Course Structure

Evaluation Plan

Theory Evaluation Plan

Evaluation Plan
Why to Learn “Microcontrollers and Sensors”
 Syllabus Copy

Microcontrollers and Sensors_Syllabus Copy

Real World Industry Scenario

► [Link]
 Unit I

Introduction to Electronic Circuits

and Peripherals
 Electronic Circuits
1. What is Electronics | Introduction to Electronics | Electronic Devices & Circuits
[Link]

1. Block Diagram of Electronic Components | Electronic Components & Devices | Engineering Concepts
[Link]
 What is Electronic Circuit?

An electronic circuit is a closed loop or pathway that allows electric current to flow, using
components such as:
► Resistors – limit current
► Capacitors – store electrical energy temporarily
► Inductors – resist changes in current
► Diodes – allow current to flow in one direction
► Transistors – amplify or switch signals
► Integrated Circuits (ICs) – miniaturized complex circuits in a single chip
► Power Sources – like batteries or power supplies
 Resistor

A resistor is a passive electrical component that resists the

flow of electric current.
► It is used to control voltage and current in circuits.
► Symbol in circuits: Ω
► Unit of measurement: Ohm (Ω)

► Primary Role: Limit or control the current in an electrical

circuit.
► Ohm’s Law: V=I×R
► Can divide voltage in a circuit.
► Dissipates power as heat: P=V×I
Resistor

[Link]
How Resistor Work - Unravel the Mysteries of How Resistors Work!

[Link]
 Summary_How Resistors Work

🔑 Key Concepts
• Definition: Resistors oppose the flow of current → create a voltage drop
• Ohm’s Law: V = I × R
• Types:
1. Fixed (Carbon Film, Metal Film, Wire Wound) 1,2 are selfexplanatory

2. Variable (Potentiometer, Rheostat)

3. Special (Thermistor, LDR, RTD, SMD) <-- Sensor like, changes resistance according to environment

• Applications:
1. Limit current
2. Divide voltage
3. Bias transistors
4. Signal conditioning
 Summary_How Resistors Work

⚡ In Circuits

1. Series: R_total = R1 + R2 + ...

2. Parallel: 1/R_total = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ...

🎯 Takeaway

1. Resistors are fundamental building blocks in electronics

2. Controlling current

3. Protecting devices

4. Shaping circuit behavior.

Inductor

Definition: An inductor is a passive electrical component that

stores energy in the form of a magnetic field when current
flows through it.

Symbol: Coil-shaped lines in circuit diagrams.

Unit: Henry (H)

Basic Working Principle

● Made of a coil of conducting wire (usually copper).

● When current flows, it generates a magnetic field.

● If current changes, the magnetic field changes, inducing

an opposing voltage (Lenz’s Law).
Inductor

[Link]
Inductors Explained - The basics how inductors work working principle
Inductor: Summary
Capacitor

Definition: A capacitor is a passive electronic component that

stores electrical energy in an electric field.

Function: Stores and releases electrical energy.

Symbol: Two parallel lines (representing plates).

Unit: Farad (F)

Formula: C=Q/V

Basic Working Principle

● Made of two conductive plates separated by a dielectric

(insulating) material.

● When voltage is applied, charges accumulate on plates.

Capacitor

[Link]
 Summary_How Capacitor Work

🔑 Key Concepts
• Store electrical energy in an electric field (two plates + dielectric)
• Charge accumulates when voltage applied, released when needed

📌 Where & Why Used

• Filtering – smooth DC in rectifiers
• Power Factor Correction – improve AC efficiency
• Coupling/Decoupling – block DC, allow AC, stabilize circuits
• Energy Storage – e.g., camera flash, memory backup

🌀 Types of Capacitors
• Electrolytic, Ceramic, Film, Tantalum, Variable
 Summary_How Capacitor Work

⚡ In Circuits
• Series & Parallel combinations affect total capacitance
• Used in full-bridge rectifiers (AC → DC conversion)
• Correct power factor in electrical systems

🎯 Takeaway
Capacitors regulate voltage, filter signals, store energy,
and are vital for efficient AC/DC systems.
Potentiometer

Definition: A potentiometer is a three-terminal variable resistor used to

vary resistance and control voltage in a circuit.

