Mobile Robotics — Complete 12-mark Answers (Q1–Q9)

Prepared: Comprehensive answer sheet for Mobile Robotics topics (holonomic, kinematics, dynamics, planning).
Q1. Degree of Mobility, Degree of Stability and Robot Maneuverability

Introduction: In mobile robotics, the performance of a robot in motion is

characterized by its ability to move (mobility), its resistance to tipping
(stability), and how easily it can change direction and position (maneuverability).
These properties guide design choices and control strategies.
Degree of Mobility: Degree of mobility (DoM) is the number of independent
instantaneous motions a robot can produce. For a planar robot, the configuration
space has three degrees of freedom: x, y and θ. If the robot can control all three
independently, its mobility equals 3. For wheeled robots, DoM depends on number of
driven wheels and kinematic constraints. Example: a differential drive has DoM = 2
(forward/back and rotation), while a 3-omni-wheel robot has DoM = 3.
Degree of Stability: Degree of stability refers to how many contact/support points
the robot has such that removal of support points causes instability. A robot is
statically stable if its center of gravity projects inside the support polygon.
More supports (e.g., four wheels) yield greater static stability; two-wheeled
robots require active balance.
Maneuverability: Maneuverability is the practical ability to perform maneuvers —
translate, rotate, and change heading quickly and accurately. It depends on DoM,
wheel design (fixed, steerable, omnidirectional), and control. Omnidirectional
platforms maximize maneuverability at the cost of mechanical complexity.
Conclusion: Design involves trade-offs: higher mobility and maneuverability may
reduce passive stability. Control and sensing must compensate to meet application
requirements.
 Q2. Concepts of Degrees of Freedom (DOF)

Introduction: Degree of Freedom (DOF) denotes the number of independent parameters

that uniquely define the robot's configuration. For rigid bodies in a 2D plane, DOF
= 3 (x,y,θ); in 3D space DOF = 6 (x,y,z,roll,pitch,yaw).
Types and Examples: • Task DOF vs Actuated DOF: Task DOF are required motions for a
task; actuated DOF are those provided by joints/actuators. Example: a planar robot
arm with three revolute joints has 3 actuated DOF enabling arbitrary (x,y,θ) at the
end-effector. • Redundant DOF: When actuated DOF > task DOF, redundancy allows
obstacle avoidance or singularity avoidance.
Mathematical Representation: Configuration vector q ∈ ■^n where n is DOF. Kinematic
mapping: x = f(q). Velocity relation: x■ = J(q) q■ where J is the Jacobian. Rank(J)
indicates how many task-space DOF can be achieved instantaneously.
Importance: DOF analysis informs manipulability, control complexity and workspace.
In mobile robots, DOF vs mobility assessment identifies holonomic or non-holonomic
behavior.
 Q3. Holonomic and Non-holonomic Systems (with examples)

Introduction: Holonomic and non-holonomic describe motion constraints. Holonomic

constraints are integrable relations on configuration variables; non-holonomic
constraints are non-integrable relations on velocities.
Holonomic Systems: A system is holonomic if mobility equals total DOF. Such systems
can reach any configuration in the configuration space. Example: a 3-omni-wheel
robot or a point-mass in free space is holonomic. There are no non-integrable
velocity constraints.
Non-holonomic Systems: Non-holonomic systems have velocity constraints that cannot
be integrated to positional constraints. Common example: differential drive robot,
which cannot move directly sideways due to no-slip wheel constraint. Constraint
form: a(q) x■ = 0 (non-integrable).
Consequences for Planning and Control: Non-holonomic constraints restrict
admissible trajectories; path planning must consider feasible motions (e.g., use
kinodynamic or non-holonomic planners). Control laws like feedback linearization
and chained-form control are used to track non-holonomic systems.
Q4. Why an Omnidirectional Robot has Better Maneuverability (with sketch)

Introduction: Omnidirectional robots use special wheels (omni or mecanum) allowing

lateral motion. This enables independent control of x, y and θ on the plane,
improving maneuverability.
Why Better Maneuverability: • Instant lateral translation: the robot can move
sideways without reorienting. • Simultaneous translation and rotation: independent
control inputs produce combined motions. • Tight-space operation: allowing precise
position adjustments and holonomic motion.
Examples and Trade-offs: A common 3-wheel omni platform with wheels at 120° offers
full holonomy; four-wheeled mecanum platforms provide similar capability. Trade-
offs include increased mechanical complexity, control complexity, and reduced
traction in some directions.
Sketch (simple top view): Three wheels at 120° around the body with velocity
vectors showing ability to generate any resultant velocity vector.
 Q5. Robot Path and Trajectory Planning (with diagram)

