tired of hearing the complaints and does his homework. The son’s
response (doing his homework) removed the unpleasant stimulus (complaining and insisting). 2.2 Operant
conditioning 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement & Punishment 30 Generalization Generalization in operant conditioning means giving the same
response to similar stimuli. (You are training a rat to press a lever to receive food. You reinforce the rat with every
time it presses the lever when a red light is on. Over time, the rat learns to associate the red light with the reward and
starts pressing the lever when it sees the red light. Now, you introduce a different color light (green) and the rat starts
pressing the lever when it sees the green light, even though it hasn't been specifically trained with the green light. The
rat has generalized its response from the original stimulus (red light) to a similar stimulus (green light). Generalization
in operant conditioning is essential because it allows organisms to apply what they've learned to similar situations or
stimuli, which can be advantageous in adapting to their environment). APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM For
example, if a teacher praises the student for asking good questions related to Spanish Literature, will this generalize
to harder work in history, math, and other subjects? 31 2.2 Operant conditioning 2. Approaches to learning 2.1
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Discrimination 32 Discrimination in operant conditioning involves differentiating among
stimuli (teaching rats to respond to one stimulus (sound or light) to receive a reward, while not responding to another
stimulus to avoid punishment or receive no reward). APPLICATION TO THE CLASSROOM In a classroom setting,
discrimination in operant conditioning might involve students learning to raise their hands and wait to speak during
lessons related to the current topic (and receiving rewards for doing so) but not raising their hands during lessons
unrelated to the topic (and receiving no rewards for this behaviour). This behaviour demonstrates their ability to
discriminate between the two situations and respond accordingly based on the expected outcomes. 2.2 Operant
conditioning 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Extinction Extinction occurs when a previously
reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases. In the classroom, the most common use of
extinction is for the teacher to withdraw attention from behaviour that the attention is maintaining. APPLICATION TO
THE CLASSROOM For example, in many cases, a teacher’s attention reinforces a student’s disruptive behaviour,
such as when a student pinches another student and the teacher immediately talks with the perpetrator. If this
happens regularly, the student might learn that pinching other students is a good way to get the teacher’s attention. If
the teacher withdraws his or her attention, the pinching might be extinguished. 33 2.2 Operant conditioning 2.
Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Review Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning 34
Review Questions • What is classical conditioning? What are the US, UR, CS, and CR? In the context of classical
conditioning, what are generalization, discrimination, extinction, and systematic desensitization? Explain it using an
example. • What is operant conditioning? Explain the different types of reinforcement and punishment. In the context
of operant conditioning, what are generalization, discrimination, and extinction? Explain it using an example. 35 How
can we increase desirable behaviours in the classroom? • Choosing effective reinforcers. • Making reinforcers
contingent and contiguous. • Selecting the best Schedule of Reinforcement. • Using negative reinforcement
effectively. • Using shaping. • Decreasing undesirable behaviours. • Removing desirable stimuli. 36 2. Approaches to
learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Choosing effective reinforcers 37 Child’s perception of the reinforcer’s value
Reinforcement history Natural reinforcers are better than material rewards • Not all reinforcers are the same for
every child, teachers must individualize the use of particular reinforcers. For one student it might be praise, for
another, it might be participating in a favorite activity, for another, it might involve being a hall monitor for a week, and
for yet another, it could be getting to surf the Internet. 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
Premack Principle «A high probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low probability activity» Teacher: "When
you complete your math exercises, you can go out and play in the playground" !!! ! This principle will only work if
«going out to the playground» is more desirable than «doing maths» 38 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL
APPROACH Making Reinforcers Contingent and Contiguous The teacher or psychologist must give the reinforcer just
after the behaviour has been performed ( ). • It is recommended that teachers make “If . . . then” statements to
children. “If you finish ten math problems, then you can go out to play.” • The child has to perform the behaviour to