Function: Divides voltage or adjusts electrical signal levels.

Symbol: Variable resistor with arrow in circuit diagrams.

Unit: Ohm (Ω)

Working Principle
● Consists of a resistive element and a sliding/rotating contact
(wiper).

● As the wiper moves, it changes the resistance between terminals.

● Works on the voltage divider principle:

 Active Components

Definition:
► Active components are electronic components that
require an external power source to operate and are
capable of controlling the flow of current in a circuit.
► They can amplify signals, switch currents, or process
electrical energy.
► Examples: Transistors, Diodes, Integrated Circuits (ICs).

► Active components = Require external power + Can

control/amplify current/voltage.

► That’s why Transistors, Diodes, and ICs fall under active

components.
Potentiometer

[Link]
How diodes work ?

► Diodes Explained - The basics how diodes work working principle pn

junction 11 Min
[Link]

[Link]
Diode - Construction

P-Type Material: Positive charge carriers (holes).

N-Type Material: Negative charge carriers (electrons).

Junction: Boundary where P-type and N-type meet.

Leads: Anode (+) and Cathode (–).

Characteristics of a Diode
Forward Voltage Drop: ~0.7V for silicon, ~0.3V for germanium.

Reverse Breakdown Voltage: Maximum reverse voltage it can handle.

High resistance in reverse bias, low resistance in forward bias.

Why Diode is an Active Component?

A diode allows current to flow in only one direction.

To work, it needs to be forward biased with an external voltage.

Special diodes (LEDs, Zener, Photodiodes) actively control or emit energy → active.
Types of Diodes

PN Junction Diode – Basic rectification.

Zener Diode – Voltage regulation.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) – Emits light.

Photodiode – Detects light.

Schottky Diode – Low forward voltage drop, fast switching.

Varactor Diode – Variable capacitance in tuning circuits.

Tunnel Diode – High-speed applications.

Diode

Definition: A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one
direction.

Function: Acts as a one-way valve for electric current.

Symbol: Triangle pointing to a line.

Unit: No specific unit (rated by voltage/current capacity).

Working Principle
● Made from P-N junction semiconductor.

● Forward Bias: Current flows when positive terminal is connected to P-type and negative to N-type.

● Reverse Bias: Current is blocked (except leakage current).

 LED

Structure of LED:

● LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a special type of

diode made of semiconductor materials
(commonly Gallium Arsenide, Gallium Phosphide,
or Gallium Nitride).

● It has two regions:

○ P-type region (positive, with holes)

○ N-type region (negative, with electrons)

 Working Principle of LED

● When forward biased (positive connected to P, negative to N):

○ Electrons move from N → P region

○ Holes move from P → N region
○ At the junction, electrons recombine with holes

● During recombination, energy is released in the form of photons (light).

● The color (wavelength) of light depends on the material and band gap of the semiconductor.
Why does it not glow in reverse bias?
● In reverse bias, no significant current flows. Hence, no recombination → no light emission.

[Link] (Start watching from 2:15 min)

How LED Works ?

► How LED Works - Unravel the Mysteries of How LEDs Work! 19 Min
[Link]
 How Do LEDs Work?

⚡ Working Principle
• LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a semiconductor device.
• Current flows when forward biased → electrons & holes recombine
→ release energy as light photons.

🔹 Key Features
• Converts electrical energy → light (no filament).
• Highly efficient & long-lasting.
• Emits specific colors depending on semiconductor material.

🔹 Types of LEDs
• Standard (3mm, 5mm, 10mm)
• Bi-color & Bi-directional
• RGB & Color-changing
• Blinking LEDs
• SMD (Surface Mount Device) LEDs
 How Do LEDs Work?