Introduction: Path planning finds a geometric route from start to goal avoiding
obstacles. Trajectory planning assigns time-parameterization to that route,
producing position, velocity and acceleration profiles.
Path Planning: Focuses on geometry. Techniques: grid-based (A*), sampling-based
(RRT, PRM), and potential fields. Path output is a curve in workspace (sequence of
waypoints or continuous curve).
Trajectory Planning: Given a path p(s) (s is path parameter), trajectory planning
finds s(t) and θ(t) producing x(t)=p(s(t)). Objectives include smoothness,
adherence to velocity/acceleration limits and dynamic feasibility. Polynomial
(cubic/quintic) interpolation and time-scaling are common.
Diagram: Top: 2D map showing Start (S), Goal (G), obstacle and a smooth geometric
route around obstacle. Bottom: graphs of position vs time and velocity vs time for
the chosen trajectory.
 Q6. General Dynamic Modelling of Mobile Robot

Introduction: Dynamic modelling relates forces/torques to resulting accelerations.

Two main formalisms: Newton–Euler (force/torque balance) and Lagrangian (energy-
based).
General Form: M(q) q■ + C(q, q■) q■ + G(q) + F_fric = B τ where M is mass-inertia
matrix, C contains Coriolis/centrifugal terms, G is gravity (often zero for planar
robots), F_fric are friction terms, B maps actuator torques to coordinates, and τ
are actuator inputs.
Wheel Relation: Wheel torque τ_i produces traction force F_i = τ_i / r. For
differential drive: m v■ = F_R + F_L, I_z ω■ = L(F_R - F_L). These are used to
design control laws (PID, LQR) and trajectory trackers.
Q7. Derivations using Newton–Euler and Lagrange Formulations

Introduction: Newton–Euler and Lagrange are two complementary methods to derive

equations of motion. Newton–Euler applies direct balance of forces and moments;
Lagrange uses kinetic and potential energy.
Newton–Euler Approach (brief): Apply ΣF = m a for translation and ΣM = I α for
rotation about center of mass. Sum wheel traction forces for translation; compute
moment from force couple for rotation.
Lagrange Approach (brief): Define generalized coordinates q (e.g., x, y, θ).
Compute kinetic energy T (½ m v^2 + ½ I_z ω^2). Potential energy V often zero in
planar robots. L = T - V. Then use d/dt(∂L/∂q■) - ∂L/∂q = Q where Q are generalized
forces (work by wheel forces). This yields the same M(q), C(q,q■) structure.
Example result: M(q) q■ + C(q,q■) q■ = B τ. This compact form is convenient for
control design.
Kinematics and Dynamics of Differential Wheeled Mobile Robot (Forward & Inve

Introduction: Differential drive robots have two driven wheels separated by

distance 2L. Important variables: wheel angular velocities ω_R and ω_L, wheel
radius r, robot pose (x,y,θ).
Kinematics (forward): v_R = r ω_R, v_L = r ω_L v = (v_R + v_L)/2 ω = (v_R -
v_L)/(2L) Forward kinematics: ■ = v cosθ = (r/2)(ω_R+ω_L) cosθ ■ = v sinθ =
(r/2)(ω_R+ω_L) sinθ θ■ = (r/(2L))(ω_R - ω_L)
Inverse kinematics: Given desired linear v and angular ω: ω_R = (1/r)(v + L ω) ω_L
= (1/r)(v - L ω)
Dynamics (compact): m v■ = F_R + F_L, I_z ω■ = L(F_R - F_L), τ_i = r F_i. These
relations link actuator torques to body accelerations.

θ
Q9. Modelling and Motion Characteristics of 3-Wheeled Omnidirectional Robots

Introduction: A typical 3-wheeled omnidirectional robot has three omni-wheels

placed at 120° intervals. Each wheel contributes to body motion through its rolling
direction and the passive rollers allow lateral slip.
Kinematic Model: Let wheel angular velocities be ω1, ω2, ω3 and wheel radius r. The
body velocity vector v_b = [v_x, v_y, ω]^T is related to wheel speeds by a matrix
J: v_b = (r/3) * J * [ω1, ω2, ω3]^T where J depends on wheel orientations (120°
offsets). The platform is holonomic: any (v_x, v_y, ω) can be produced.
Motion Characteristics: • Holonomic motion: full control over planar translation
and rotation. • Smooth omnidirectional motion and good maneuverability. • Control
requires solving inverse kinematics to map desired body velocities to wheel speeds.
Applications: Used in AGVs, material handling and research platforms where precise
lateral motion and orientation control are critical.