get the reward. 39 CONTIGUITY 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Select the best schedule of
reinforcement In the classroom, continuous reinforcement is rare. A teacher with a classroom of 25 or 30 students
can’t praise a child every time he or she makes an appropriate response. 40 Continuous reinforcement The child is
reinforced every time he/she makes a response. Reinforcing a response only part of the time Intermittent
reinforcement 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Select the best schedule of reinforcement 4
main schedules 41 Ratio Interval 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Select the best schedule
of reinforcement 4 main schedules 1. Fixed-ratio: a behaviour is reinforced after 2. Variable-ratio: a behaviour is
reinforced after 3. Fixed-interval: the behaviour will be reinforced after 4. Variable-interval: the response will be
reinforced after 42 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Set number of responses Average
number of responses Fixed amount of time Variable amount of time Select the best schedule of reinforcement 4
main schedules 1. Fixed-ratio: a behaviour is reinforced after a set number of responses, e.g: the teacher will give a
happy face to the child after 3 correct responses. 2. Variable-ratio: a behaviour is reinforced after an average number
of responses., but on an unpredictable basis, e.g: giving the reinforcement to the child after the average of 5
responses, but then after 7 responses. Interval schedules are determined by the amount of time elapsed since the
last reinforced behaviour. 3. Fixed-interval: the behaviour will be reinforced after a fixed amount of time, e.g: the
teacher will praise the child 5 minutes after he/she has given the correct response. 4. Variable-interval: the response
will be reinforced after a variable amount of time, e.g: giving the reward after 5 minutes, but another time after 15
minutes have passed. 43 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Contracting • Agreement
between the teacher and the child. • Signed (by both) and dated. • «If...then» statements. • The teacher can ask
another student to witness the agreement and sign it too. • The contract states that the child agrees to be a good
student by doing ______ and _____. 44 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Behavioural Contract
45 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Contracting with parents 46 2. Approaches to learning
2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Negative Reinforcement 47 • The frequency of response because the response
removes an stimulus. 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH increases aversive (unpleasant) o
Example: A student studies more to avoid being scolded by their parents. Prompts Definition Usage Examples 48 It is
a stimulus or cue that is given just before the response. It increases the probability that the response will occur. They
help the behaviour to get going. The prompts are no longer needed once the students consistently show the correct
responses. A reading teacher holds up a card that says w-e-r-e and says: «Not was, but...». Reminders of class rules/
dates for projects... 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH 36 Shaping Definition • Teaching new
behaviours by reinforcing successive approximations to specified target behaviour. Steps • Initially you reinforce any
response that resembles the target behaviour. • Then you reinforce the behaviour that most closely resembles the
target behaviour, and so on... Example • Student that has never completed 50% of the maths assignment. • The
target would be achieving that 100%. • But you reinforce her for successive approximations to the target (45%, 50%,
58%, 60%, 70%...) We normally use shapping when prompting or positive reinforcement isn’t effective. The rat
stands on its hind legs 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Decreasing undesirable behaviours
• Use differential reinforcement: the teacher will reinforce a behaviour that is more appropriate or incompatible at
the same time with what the child is doing. E.g. The teacher can reinforce a child for using the computer to learn new
concepts instead of using it to play games. • Terminate reinforcement (EXTINCTION): withdrawing positive
reinforcement from a child’s behaviour (many inappropriate behaviours are unintentionally maintained by positive
reinforcement (teacher’s attention)). E.g. Not giving attention to a girl pinching a boy in the classroom. She will end
up extinguishing her response. Always combine taking attention away from inappropriate behaviour with giving
attention to appropriate behaviour. 50 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Decreasing
undesirable behaviours • Remove DESIRABLE STIMULI (NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT): you remove a pleasant stimulus to
decrease a behaviour. Two ways: TIME OUT & RESPONSE COST. 1. TIME OUT 2. RESPONSE COST 51 2. Approaches
to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Decreasing undesirable behaviours Remove desirable stimuli (NEGATIVE
PUNISHMENT): you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour. Two ways: TIME OUT & RESPONSE COST.