🔹 Applications
• Indicators & Displays
• Lighting (home, street, automotive)
• Consumer electronics
• Signage & Decorative lighting

✅ Advantages
• Low power consumption
• Long lifespan
• Compact size
• Fast switching speed
Active Component: Transistors

● A small current at the base controls a larger current between collector and emitter.

● Works as:

1. Amplifier – increases signal strength.

2. Switch – turns current ON or OFF.

Three layers of semiconductor material:

● Emitter (E) – releases charge carriers.
● Base (B) – thin layer that controls carriers.
● Collector (C) – collects carriers.

Figure. Types of Bipolar Transistors

Types: NPN and PNP based on doping arrangement.
Applications: Amplification, Switching
 Active Components: Transistors

Key Concepts:
❏ Components that control or amplify signals using power.

► Transistors: Act as a switch or amplifier.

Examples:
❏ Switching LED on/off using a microcontroller.

❏ Audio signal amplification in radios.

❏ Part of logic gates in processors.

Video Link: [Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link]
[Link]
Transistor in more detail

An NPN transistor is made of:

● Emitter (E): Heavily doped N-type → supplies electrons (majority carriers).

● Base (B): Very thin and lightly doped P-type → allows electrons to pass with little
recombination.
● Collector (C): Moderately doped N-type → collects electrons, designed larger to
dissipate heat.

Two junctions exist:

1. Emitter–Base (EB) junction so basically Emitter electrons supply kore collector e, BUT BETWEEN THAT BASE e jae
first electron and okhane gia kota electron hole e chole jae.. basically population of
2. Collector–Base (CB) junction electron control...Recombination is neccesary but only in small amount
Contd…

Biasing for Active Mode (Amplification mode):

Emitter–Base junction: Forward biased (E → B)
Collector–Base junction: Reverse biased (C → B)
Transistor Working

Step-by-Step Working
1. Forward bias at EB junction:

○ Negative terminal connected to Emitter (N).

○ Positive terminal connected to Base (P).

○ This pushes a large number of electrons from the emitter into the base.

2. Electrons enter the Base:

○ Base is thin & lightly doped, so only a small fraction of electrons recombine with holes in the
base.

○ This recombination gives rise to base current (I_B).

Contd…

3. Most electrons move towards Collector:

i. Since the Collector–Base junction is reverse biased, it creates a strong electric

field.
ii. This field pulls most of the electrons from base into collector.
iii. These electrons constitute the collector current (I_C).

4. Current relation:

○ The Emitter current (I_E) = Collector current (I_C) + Base current (I_B)
○ Since only a small fraction recombines in the base:
 Active Components: Transistors

Figure. Types of Transistors

Where: BJT – Bipolar Junction Transistor FET – Field Effect Transistor

JFET – Junction Field Effect Transistor MOSFET- Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET
Why Transistor is an active component?

Transistors

● A transistor can amplify weak signals into stronger ones (requires power supply).

● It can switch currents (ON/OFF in digital circuits).

● Needs biasing (external voltage/current) to function → hence active.

Modes of NPN Transistor Operation

Cut-off: Both junctions reverse biased → no current → acts as an open switch.

Active: EB forward biased, CB reverse biased → amplification region.

Saturation: Both junctions forward biased → maximum current → acts as a closed switch.

Reverse Active: EB reverse biased, CB forward biased (rarely used).

so basically there is two junction- EB and CB

Integrated Circuit

Definition: An Integrated Circuit is a set of electronic circuits on a small flat piece (or “chip”) of
semiconductor material, usually silicon.

Purpose: To miniaturize circuits and improve performance, reliability, and cost.