1. TIME OUT: removing an individual from positive reinforcement. E.g. Everybody is playing during the break but one
of the kids is hitting others all the time. The teacher will ask her to sit in a chair separated from the rest for 5 or 10
minutes (plus the child’s age) and then ask him to continue with the activity. THE ACTIVITY MUST BE INTERESTING
AND MOTIVATING FOR THE CHILD. 2. RESPONSE COST: taking a positive reinforcer away from a student, as when
the student loses certain privileges. Involves some type of penalty or fine. E.g. after a student misbehaves, the
teacher might take away 10 minutes of recess time or the privilege of being a class monitor. 52 2. Approaches to
learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Present aversive stimuli Positive Punishment 1. It should only be used as a
last resort and in conjunction with providing the child with information about the appropriate behaviour. 2. An
aversive stimulus is a punishment only if it decreases the undesirable behaviour. All too often, aversive stimuli are
not effective punishments, maybe they do not decrease the undesirable behaviour and indeed increase it. 3.
Reprimands from the teacher toward the student can be a useful form of punishment but preferably talking to the
child in private. 4. PSYCHOLOGISTS AND EDUCATORS AGREE THAT PHYSICAL PUNISHMENT SHOULD NOT BE
USED IN ANY CIRCUMSTANCE. 53 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Consequences of using
physical, aggressive, or abusive punishments • Yelling or screaming: It can give the child an out-of-control model for
handling stressful situations. Punishment can provoke fear, fury, or avoidance in students. Skinner’s said: “what
punishment teaches, is how to avoid something”. • Lack of concentration after being punished due to the provoked
anxiety. • «Why don’t you try this?» (accompaniment). Instead of «No, that’s not right» (lack of self-esteem). •
Teacher’s mistake: to spend more class time monitoring what students do wrong rather than what they do right. •
The problem is that maladaptive behaviours are punished, but adaptive behaviours are not fostered. Very often
disruptive behaviour grabs a teacher’s attention. 54 2. Approaches to learning 2.1 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
Practical Case 55 Bandura’s Social-Cognitive theory • Albert Bandura (1925-2021): main architect of social cognitive
theory. • He says that when students learn, they can cognitively represent or transform their experiences. • Social
Cognitive theory states that social, cognitive, and BEHAVIOURAL factors play an important role in learning. •
Reciprocal determinism model: behaviour, person/cognition, and environment interact to influence learning. •
Environmental factors can influence behaviour, behaviour can influence the environment, as well as person
(cognitive) factors can also influence behaviour, and so on. 56 2.2 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH 2. Approaches to
learning Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory • Personal factors: personality traits and temperament: introversion,
extraversion, calm, shyness, anxious, hostile... • Affective and emotional factors: emotional self-regulation
(emotions, feelings, moods, manners, attitudes...). • Cognitive factors: expectations, beliefs, attitudes, thinking
strategies, and intelligence. 57 2.2 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH 2. Approaches to learning Bandura’s Social
Cognitive Theory Self-efficacy 58 • Self-efficacy is the factor that Bandura has emphasized the most in recent years
(2009,2015). • Self-efficacy is the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Bandura
states that this factor has a major influence on behaviour. • E.g. A student with low self-efficacy won’t even try to
study for a test because he/she doesn’t believe this will give him good results (learned helplessness). 2.2 SOCIAL-
COGNITIVE APPROACH 2. Approaches to learning Video Learned Helplessness 59 Observational learning Bandura •
Observational learning involves acquiring skills, strategies, and beliefs by observing others. • It involves imitation but
it is not limited to it. • What is learned is not an exact copy of the model. CREATIVITY is also involved in the person
who is learning. • It eliminates trial-and-error learning. • It often takes less time than operant conditioning. 60 2.2
SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH 2. Approaches to learning OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Attention Retention
Production Motivation 61 Four key processes in observational learning 2.2 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH 2.
Approaches to learning • Warm, powerful, atypical teachers get more attention than cold, weak, typical people. •
High-status models vs. Low-status models. • Teachers are often considered high-status models for students.
Attention • To produce a model’s actions, students must code the information and keep it in memory in order to
retrieve it. • Students retention will improve if the teacher gives clear and logical demonstrations. Retention 62 2.2
SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH 2. Approaches to learning • Children might attend to a model, code in memory that
information, but not be able to reproduce the model’s behaviour (motor ability limitations). • A 13-year-old might
observe a famous pianist but not be able to reproduce their motor actions. Production • They may have attended to
the model, coded their behaviour, and possessed the motor skills to perform it, but not been motivated to do so. •
Bandura’s (1965) classic Bobo Doll study. 63 Motivation 2.2 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH 2. Approaches to
learning The Bobo doll Experiment Conclusions 64 Boys tend to be more aggressive than girls, since society has
always tolerated and defended violent behaviour in men more than in women. Children who witness overly
aggressive behaviour by an adult model are likely to imitate similar behaviour, even if the adult is not present. Kids
who have observed a non- aggressive adult are less likely to show violent tendencies. They would be even less likely
to show aggression than the control group who have not seen any models at all. 2.2 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH
2. Approaches to learning 5 Self-Regulatory Learning • Self-instructional methods are cognitive-BEHAVIOURAL
techniques aimed at teaching individuals to modify their behaviour. Self-instructional methods help people alter
what they say to themselves. They are self-talk strategies that can help students and teachers to cope with stressful
situations. • E.g. High school student who is extremely nervous about an exam, STEPS: 1. Prepare for anxiety or
stress. “What do I have to do?” “I’m going to develop a plan to deal with it.” 2. Confront and handle the anxiety or
stress. “I can meet the challenge.” “I’ll keep on taking just one step at a time.” 3. Cope with feelings at critical
moments. “What is it I have to do?” “I know that my anxiety may increase but, is it worth it? 4. Use reinforcing self-
statements: “Good, I did it.” “I handled it well.” “I tried to do my best”. 3 2.2 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE APPROACH 2.
Approaches to learning 5 Emotional management • Be careful! o We must be cautious with cognitive restructuring. o
Cognitive restructuring: people are taught to change those maladaptive thoughts for others which helps them not to
suffer as much. Changing a 'negative' thought for a 'positive' one”. 3 2. Approaches to learning 5 Emotional
management • Be careful! o We must be cautious with cognitive restructuring. o Cognitive restructuring: people are
taught to change those maladaptive thoughts for others which helps them not to suffer as much. Changing a
'negative' thought for a 'positive' one”. 3 2. Approaches to learning 5 Emotional management • We all have automatic
thoughts: involuntary messages that repeatedly appear as an internal dialogue with ourselves. For example: 'throw
yourself into the train tracks' (when you're waiting for the train). • These thoughts have helped the human species
survive, therefore we have millions of them every day. • Some are useful, while others are not. We are the filter that
decides whether a thought is useful or not. 3 2. Approaches to learning 5 • There are three ways to feed them and
make them come back to your mind: 1. Ruminating: going over them repeatedly (“of course I am useless, yesterday I
did not pass my exam...”). 2. Avoiding them: “try not to think about a pink elephant”. 3. Debating with them: 'I'm
useless,' 'No, I'm not, because today I got up, took the tram, came here...' (cognitive restructuring). 3 Emotional
management 2. Approaches to learning 5 • You are not your mind. You are the person who observes your thoughts as
an external observer, but you are not every thought. • It’s not about changing your thoughts, it’s about seeing them
and being the filter. • That's why we should treat thoughts as mental content: words and phrases. But not as reality,
and we shouldn't waste our time trying to fight against private events. “What do we lose along the way...?" 3
Emotional management 2. Approaches to learning Emotional management 2. Be aware of your emotional state and
have strategies for managing your emotions. • Autopilot: a mental state in which a person has minimal conscious