Components of an Integrated Circuit

● Transistors

● Resistors

● Capacitors

● Diodes

● Interconnections (metallic wiring)

Types of Integrated Circuits

Analog ICs: Process continuous signals (e.g., amplifiers, voltage regulators)

Digital ICs: Process digital signals (e.g., microprocessors, memory chips)

Mixed-signal ICs: Combine analog and digital functions (e.g., ADCs, DACs)
Advantages of ICs

● Small size.
● Power consumption is less.
● Batch Processing results in cost reduction.
● Improves System Reliability
● Less weight.
● More consistent.
● It operates at high temperatures.
● Better Functional Performance.
Disadvantage of ICs

● It is very Delicate.
● The power consumption is limited to 10 watts
● The indicators/coils cannot be made.
● A low-temperature coefficient cannot be achieved.
● It handles a limited amount of power.
● Cannot operate at high voltage operation.
Application of ICs

● Logic Gate: The logical gate are constructed using ICs. It generates output based on
the input signals.
● Timer: The Times ICs are used to produce a timing cycle with 100% or 50% duty
cycle.
● Operational Amplifiers: The Op amp ICs are used produce high gain voltage
amplifier.
● Voltage Regulators: The Voltage Regulators ICs are used to produce a constant DC
output.
Why ICs are active components?

ICs contain transistors, which are active devices.

Transistors can amplify signals or switch currents on and off.

Because ICs have these active elements inside, they can control electrical signals, unlike
passive components (like resistors or capacitors) that only store or dissipate energy but do not
amplify or control it.

So, an IC is considered an active component because it includes active devices (transistors,

diodes) that perform essential functions like amplification, oscillation, switching, etc.
Measurement Devices

► Measurement devices (or measuring instruments) are tools used to detect,

observe, and quantify physical quantities such as voltage, current,
resistance, temperature, pressure, etc.
► Help monitor system performance, troubleshoot faults, and ensure
accuracy in circuit design.
Different Measurement Devices

Category Device/Component Measures / Functions

Voltage, Current, Resistance,
Measurement Devices Multimeter
Continuity, Diode Testing
Time-domain signal
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
visualization, Frequency,
(DSO)
Amplitude, Pulse Width
Produces waveforms (Sine,
Signal Generator Square, Triangle, etc.),
Frequency, Amplitude control
Captures and analyzes digital
Logic Analyzer
signals (timing, logic states)
Provides regulated voltage and
Power Supply current, measures output
voltage and current
 Multimeter

► A multimeter is a versatile measuring instrument that combines

several functions into a single device. It's widely used for testing,
diagnosing, and troubleshooting electrical circuits.

Mode Description

DC Voltage (V–) Measures direct voltage (e.g., batteries)

AC Voltage (V~) Measures alternating voltage (e.g., mains)

DC Current (A–) Measures direct current

AC Current (A~) Measures alternating current

Resistance (Ω) Measures electrical resistance

Continuity Test Checks if a circuit is complete (beep sound)

Diode Test Tests the function of a diode

Fig. 1. Multimeter
Multimeter Working

1. [Link] (25 min)

2. How to Use a #Multimeter to Measure #DC Voltage #Shorts (1 min)
How to use a Multimeter?

► Turn the knob to the desired measurement type (V, A, Ω).

► Connect the probes:
► Black to COM (common/ground)
► Red to the VΩmA or 10A port (depending on measurement)
► Touch the probes to the circuit points.
► Read the value on the display.
Real-Life Uses of a Multimeter:

► Checking if a battery is charged

► Diagnosing a broken wire
► Measuring voltage at a power outlet
► Testing whether a fuse is blown
► Repairing appliances and electronics
Signal Control Components

Switches
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO)
Signal Generators
Signal Control Component: Switch

Switch = a device that opens or closes an electrical circuit.

Used for signal control, current flow regulation, and safety.
Essential in electronics, communication, and control systems.
Functions of Switches
Control: Start/stop current flow
Selection: Choose between different circuits
Protection: Prevent overload/damage
Automation: Enable automatic control with relays/sensors
Switch (Contd…)

Relay
Types of Switches (Advanced)
Relay – electrically operated switch
Proximity Switch – operated by magnetic/optical sensing
Limit Switch – mechanical position-based
DIP Switch – small switch array for circuit configuration
Proximity Switch

DIP Switch
Limit
Switch
Signal Control Component
: Digital Storage Oscilloscope

► A Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) is an electronic

test instrument that captures, digitizes, stores, and
displays electrical signals for analysis.
► Unlike traditional analog oscilloscopes, which use a
cathode-ray tube (CRT) to display waveforms in
real-time, DSOs use analog-to-digital converters
(ADCs) to sample the signal and then display the
waveform on a digital screen.