awareness or effort. When someone is on autopilot, they are performing routine or habitual actions without actively
thinking about them. Driving to university every day following the same route without paying much attention to the
road, has become a daily routine. • Mindfulness: provides us with the ability to switch off that 'autopilot' and,
instead, be fully present in the here and now. This means that we are aware of what is happening in our minds and
bodies at this very moment. • Why is this important? it helps us understand and manage our emotions. Instead of
automatically reacting to an emotion (yelling) MF allows us to recognize those emotions and choose how to respond
to them (behaviour). It's as if we have a 'pause' button that lets us take a moment to consider how we want to act
instead of reacting impulsively. • It also helps us more fully appreciate the good moments in life. 71 2. Approaches to
learning 1. Set goals to extend your knowledge and sustain your motivation. “Decide what's worth suffering for”. 72
Choose vs Decide Emotional management 2. Approaches to learning • Self-regulatory learning consists of the self-
generation and self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours in order to reach a goal. These goals might be
academic (improving comprehension while reading) or they might be socioemotional (getting along better with peers)
(McClelland, Diaz, & Lewis, 2016; McClelland, Wanless, & Lewis, 2016). STEPS: o Set goals to extend your knowledge
and sustain your motivation. o Be aware of your emotional state and have strategies for managing your emotions. o
Periodically monitor your progress toward a goal. o Revise your strategies based on your progress. o Evaluate
obstacles that may arise and make the necessary adaptations. 73 Self-Regulatory Learning 2.2 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE
APPROACH 2. Approaches to learning Self-regulatory learning Example of self-monitoring study time 74 56 • The
information-processing approach emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about
it. • Cognitive psychology: this approach aims to explain behaviour by examining these mental processes. • Analogy:
computer-human brain: mental operations that are carried out by computers can give us clues about how the way
human cognition works. HARDWARE= PHYSICAL BRAIN. SOFTWARE= COGNITION The information processing
approach 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH 2. Approaches to learning 57 • Children’s information processing abilities
increase as they grow and mature. These changes are influenced by their cognitive capacity and speed of
processing. Cognitive resources Memory Problem solving Biology Experience Cognitive Resources Capacity and
Speed of processing information 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH 58 Mechanisms of change in
cognitive skills Robert Siegler • Three mechanisms work together to create changes in children’s cognitive skills:
encoding, automaticity, and strategy construction. o ENCODING: the process by which information gets stored in
memory. Encoding skills: coding relevant information and ignoring relevant information. ▪ E.g. a four-year-old kid
can’t distinguish between an “s” with handwriting from a printed “s”. A 10- year-old will code the relevant
information (content) and ignore the irrelevant (shape). o AUTOMATICITY: it is the ability to process information with
little or no effort. Practice is needed to develop this skill. Practice allows children to encode growing amounts of
information automatically (heuristics: mental shortcuts that allow people to solve problems and make judgments
quickly and efficiently). ▪ E.g. When a child learns how to read well without making a conscious effort. o STRATEGY
CONSTRUCTION is the creation of new procedures for processing information. ▪ E.g. Children’s reading benefits
when they stop periodically t o understand what they have read so far. 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE
APPROACH Self-modification & Meta-cognition Siegler (1998) • SELF-MODIFICATION: learning to use the knowledge
that has been learned in previous circumstances to adapt our response to a new situation. o Example: a child who is
familiar with dogs and cats goes to the zoo and sees lions and tigers for the first time. She then modifies her concept
of “animal” to include her new knowledge. • META-COGNITION: “knowing about knowing”. o E.g. A child knows
about what he/she has read. How can we improve meta-cognition in this case? Relating what they have read to their
own lives (emotions). 78 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH Attention 79 • Definition: focusing on
mental resources. Children, like adults, can pay attention to only a limited amount of information (latent inhibition).
Selective attention Divided attention Sustained attention Executive attention 2. Approaches to learning 2.3
COGNITIVE APPROACH Attention Types 80 Selective attention Divided attention Sustained attention Executive
attention -Focusing on something that is relevant while ignoring irrelevant facts. -E.g. Focusing on one voice among
many in a crowded room. -Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time. -Listening to music while
studying. -Mantaining attention over a period of time. -Staying focused while solving a math problem. -Planning
actions. -Setting goals. -Detecting and compensating for errors. -Monitoring progress on tasks. -Dealing with difficult
circumstances. E.g. Scheduling the time for studying each unit of the exam. 2. Approaches to learning 2.3
COGNITIVE APPROACH Memory Definition: memory is the retention of information over time. How is information
placed in memory? (ENCODING) How is it retained after being encoded? (STORAGE) How is it found? (RETRIEVAL)
Encoding: Getting information into memory Storage: Retaining information over time Retrieval: Taking information
out of storage 81 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH 63 Encoding: Processes Rehearsal Deep
processing Elaboration Constructing Images Organization Conscious repetition of information over time to increase
the length of time information that stays in memory. E.g. -What time shall we meet? -Wednesday at 8.00 pm. -Ok.
Wednesday at 8 pm. Is rehearsal an efficient way to encode information for long-term memory? Deeper processing
produces better memory. -Sallow processing: analyzing sensory or physical aspects of a stimulus. -Intermediate:
recognizing the stimulus and labeling it. TRIANGLE -Deep processing: Processing semantically (meaning). A PLANE
FIGURE WITH THREE STRAIGHT SIDES AND THREE ANGLES. The extensiveness of information processing involved in
encoding. The use of examples. Words are better remembered when they are constructed as meaningful sentences
with them. E.g. thinking of examples to use a specific word (fairness). Self-reference: thinking of personal situations.
When we construct an image of something, we are elaborating on it. You can remember a picture by a label or by a
mental image. E.g. How many Windows are there in your house? (we reconstruct a mental image of each room).
Encouraging children to use images to remember verbal information works better for elder children than for younger
children. Presenting information in an organized way makes it more likely for out students to remember it. Organizing
information hierarchically. E.g. Recall the 12 months of the year as quickly as you can. ------------------------------- Now
try to remember the months in alphabetical order. Chunking: beneficial organizational memory strategy: grouping
information into “higher-order” units that can be remembered as single Units. 2. Approaches to learning 2.3
COGNITIVE APPROACH Storage Retaining information • Sensory memory: it holds information from the world in its
original sensory form (visual, auditory, or other sensations) for only an instant during the brief time the individual is
exposed to that stimulus (5 senses). • Short-term memory: is a limited-capacity memory system in which
information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed or otherwise processed
further, in which case it can be retained longer. “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”: the number of
objects an average human can hold in short-term memory is 7 ± 2. Working memory: holds information as people
perform tasks. • Long-term memory: Long-term memory is a type of memory that holds enormous amounts of
information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent mode. 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE
APPROACH Storage Retaining information 84 1 5 9 8 3 7 6 1 4 2 0 8 9 4 2 5 6 1 7 3 0 Storage Retaining information •
The Island of Truth and Lies: o You find yourself on an island inhabited by two types of people: Truth-tellers and Liars.
Truth- tellers always tell the truth, and Liars always lie. You don't know which islanders are Truth- tellers and which
are Liars. You encounter five islanders: Alice, Bob, Carol, David, and Eve. Each of them makes a statement: ▪ Alice
says, "At least one of us is a Liar." ▪ Bob says, "Carol and David are both Liars." ▪ Carol says, "David is a Liar." ▪ David
says, "Bob is a Truth-teller." ▪ Eve says, "I am a Truth-teller.“ o Your task is to determine which islanders are Truth-
tellers and which are Liars. Can you figure it out? Storage Retaining information • Alice says that at least one of them
is a liar. This means Alice cannot be a truth-teller, as that would make her statement false. So, Alice is a liar. • If Bob
were telling the truth, then Carol and David would both be liars, which would conflict with Alice's statement.