Fig. 2. Digital Storage Oscilloscope

DSO

UNI-T UTD2102CEX+ Digital Storage Oscilloscope 2:29 min

Key Features of Digital Storage Oscilloscopes

► Signal Sampling and Digitization:

► DSOs convert the continuous-time analog signal into discrete-time digital data
by sampling at a high rate.
► The signal amplitude is quantized into digital values using ADCs.
► Storage Capability:
► Unlike analog scopes where waveforms disappear when the signal stops, DSOs
store sampled data in memory.
► This allows you to analyze, review, and manipulate the waveform after capture.
► Waveform Processing:
► DSOs can perform mathematical operations on stored data: addition,
subtraction, FFT (frequency analysis), filtering, etc.
► They provide more precise and flexible measurements.
Key Features (Contd…)

► Triggering and Capture:

► Advanced triggering options allow capturing complex or infrequent events.
► Trigger conditions can be set on edge, pulse width, video signals, etc.
► Display:
► Waveforms are displayed on an LCD or LED screen.
► Users can zoom in, pan, and view signal details clearly
Working of DSO

Key components:
1. Amplifier
2. Digitizer
3. Memory
4. Analyzer circuitry
5. Waveform
reconstruction
6. Vertical plates,
horizontal plates
7. Cathode ray tube
(CRT)
Fig. 3. Digital Storage Oscilloscope Working 8. Horizontal amplifier
9. Time base circuits
10. Trigger
11. Clock.
Block Diagram Explanation

Input Signal
The analog signal to be analyzed is applied to the DSO.
Amplifier
Weak input signals are amplified for proper processing.
Digitizer (ADC – Analog to Digital Converter)
Converts the amplified analog signal into a digital signal (series of binary
values).
Memory
Stores the digitized data for processing and later display.
Enables the DSO to capture and hold fast-changing waveforms.
Analyzer Circuitry
Processes the stored digital data.
 Explanation (Contd…)

Waveform Reconstruction
Converts stored digital data back into a waveform for display.

CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) with Vertical & Horizontal Plates

The waveform is displayed on the screen.
Vertical plates show amplitude (Y-axis)
Horizontal plates show time (X-axis).

Timing & Control Circuits

Trigger
Ensures the waveform starts from the same point every time.
Provides a stable display of repetitive signals.
 Explanation (Contd…)

Clock
Provides timing signals for digitization and synchronization.
Time Base Circuits
Maps time axis (X-axis).
Horizontal Amplifier
Amplifies the time base signal before applying to horizontal plates of CRT.

Working Principle Summary

Input signal → Amplified → Converted to digital form → Stored in memory.
Stored data → Processed & reconstructed → Displayed on CRT.
Trigger + clock + time base ensure synchronization and stable waveform display.
 Signal Control Component: Signal Generators
(SG)

► A signal generator is an electronic device that

produces electrical waveforms for testing and
analyzing electronic circuits and systems.
► It's a versatile tool used in various applications,
including testing communication systems, audio
equipment, radar systems, and electronic circuits.
SG – What it does?