Therefore, Bob is a liar. • If David were telling the truth, it would mean Bob is a truth-teller, which conflicts with Bob's
statement. So, David is a liar. • Since David is a liar, Carol's statement about David being a liar is true. Therefore,
Carol is a truth- teller. • Eva claims to be a truth-teller, but this cannot be definitively determined from the given
information. She could be either a truth-teller or a liar. • So, on this island: o Alice, Bob, and David are liars. o Carol is
a truth-teller. o Eva could be either a truth-teller or a liar. Classification of Long-Term Memory’s Contents •
Declarative memory: The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events that can be verbally
communicated. • Procedural memory: Nondeclarative knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations.
Procedural memory cannot be consciously recollected, at least not in the form of specific events or facts. • Episodic
memory: The retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings. • Semantic memory: An
individual’s general knowledge about the world, independent of the individual’s identity with the past 2. Approaches
to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH 88 Classification of Long-Term Memory’s Contents 2. Approaches to learning
2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH Recommendations to enhance memory skills in the classroom. • Motivate children to
remember material by understanding it rather than by memorizing it. • Providing variations on a lesson theme to
increase the number of associations in memory storage, and linking, to expand the network of associations in
memory storage. • Assist students in organizing what they put into their memory. Organize the information
hierarchically. • Teach mnemonic strategies. Mnemonics are memory aids for remembering information. 89
Classification of Long-Term Memory’s Contents 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH Mnemonic
strategies • Method of loci: children develop images of items to be remembered and mentally store them in familiar
locations. It was adopted in ancient Rome and Grece. 90 • Create a mental journey along a well-known route (your
house). The first 10 locations of the journey might be: 1. Your bedroom, on your bed 2. Your bedroom, in your closet
3. Bathroom 4. Hallway 5. Other bedroom 6. Stairs 7. Living room 8. Dining room 9. Kitchen 10. Front porch These 10
locations are your first “memory palace”. You will always travel through your memory palace in the same order.
Mnemonic strategies • Method of loci: children develop images of items to be remembered and mentally store them
in familiar locations. It was adopted in ancient Roman and Greek. Memorize the Items: Then, take a list of ten items
that you want to memorize, and imagine each item in one locus, or location, of your memory palace. For example,
you could try memorizing the following shopping list: 1. Corn 2. Milk 3. Carrots 4. Chicken 5. Garlic 6. Soap 7. Beans
8. Dish soap 9. Mayonnaise 10. Hot sauce Mnemonic strategies • Method of loci: children develop images of items to
be remembered and mentally store them in familiar locations. • Rhymes: E.g. the month rule: “Thirty days have
September, April, June, and November,” • Acronyms. This strategy involves creating a word from the first letters of
items to be remembered. E.g. HOME (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior: Great Lakes in America). 92
Information Processing theory: Classification of Long-Term Memory’s Contents 2. Approaches to learning 2.3
COGNITIVE APPROACH • Memory representation: as hierarchically arranged, with more concrete concepts
(“canary”) grouped under more abstract concepts (“bird”). • Now we know that the memory network is irregular and
distorted. A typical bird, such as a canary, is closer to the center of the category “bird” than the ostrich. Representing
Information in Memory Network theories 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH Representing
Information in Memory Schema Theories. • Long-term memory is like a library of books. • Our memory stores
information just as a library stores books. • Recovering information is similar to locating and checking out a real
book. • But this process is not as easy as in a library. When we search through our long-term memory storehouse, we
don’t always find the exact “book”, or we might find the “book” but discover that only “several pages” are intact and
we have to reconstruct the rest. 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH Schema Theories 96 •
Schema Theories: when we reconstruct information, we fit it into information that already exists in our mind. •
Schema: information (concepts, knowledge, information about events) that already exists in our mind. • We often
don’t find precisely what we want, and we have to reconstruct the rest so we fill in the gaps between our fragmented