► Generates waveforms:
► Signal generators produce electrical signals with specific characteristics, such as
sine waves, square waves, triangle waves, and more.
► Controls parameters:
► These signals can be adjusted in terms of frequency, amplitude, and waveform
shape to simulate different conditions.
► Modulation:
► Some signal generators can also modulate the generated waveform, adding
features like amplitude or frequency modulation.
 Types of SG

► Function Generators: Produce basic waveforms like sine, square, and triangle waves.
► Arbitrary Waveform Generators (AWG): Generate user-defined waveforms with greater
flexibility.
► Vector Signal Generators: Generate complex, modulated signals for testing advanced
communication systems.
► Sweep Frequency Generators: Generate signals with a frequency that automatically
varies between two selected values.
► Audio Frequency Generators: Generate signals in the audio frequency range (20 Hz to 20
kHz).
► Pulse Generators: Generate pulses for testing digital circuits and systems.
 Function Generator Arbitrary Waveform Generators

Vector Signal Generators Audio Frequency Generators

Function Generator

Introduction to Function Generator 2:54 min

Block Diagram of SG
Limitations and Challenges of SGs

► While signal generators are handy tools, they also have limitations and challenges.
► Accuracy: One of the biggest challenges is accuracy, as even minor errors in the generated
signal can affect the test results.
► Noise: Another challenge is noise, which can corrupt the signal and limit its usefulness.
► Distortion: A final issue that can also be a problem is distortion, which can introduce unwanted
non-linearities into the signal.
► To overcome these challenges, choose the correct signal generator for the application
and use it correctly, considering its specifications and limitations.
► E.g. For testing audio and video equipment, we need a signal generator with a low distortion
level.
Logic Analyzer

► A Logic Analyzer is a test device used to capture

and analyze digital signals.
► It helps in debugging digital circuits and finding
errors in logic-level signals.
📌 Think of it like a digital oscilloscope for logic
signals!
Why Use a Logic Analyzer?
❑ To monitor multiple digital lines at once.
❑ Helps in debugging microcontroller, FPGA, or
communication systems.
❑ Detects timing issues, glitches, and incorrect logic
transitions.
 Practical Application of Logic Analyzer

► A Logic Analyzer helps you see what’s happening inside a digital

circuit by capturing and displaying digital signals (0s and 1s) from
multiple points at the same time.
► Key Ways It Helps in Debugging:
► 1. Observes Multiple Digital Signals at Once
► Can monitor 8, 16, or more signals together (like GPIO, I2C, SPI
lines).
► Helps you track signal timing and relationships between
multiple pins.
► 2. Detects Logic Errors
► Example: A signal that should toggle every second is stuck at 1
— the logic analyzer shows this clearly.
► Useful to check whether your code or hardware is producing
the right signal patterns.
► 3. Analyzes Protocol Communication
► Automatically decodes I2C, UART, SPI, CAN, etc.
► Helps verify if correct data is being sent or received.
► Example: You can see if your sensor is sending data or not.
Practical Application of Logic Analyzer (Contd..)

► Performs Timing Analysis

► Displays when signals go HIGH or LOW and for how long.
► You can detect timing mismatches, glitches, or delays that can cause circuit
failure.
► 5. Trigger-Based Debugging Real Example:
You're using I2C to read a temperature
► We can set conditions (triggers) like: sensor. But you're getting all 0s.
► "Start recording when pin goes HIGH" You connect a logic analyzer to SDA and
SCL lines.
► "Capture when a specific byte is sent"
It shows that your microcontroller is sending
► This helps focus only on important parts of the signal. the wrong address.
✅ Logic Analyzer fix the address — and the
problem is solved!
How Logic Analyzer Helps in Debugging?

► Captures multiple digital signals

► Detects logic and timing errors

► Decodes communication protocols (I2C, SPI, UART)

► Helps find problems in hardware & software interaction

What is a Power Supply?

► A power supply provides electrical power to a device.

► Converts and regulates power to suitable levels.
► Can be DC or AC, depending on the application.
📌 Used in almost all electronic systems — computers, chargers, LEDs, etc.
 Power Supply Components

► Batteries
► AC/DC Adapters
► Voltage Regulators
► Transformers

AC/DC
Adapters Voltage
Regulators
Batteries Transformers
Mechanical Component: Heat Sinks

Components that dissipate heat from electronic

devices.
Made of metal (aluminum, copper) with fins for larger
surface area.
Active Heat Sink: With fan.
Passive Heat Sink: Without fan.
Applications: CPUs, power transistors, LEDs, amplifiers.
Power Supply Components - Batteries

► A battery stores chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy.

► Provides DC (Direct Current).
► Common types:
► Alkaline (e.g., AA cells)
► Lithium-ion (used in phones, laptops)
► Lead-acid (used in inverters, vehicles)
► Pros: Portable, compact
Cons: Limited lifespan, capacity
Power Supply Components - AC/DC Adapters

► Converts AC (from wall socket) to DC (used by electronics).

► Common names: chargers, power bricks.

► Contain rectifiers + filters + regulators.

 Power Supply Components - Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electronic device/circuit that maintains a constant output voltage

regardless of variations in input voltage or load conditions.

Key Functions:

● Provides stable DC voltage

● Protects devices from voltage fluctuations

● Converts varying voltage to a fixed level

Characteristics of Voltage Regulator

Characteristics of Voltage Regulators:

● Line Regulation: Stability against input voltage changes

● Load Regulation: Stability under varying load current

● Efficiency: Power delivered to load ÷ Power drawn from supply

● Ripple Rejection: Ability to suppress AC ripples

Applications:
● Power supply for microcontrollers, ICs, and sensors

● Mobile chargers, laptops, TVs

● Automotive electronics
Power Supply Components - Transformer

Definition:
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction.
Key Features:
● Works on AC only (not DC)
● Transfers power at the same frequency
● Changes voltage and current levels
● Provides electrical isolation
Basic Parts:
● Primary Winding – connected to input AC supply
● Secondary Winding – connected to load
● Core – provides a low-reluctance path for magnetic flux
 Transformer (Contd…)

Working Principle:

● Based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction

● Alternating current in primary winding produces a varying magnetic flux in the core
● This flux induces an EMF in the secondary winding

Types of Transformers:

● Step-Up Transformer: Increases voltage, decreases current

Step-Down Transformer: Decreases voltage, increases current
● Isolation Transformer: Same voltage, provides safety isolation

Applications:

● Power transmission & distribution

● Adapters, chargers, inverters
● Electrical isolation in sensitive devices
Transformer Video

[Link]
 Relays

Definition
An electromechanical switch that uses an electromagnet to open or close a circuit.
Allows a low-power signal to control a high-power circuit.
Construction
Electromagnet (coil)
Movable armature
Contacts (Normally Open/Normally Closed)
Spring
Relays Working Principle

When current flows through the coil → it creates a magnetic field.

The magnetic field pulls the armature.
The contacts either close (NO) or open (NC).
When current is removed → spring returns the armature to normal position.
Applications
Switching devices ON/OFF in automation.
Protective systems in electrical circuits.
Motor control circuits.
Home appliances (fridges, ACs, washing machines).
Relay Pin Diagram
Relays Video

[Link]
Push Buttons

● A push button is a simple switch mechanism.

● Operates when pressed and returns when released.

● Types:

○ Momentary (only active when pressed)

○ Latching (stays ON until pressed again)

Push Buttons – Applications

● Power ON/OFF in electronics
● Calculators, remote controls, keypads
● Elevator controls
● Reset buttons in circuits
Mechanical Components: Connectors

Devices used to join electrical circuits together.

Ensure reliable mechanical and electrical connection.

Types: Plug & socket, board-to-board, wire-to-board,

coaxial, USB, etc.

Applications: Computers, mobile devices,

communication systems.
Mechanical Component: Terminals

End-point of a conductor for making secure connections.

Provide a point for wires to connect to circuits/devices.

Types: Screw terminals, ring terminals, crimp terminals.

Applications: Electrical panels, control systems, batteries.

Mechanical Component: Sockets

Mechanical component for holding and connecting ICs,

tubes, or devices.

Allow easy insertion and removal without soldering.

Types: IC sockets, lamp sockets, CPU sockets.

Applications: Computers, lighting systems, test

equipment.
Transistors Working

1. Transistors Explained - How transistors work 18 min

Active Components

► Diodes:

Examples:

Applications: Amplification,
Switching
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