memories with a variety of accuracies and inaccuracies. 2. Approaches to learning 2.3 COGNITIVE APPROACH
Piaget’s theory 2. Approaches to learning 2.4 CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH The Zone of Proximal Development Zone
of proximal development (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master
alone but that can be learned with guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children. Zone of achieved
development (ZAD): where the learner is right now. Vygotsky’s Theory 2. Approaches to learning 2.4
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH The Zone of Proximal Development Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is Vygotsky’s
term for the range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but that can be learned with guidance
and assistance from adults or more-skilled children. Zone of achieved development (ZAD): where the learner is right
now. Vygotsky’s Theory 2. Approaches to learning 2.4 CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH • The lower limit of the ZPD is
the level of skill reached by the child working independently. • The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility
the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor The Zone of Proximal Development Vygotsky’s Theory
2. Approaches to learning 2.4 CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH • Scaffolding means changing the level of support. Over
the course of a teaching session, a more-skilled person (a teacher or more advanced peer) adjusts the amount of
guidance to fit the child’s current performance (Wilkinson & Gaffney, 2016). o WHILE LEARNING A NEW TASK o AS
STUDENT’S COMPETENCE INCREASES DIRECT INSTRUCTION LESS GUIDANCE E.g. Asking probing questions in the
classroom: “What would an example of that be?” “Why do you think that is so?” “Now, what’s the next thing you
need to do?” “How can you connect those?”. Over time, students should begin internalizing these kinds of probes
and improve by doing it alone. Scaffolding Vygotsky’s Theory 2. Approaches to learning 2.4 CONSTRUCTIVIST
APPROACH • Guided support: the teacher provides support initially, which may include explanations, questions,
examples, and resources. • Adjustment to the student's level: support is tailored to each student's skill level and
knowledge. • Modeling: The teacher demonstrates how to perform a task or tackle a problem before asking students
to do it on their own. • Guiding questions: to stimulate critical thinking and help students reflect on what they are
learning. • Feedback: continuous feedback is provided to help students correct errors and improve. Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s Theory 2. Approaches to learning 2.4 CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH • According to Vygotsky, language is
very important to children. They use speech not only for social communication but also to help them solve tasks.
Young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behaviour. o E.g. When working on a puzzle, a child
might say: “This piece doesn’t fit; maybe I’ll try that one.” (PRIVATE SPEECH). • Vygotsky said that language and
thought initially develop independently of each other and then merge (children use language to communicate with
others before they can focus on their thoughts). Language & Thought Vygotsky’s Theory 2. Approaches to learning 2.4
CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH • Vygotsky argued that children who use private speech are more socially competent
than those who don’t (Piaget held that self-talk is egocentric and reflects immaturity). • Researchers have found that
children who use private speech are more attentive and improve their performance more than children who do not
use private speech. 10 4 Language & Thought Vygotsky’s Theory 2. Approaches to learning 2.4 CONSTRUCTIVIST
APPROACH 10 5 1. How does Sir Ken Robinson describe the influence of the industrial education model on students'
creativity? Reflect on specific examples mentioned in the video and discuss how this model might limit creative
potential. 2. What criticisms does Robinson make about the separation of subjects in the current education system?
Analyze the implications of this separation and how it could affect the holistic development of students. 3. Robinson
mentions the "ADHD epidemic" in the modern educational context. What is his stance on this issue and what
solutions does he propose? Debate the relationship between the education system and ADHD diagnoses,
considering the alternatives suggested by Robinson. 4. What role does culture play in the perception of academic
success according to the video? Discuss how cultural differences can influence the definition and pursuit of success
within the education system. 5. What specific changes does Robinson suggest to reform education and make it more
suitable for the 21st century?